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Programmable
Controllers
4th Edition

Thomas A. Hughes
Notice

The information presented in this publication is for the general education of the reader. Because
neither the author nor the publisher have any control over the use of the information by the reader,
both the author and the publisher disclaim any and all liability of any kind arising out of such use.
The reader is expected to exercise sound professional judgment in using any of the information
presented in a particular application.

Additionally, neither the author nor the publisher have investigated or considered the affect of any
patents on the ability of the reader to use any of the information in a particular application. The
reader is responsible for reviewing any possible patents that may affect any particular use of the
information presented.

Any references to commercial products in the work are cited as examples only. Neither the author
nor the publisher endorse any referenced commercial product. Any trademarks or tradenames
referenced belong to the respective owner of the mark or name. Neither the author nor the publisher
make any representation regarding the availability of any referenced commercial product at any
time. The manufacturer’s instructions on use of any commercial product must be followed at all
times, even if in conflict with the information in this publication.

Copyright © 2005 ISA - The Instrumentation, Systems and Automation Society

All rights reserved.

Printed in the United States of America.

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3

ISBN 1-55617-899-9

No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or
by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior writ-
ten permission of the publisher.

ISA
67 Alexander Drive
P.O. Box 12277
Research Triangle Park, NC 27709

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Hughes, Thomas A.
Programmable controllers / Thomas A. Hughes.-- 4th ed.
p. cm.
ISBN 1-55617-899-9 (hardcover)
1. Programmable controllers. I. Title.
TJ223.P76H84 2004
629.8'9--dc22
2004024467
 DEDICATION
This book is dedicated to my grandson, Ian Lovell Rager.
About the Author

Thomas A. Hughes, a Senior Member of ISA has 34 years of experience in

the design and installation of instrumentation and control systems,
including 20 years in the management of instrumentation and control
projects for the process and nuclear industries. He is the author of two
books: Measurement and Control Basics, 3rd Edition, (2002) and Programmable
Controllers, 4th Edition, (2005), both published by ISA.

Mr. Hughes received a B. S. in engineering physics from the University of

Colorado, and a M.S. in control systems engineering from Colorado State
University. He holds professional engineering licenses in the states of
Colorado and Alaska, and has held engineering and management
positions with Dow Chemical, Rockwell International, EG&G Rocky Flats,
Topro Systems Integration, and the International Atomic Energy Agency.
Mr. Hughes has taught numerous courses in electronics, mathematics, and
instrumentation systems at the college level and in industry. He is
currently the Principal Consultant with Nova Systems Engineering
Services in Arvada, Colorado.

xv
 Preface

Since 1989, this book has been used both as a textbook for programmable
logic controller (PLC) courses and for self-study by thousands of
professionals. This applications-based book provides a clear and concise
presentation of the fundamental principles of programmable controllers
for process and machine control. This fourth edition covers all phases of
programmable controller applications from design and programming to
installation, maintenance, and start-up. Coverage of all five standard PLC
programming languages: Ladder Diagram, Function Block Diagram,
Sequential Function Chart, Instruction List, and Structured Text has been
increased in this fourth edition and numerous programming applications
and examples have been added to more clearly explain each programming
language.

The text provides a complete and comprehensive presentation on the

design and programming of programmable controller–based control
systems. The material also includes chapters on binary logic
fundamentals, electrical and electronic principles, input and output
systems, memory and addressing, programming languages, and data
communication. Chapter 11 provides complete coverage of several typical
PLC control applications. The final chapter covers design, installation, and
maintenance of programmable controllers in detail.

All the chapters have been supplemented with new or improved example
problems and exercises. Most of the illustrations in the book have been
revised and improved. Answers to all the exercises have been added at the
end of the book to assist students and instructors.

I would like to express my appreciation to my wife Ellen for the long

hours spent reviewing all four editions. I would also like to thank the
technical reviewers for making numerous constructive comments that
improved the overall presentation of this fourth edition.
xiii
 Contents

PREFACE xiii
ABOUT THE AUTHOR xv

Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION TO PROGRAMMABLE CONTROLLERS 1

Introduction, 1
Basic Components of Programmable Controllers, 4

Chapter 2 BINARY LOGIC FUNDAMENTALS 27

Introduction, 27
Binary Signals and Codes, 27
Numbering Systems, 28
Binary Data Codes, 34
Binary Logic Functions, 40
Logic Function Symbols, 45
Electrical Ladder Diagrams, 45

Chapter 3 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC FUNDAMENTALS 53

Introduction, 53
Fundamentals of Electricity, 53
Conductivity, Resistivity, and Ohm’s Law, 55
Wire Resistance, 56
Wire Gauge Sizes, 58
Direct and Alternating Current, 59
Series Resistance Circuits, 61
Parallel Resistance Circuits, 63
Wheatstone Bridge Circuit, 65
Instrumentation Current Loop, 67
Fundamentals of Magnetism, 69
Other Control Devices, 79
ix
x Contents

Chapter 4 INPUT/OUTPUT SYSTEMS 83

Introduction, 83
I/O Circuit Mounting Configurations, 83
Discrete Inputs, 84
Discrete Outputs, 85
I/O Signal Types, 85
Sinking and Sourcing Operations, 86
Discrete AC Voltage Input Electronic Circuits, 86
Discrete AC Input Modules, 88
Direct Current (DC) Input Modules, 88
Transistor-Transistor Logic (TTL) Input Modules, 89
Discrete AC Output Electronic Circuit, 90
Discrete AC Output Module, 91
TTL Output Module, 93
Isolated AC Output Module, 93
Analog I/O Modules, 94
Analog Input Modules, 95
Analog Output Modules, 96
Pulse Counter Input Modules, 98
Intelligent I/O Modules, 98
Universal Remote I/O Link, 102
Designing I/O Systems, 103

Chapter 5 MEMORY AND ADDRESSING 109

Memory Components and Structure, 109
Memory Types, 112
Hardware-to-Software Interface, 122
Allen-Bradley PLC5 Discrete I/O Addressing, 124
Siemens Simatic S7-300 Discrete I/O Addressing, 125

Chapter 6 LADDER DIAGRAM PROGRAMMING 129

Introduction, 129
Basic LD Instruction Set, 130
Output Coil Instruction, 132
Timer Memory Word Structure, 137
Move and Masked Move, 144
Arithmetic Operations, 145

Chapter 7 ADVANCED LD PROGRAMMING 157

Introduction, 157
Advanced LD Instructions, 157

Chapter 8 STANDARD PLC PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES 177

Introduction, 177
International Standard for PLC Languages, 177
 Contents xi

Sequential Function Chart Language, 179

Structured Text Language, 183
Instruction List Programming, 185

Chapter 9 FUNCTION BLOCK DIAGRAM PROGRAMMING 211

Introduction, 211
Elements and Box Structure, 211
Bit Logic Instructions, 212
Timer Instructions, 221
Counter Instructions, 230

Chapter 10 DATA COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS 245

Introduction, 245
Basic Communications, 245
Transmission Methods, 248
Signal Multiplexing, 251
Error Control and Checking, 253
Communication Protocols, 257
Serial Synchronous Transmission, 259
ISO/OSI Communications Standard, 267
Serial Communications Standards, 269
Industrial Control Networks, 272

Chapter 11 SYSTEM DESIGN AND APPLICATIONS 277

Introduction, 277
Process and Mechanical Control Diagrams, 277
Process and Machine Control Descriptions, 280
Sizing and Selection of a PLC System, 281
Control System Diagram, 286
I/O Wiring Diagrams, 286
Control System Programming, 287
Natural Gas Dehydration Application, 288
Two-Stage Alternating Pump Application, 299

Chapter 12 DESIGN, INSTALLATION, AND MAINTENANCE 305

Introduction, 305
Control Panel Design, 305
Equipment Layout Design, 316
System Start-Up and Testing, 317
Maintenance Practices, 319
Troubleshooting PLC Systems, 321
Control System Documentation, 329

Appendix A ANSWERS TO EXERCISES 333

INDEX 365
 1
Introduction to
Programmable
Controllers

Introduction
Programmable controllers were originally designed to replace relay-based
control systems and solid-state, hard-wired logic control panels. However,
the modern programmable controllers system is far more complex and
powerful.

The most basic function performed by programmable controllers is to

examine the status of inputs and in response, control some process or
machine through outputs. The logical combinations of inputs to produce
an output or outputs are called control logic. Several logic combinations are
usually required to carry out a control plan or program. This control plan
is stored in memory using a programming device to input the program
into the system. The processor, usually a high-speed microprocessor, in a
predetermined sequential order, periodically scans the control plan in
memory. The period required to examine the inputs and outputs, perform
the control logic, and execute the outputs is called the “scan time.”

A simplified block diagram of a programmable controller is shown in

Figure 1-1. In this diagram, a level switch and panel-mounted pushbutton
are wired to input circuits, and the output circuits are connected to an
electric solenoid valve and a panel-mounted indicator light. The output
devices are controlled by the control program in the logic unit.

This figure shows a typical configuration of the early programmable

controller applications, which were intended to replace relay or hard-
wired logic control systems. The input circuits are used to convert the
various field voltages and currents to the low voltage signals [normally 0-
to 5-V direct current (DC)] used by the logic unit. The output circuits

1
2 Introduction to Programmable Controllers

L1 L2
120 VAC

Level Solenoid
Switch Valve

Input Logic Output

Panel
Circuits Unit Circuits
Light

Push-
button

Figure 1-1. Simplified Diagram for a Programmable Controller System

convert the logic signals to a level that will drive the field devices. For
example, in Figure 1-1, 120-VAC power is connected to the field input
devices, so the input circuits are used to convert the 120 VAC to the 0- to
5-V logic signals used by the control unit.

Brief History of PLCs

In 1968, a major automobile manufacturer wrote a design specification for
the first programmable controller. The primary goal was to eliminate the
high cost associated with the frequent replacement of inflexible relay-
based control systems. The specification also called for a solid-state
industrial computer that could be easily programmed by maintenance
technicians and plant engineers. It was hoped that the programmable
controller would reduce production downtime and provide expandability
for future production improvements and changes. In response to this
design specification, several manufacturers developed computer-based
control devices called programmable controllers.

The first programmable controller was installed in 1969, and it proved to

be a vast improvement over relay-based control systems. They were easy
to install and program, they used less plant floor space, and were more
reliable than a relay-based control system. The initial programmable
controller not only met the automobile manufacturer production needs,
but further design improvements in later models led to widespread use of
programmable controllers in other industries.

There were two main factors in the initial design of programmable

controllers that led to their success. First, highly reliable solid-state
components were used, and the electronic circuits were designed for the
harsh industrial environment. The I/O circuits were designed and built to
withstand electrical noise, moisture, oil, and the high temperature
encountered in industry. The second important factor was that the initial
Introduction to Programmable Controllers 3

programming language selected was based on standard electrical ladder

logic design. Some earlier computer system applications had failed
because plant technicians and engineers were not easily trained in
standard computer software. However, most were already trained in relay
ladder logic design so that programming in a language based on the
familiar relay ladder diagrams was learned quickly.

When microprocessors were introduced in 1974 and 1975, the basic

capabilities of programmable controllers were greatly expanded and
improved. They were able to perform sophisticated math and data
manipulation functions, which greatly increased the use of programmable
controllers in more complex control applications.

In the late 1970s, improved communication components and circuits made

it possible to place programmable controllers thousands of feet from the
equipment they controlled, and several programmable controllers can
now exchange data to more effectively control processes and machines. In
addition, microprocessor-based input and output modules allowed
programmable controller systems to evolve into the analog control world.

The introduction of the personal computer (PC) in the early 1980s greatly
increased the power and utility of the programmable controller system in
process and machine control. The low cost of PCs led to their extensive use
as programming devices and operator interface control stations. The
development of low-cost graphical control software packages on PCs led
to the extensive use of PC-based human machine interfaces (HMIs) in
programmable controller applications in the early 1990s.

The worldwide standardization of the very reliable and powerful

Microsoft operating software systems had a dramatic impact on PLC
programming, control software, and data collection during the mid 1990s.
The PLC vendors and developers started to use Microsoft developed
software as the basis for their programming and HMI software packages
that could operate on inexpensive PCs.

In particular, a Windows copy-and-paste function called Object Linking

and Embedding, or OLE, found wide use in PLC software applications
and led to the establishment of the process control industry standard OLE
for Process Control (OPC). OPC allows for fast and secure access to
process data and information under Windows operating systems. Finally,
the widespread use of the Internet and advanced communication systems
and techniques has led to very powerful PLC systems.

Programmable controllers are found in thousands of industrial

applications. They are used to control chemical, petrochemical, food, and
4 Introduction to Programmable Controllers

pharmaceutical, wastewater treatment, water treatment, nuclear, natural

gas, and mining processes. They are found in material transfer and storage
systems that transport and store both the raw materials and the finished
products. They are used with robots to perform hazardous industrial
operations to allow for safer operations. Programmable controllers are
used in conjunction with other computers to perform process and machine
data collection and reporting functions, including statistical process
control, quality assurance, and online diagnostics. They are utilized in
energy management systems to reduce costs and improve environmental
control of industrial facilities and office buildings.

Because of the wide use of the PC in control and business applications, the
acronym PC is generally reserved for personal computers and the
abbreviation PLCs is used for programmable controllers or programmable
logic controllers. The abbreviation PLCs will be used in this book to
represent programmable controllers.

Basic Components of Programmable Controllers

Regardless of size, cost or complexity, all PLCs share the same basic
components and functional characteristics. A programmable controller
will typically consist of the following hardware components: a processor,
an input/output system, memory, a power supply and a communications
device or port. A block diagram of typical PLC hardware components is
shown in Figure 1-2.

Inputs I/O Power

System Supply
Outputs

Processor

Comm. Link Communications

Memory
Device

Figure 1-2. Block Diagram of a Typical PLC

 Introduction to Programmable Controllers 5

Programmable controllers also require programming devices and

software that will be discussed later. First, we will cover the basic PLC
hardware components.

The Processor
The processor consists of one or more standard or custom microprocessors
and other integrated circuits that perform the logic, control, and memory
functions of the PLC system. The processor reads the inputs, executes
logic as determined by the application program, performs calculations,
and controls the outputs accordingly.

The processor controls the operating cycle or processor scan. This

operating cycle consists of a series of operations performed sequentially
and repeatedly. A typical PLC processor operating cycle is shown in
Figure 1-3.

Internal Scan Start Cycle

Start Internal Scan Input Scan
Output Scan
Start Control
Start Output Scan Program Scan

Control Program Scan

Figure 1-3. PLC Processor Operating Cycle

During the “input scan,” the PLC examines the external input devices for
a signal present or absent (i.e., an on or off state). The status of these inputs
is temporarily stored in an input image table or memory file.

During the “program scan” cycle, the processor scans the instructions in
the control program, uses the input status from the input image file, and
determines if an output will or will not be energized. The resulting status
of the outputs is written to the output image table or memory file.
6 Introduction to Programmable Controllers

Based on the data in the output image table, the PLC energizes or
deenergizes its associated output circuits, controlling external devices
during the “Output Scan” cycle.

During the “Internal Scan” cycle, the processor performs housekeeping

functions such as internal diagnostics and communications. A typical
diagnostic function would be to check for math operational errors. The
PLC must also check for and perform communication operations with its
programming device, other PLCs, or other devices connected to its
communication port or ports.

This operating cycle typically takes 1 to 25 milliseconds (thousandths of a

second). However, the operating cycle time depends on the complexity of
the control logic written by the user so that a simple control program
might take only 1 ms but a large and complex program may require a scan
time as high as 250 ms. The input, output, and internal scans are normally
very short compared to the time taken for the program scan. These scans
are continually repeated in a looped process.

The PLC operating shown in Figure 1-3 is typical of most PLCs but the
manufacturer’s instruction manual should be consulted for the PLC type
used in a given control application to avoid programming errors.

I/O System
The I/O system provides the physical connection between the process
equipment and the microprocessor. This system uses various input
circuits or modules to sense and measure physical quantities of the
process, such as motion, level, temperature, pressure, flow, and position.
Based on the status sensed or values measured, the processor controls
various output modules to drive field devices such as valves, motors,
pumps, and alarms to exercise control over a machine or a process.

Input Types
The inputs from field instruments or sensors supply the data and
information the processor needs to make logical decisions to control a
given process or machine. These input signals from varied devices such as
push buttons, hand switches, thermocouples, strain gages, etc., are
connected to input modules to filter and condition the signal for use by the
processor.

Output Types
The outputs from the PLC energize or deenergize control devices to
regulate processes or machines. These output signals are control voltages
from the output circuits, and they are generally not high power signals.
Introduction to Programmable Controllers 7

For example, an output module sends a control signal that energizes the
coil in a motor starter. The energized coil closes the power contacts of the
starter. These contacts then close to start the motor. The output modules
are usually not directly connected to the power circuit but rather to
devices such as motor starter and heater contactors that apply high power
(greater than 10 amps) signals to the final control devices.

I/O Structure
PLCs are classified as micro, small, medium, and large mainly based on
the I/O count. Micro PLCs generally have an I/O count of 32 or less, small
PLCs have less than 256 I/O points, medium-size PLCs have an I/O count
less than 1024, and large PLCs have an I/O count greater than 1024. Micro
PLCs are self-contained units with the processor, power supply, and I/O
all in one package. Because they are self-contained, micro PLCs are also
called packaged controllers. A modular PLC is one that has separate
components or modules.

The advantage of a packaged controller is that the unit is smaller, costs

less, and is easy to install. A typical wiring diagram for a Micro PLC is
shown in Figure 1-4. An Allen-Bradley Micro-1000 PLC with nine inputs
and five outputs is shown. The unit is powered with 120 V of alternating
current (AC) with an internal power supply to operate the internal I/O
circuits and the built-in microprocessor, and to generate 24-V direct
current (DC) for the field input switches and contacts.

In medium and large PLC systems, the I/O modules are normally
installed or plugged into a slot in a “universal” modular housing. The
term universal in this context means that any module can be inserted into
any I/O slot in the housing. Some systems have special positions in the
modular system for the communication modules, power supplies or
processor, but the I/O modules can be placed in any position. Some
“universal” modular I/O housings are designed so that the I/O modules
can be removed without turning off the AC power or removing the field
wiring. However, the PLC manufacturer’s instruction manual must be
consulted before removing I/O module under power conditions.

Figure 1-5 shows some typical configurations for I/O modular housings.
The backplane of the housings into which the modules are plugged have a
printed circuit card that contains the communications bus to the processor
and the DC voltages to operate the digital and analog circuits in the I/O
modules.

These I/O housings can be mounted in a control panel or on a subpanel in

an enclosure. The housings are designed to provide some protection for
the I/O module circuits from dirt, dust, electrical noise, and mechanical
8 Introduction to Programmable Controllers

Allen-Bradley
Micro-1000 PLC
Level Switch I/O Address
I/0 O/0 M1
Pressure Motor
Switch Starter
I/1 VAC

Spare I/2 O/1 K1

Position Switch Heater

I/3 Contactor
VAC

Pump auxiliary I/4 O/2

(Aux.) Contacts Spare
I/5 VAC

O/5
Spare I/9 Spare
VAC
DC Com
L1
+24 VDC Out H
120 VAC In
N
L2
Figure 1-4. Typical Micro-1000 PLC Wiring Diagram

vibration, but the housings are normally mounted in control panels to

provide complete protection from the harsh industrial environment
encountered in typical application.

The backplane of the I/O chassis has sockets for each module. These
sockets provide the power and data communications connection to the
processor for each module.

Discrete Inputs/Outputs
Discrete is the most common class of input/output in a programmable
controller system. This type of interface module connects field devices that
have two discrete states, such as on/off or open/closed, to the processor.
Each discrete I/O module is designed to be activated by a field-supplied
Introduction to Programmable Controllers 9

Power
CPU
Supply

4 I/O Slots

Power
CPU
Supply

8 I/O Slots

Power
CPU
Supply

12 I/O Slots

Figure 1-5. Typical I/O Modular Housings

voltage signal, such as +5 VDC, +24 VDC, 120 VAC, or 220 VAC, and so
on.

In a discrete input (DI) module, if an input switch is closed, an electronic

circuit in the input module senses the supplied voltage and converts it to a
logic-level signal acceptable to the processor to indicate the status of that
device. A logic 1 indicates ON or CLOSED, and a logic 0 indicates OFF or
OPENED for a field input device or switch.

A typical discrete input module is shown in Figure 1-6. Most input

modules will have a light-emitting diode (LED) to indicate the status of
each input.

In a discrete output (DO) module, the output interface circuit switches the
supplied control voltage that will energize or deenergize the field device.
When an output is turned on by the control program, the supplied control
voltage is switched by the interface circuit to activate the referenced
(addressed) output device.

Figure 1-7 shows a typical discrete output module-wiring diagram. It can

be thought of as a simple switch through which power can be provided to
control the output device. During normal operation, the processor sends
the output state determined by the logic program to the output module.
The module then switches the power to the field device.
10 Introduction to Programmable Controllers

A
Pushbutton (NC)
00

Liquid Level Switch (NC) 01

Valve Limit Switch (NO)

02

Valve Limit Switch (NC) 03

Pressure Switch (NC) 04

Pressure Switch (NO)

05

Flow Switch (NC)

06

Temperature Switch (NC)

07

Hot 120 VAC Neutral

Figure 1-6. Typical Discrete Input Module Wiring Diagram

A fuse is normally provided in the output circuit of the module to prevent

excessive current from damaging the wiring to the field device. If the fuse
is not provided in the output module, it should be provided in the system
design.

Analog I/O Modules

The analog I/O modules allow for monitoring and controlling of analog
voltages and currents, which are compatible with many sensors, motor
drives, and process instruments. With the use of analog I/O, most process
variables can be measured or controlled with appropriate interfacing.

Analog I/O interfaces are generally available for several standard

unipolar (single polarity) and bipolar (negative and positive polarity)
ratings. In most cases, a single input or output interface can accommodate
two or more different ratings and can satisfy either a current or a voltage
requirement. The different ratings are either hardware (i.e., switches or
jumpers) or software selectable.
Introduction to Programmable Controllers 11

Hot Neutral
120 VAC
In TB-1 Field wiring

A N

0 Heater 1
1 H1

1 Heater 1
2 H2

Feed Valve FV-1 FV-1

2 3

Feed Valve FV-1 FV-2

3 4

Pump 3 Starter
4 5 P3

5 Pump 4 Starter
6 P4

6 Mixer 1 Starter 7 M1

7 Mixer 2 Starter 8 M2

N Neutral
N
Panel wiring

Figure 1-7. Typical Discrete Output Module Wiring Diagram

Digital I/O Modules

Digital I/O modules are similar to discrete I/O modules in that discrete
ON/OFF signals are processed. However, the main difference is that
discrete I/O interfaces require only a single bit to read an input or control
an output. On the other hand, digital I/O modules process a group of
discrete bits in parallel or serial form.

Typical devices that interface with digital input modules are binary
encoders, bar code readers, and thumbwheel switches. Some instruments
driven by digital output modules include LEDs and intelligent display
panels.

Special Purpose Modules

The discrete and analog I/O modules will normally cover about 80% of
the input and output signals encountered in programmable controller
12 Introduction to Programmable Controllers

applications. However, to process certain types of signals or data

efficiently, the programmable controller system will require special
purpose modules. These special interfaces include those that condition
input signals, such as thermocouple modules, pulse counters, or other
signals that cannot be interfaced using standard I/O modules. Special
purpose I/O modules may also use an on-board microprocessor to add
intelligence to the interface. These intelligent modules can perform
complete processing functions independent of the CPU and the control
program scan.

Another important class of special purpose I/O modules is

communication modules that communicate with distributed control
systems (DCSs), other PLC networks, plant computers, or other intelligent
devices.

Memory
Memory is used to store the control program for the PLC system; it is
usually located in the same housing as the CPU. The information stored in
memory determines how the input and output data will be processed.

Memory stores individual pieces of data called bits. A bit has two states: 1
or 0. Memory units are mounted on circuit boards and are usually
specified in thousands or “K” increments where 1K is 1024 words (i.e., 210
= 1024) of storage space. Programmable controller memory capacity may
vary from less than one thousand words to over 64,000 words (64K words)
depending on the programmable controller manufacturer. The complexity
of the control plan will determine the amount of memory required.

Although there are several different types of computer memory, they can
always be classified as volatile or nonvolatile. Volatile memory will lose its
programmed contents if all operating power is lost or removed. Volatile
memory is easily altered and quite suitable for most programming
applications when supported by battery backup and/or a recorded copy
of the program. Nonvolatile memory will retain its data and program
even if there is a complete loss of operating power. It does not require a
backup system.

The most common form of volatile memory is Random Access Memory,

or RAM. RAM is relatively fast and provides an easy means to create and
store application programs. If normal power is disrupted, PLCs with RAM
use battery or capacitor backups to prevent program loss.

The Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM) is

a nonvolatile memory that is programmed through application software,
which runs on a PC or through a micro PLC hand-held programmer.
 Introduction to Programmable Controllers 13

There are two areas of memory in the PLC system that the user can access:
program files and data files. Program files store the control application
program, subroutine files, and the error file. Data files store data
associated with the control program, such as input/output status bits,
counter and timer preset and accumulated values, and other stored
constants or variables. Together, these two general memory areas are
called user or application memory. The processor also has an executive or
system memory that directs and performs operational activities such as
executing the control program and coordinating input scans and output
updates. This process system memory, which is programmed by the PLC
manufacturer, cannot be accessed or changed by the user.

Power Supply
The power supply converts AC line voltages to DC voltages to power the
electronic circuits in a programmable controller system. These power
supplies rectify, filter, and regulate voltages and currents to supply the
correct amounts of voltage and current to the system. The power supply
normally converts 120-VAC or 240-VAC line voltage into DC voltages
such as +5 VDC, –15 VDC, or +15 VDC.

The power supply for a programmable controller system may be

integrated with the processor, memory, and I/O modules into a single
housing, or it might be a separate unit connected to the system through a
cable. As a system expands to include more I/O modules or special
function modules, most programmable controllers require an additional
or auxiliary power supply to meet the increased power demand.
Programmable controller power supplies are usually designed to
eliminate electrical noise present on the AC power and signal lines of
industrial plants so that this electrical noise does not introduce errors in
the control system. They are also designed to operate properly in the
higher temperature, vibration and humidity environments present in most
industrial applications.

Communication Devices
The main function communication device or port is to communicate with
the programming to enter, modify, and monitor the PLC control plan. In a
small stand-alone PLC, there may be a single serial port to connect with
the programming device. However, most PLC systems have more than
one communication port or device. In a typical PLC system, there is the
standard serial RS-232C port for programming and a vendor proprietary
communication network that is used to transfer information between the
remote I/O equipment racks and the other PLCs in the system. In larger
PLC systems, there is normally an Ethernet link to communicate with PCs
and other networks connected to the system.
14 Introduction to Programmable Controllers

Ethernet network has started to move onto the factory floor due in part to
the confluence of the MIS systems and factory floor machine and process
control systems. The widespread use of this type of network in general
computer, PCs, telecomm systems, and the Internet has caused rapid
advances in PLC Control System applications.

One general difference between Ethernet hardware in PCs and in PLCs is

the equipment cost. While dropping for factory floor equipment, PC
Ethernet hardware is very inexpensive, because most of the computing
resource is being supplied by the PC. The PC Ethernet card generally
supplies little more than the physical interface to the cable. The typical
PLC Ethernet card supplies much of the computing power for the network
and therefore is more complex.

Programming Languages
The programming language lets the user communicate with the
programmable controller via a programming device. Programmable
controller manufacturers use several different programming languages,
but they all convey to the system, by means of instructions, a basic control
plan.

A control plan or program is defined as a set of instructions that are

arranged in a logical sequence to control the actions of a process or
machine. For example, the program might direct the programmable
controller to turn a motor starter on when a push button is depressed and
at the same time direct the programmable controller to turn on a control
panel-mounted RUN light when the motor starter auxiliary contacts are
closed.

A program is written by combining instructions in a certain order. Rules

govern the manner in which instructions are combined and the actual
form of the instructions. These rules and instructions combine to form a
language.

International Standard for PLC Languages

In the early 1970s, different national and international committees have
proposed numerous PLC programming standards to develop a common
interface for programmable controllers. Then, in 1979, a working group of
international PLC experts was appointed by various national committees
to write a first draft of a comprehensive PLC standard. The first committee
draft was issued in 1982.

After an initial review of the document by the national committees, it was

decided that the standard was too complex to handle as a single
Introduction to Programmable Controllers 15

document. As a result, the working group was split into five task forces,
one for each part of the standard. The subject of each part is as follows:
Part 1, General Information; Part 2, Equipment and Testing Requirements;
Part 3, Programming Languages; Part 4, User Guidelines; and Part 5,
Communications. Each task group consisted of several international
experts, each backed by a national advisory group. International
Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) issued its standard for PLC
programming languages in March of 1993 and assigned it the number IEC
61131-3.

The IEC standard has three graphical languages: Ladder Diagram (LD),
Function Block Diagram (FBD), and Sequential Function Chart (SFC), and
two text-based languages: Instruction List (IL) and Structured Text (ST).
The PLC language standard allows different parts of an application to be
programmed in different languages that can be combined into a single
executable program. The three standard languages most commonly used
in PLC applications are Ladder Diagram, Instruction List, and Function
Block Diagram.

Figure 1-8 shows a simple logic function implemented using PLC

language types. The logic function shown is an “AND” function (i.e., if
pushbutton 1 (PB-1) is closed and pushbutton 2 (PB-2) is closed then the
Go Light is on).

Ladder Diagram (LD)

PB_1 PB_2 GO_Light

Instruction List (IL)

A PB_1
A PB_2
= GO_Light

Function Block Diagram (FBD)

PB_1 GO_Light
&
PB_2 =

Figure 1-8. An Example Logic Function Using Standard PLC Languages

16 Introduction to Programmable Controllers

Ladder Diagram
Ladder Diagram (LD) is the most common and widely used language in
PLC applications. The reason for this is relatively simple. The original
programmable controllers were designed to replace electrical relay-based
control systems. Technicians and engineers using electrical drawings
called ladder diagrams designed these systems. The ladder diagram
consists of a series of symbols interconnected by lines to indicate the flow
of current through the various devices. The ladder drawing consists of
basically two things: first is the power source, which forms the sides of the
ladder (rails), and the second is the current that flows through the various
logic input devices that form the rungs of the ladder. If there is electrical
current flow through the relay contacts in a rung, the output relay coil will
be turned on. This is termed “Power Flow” in the ladder rung.

In electrical design, the ladder diagram is intended to show only the

circuitry necessary for the basic operation of the control system. Another
diagram, called the wiring diagram, is used to show the physical connection
of control devices. The discrete I/O module diagrams shown earlier are
examples of wiring diagrams. A typical electrical ladder diagram is shown
in Figure 1-9. In this diagram, a pushbutton (PB1) is used to energize a
pump start control relay (CR1) if the level in a liquid storage tank is not
high. Each device has a special symbol assigned to it to make reading of
the diagram easier and faster.

L1 Start L2
PB1 Tank Level Control
Not High Relay 1
Rung 1 CR1
SEAL
LSH-1
CR1(1)
Pump Starter

Rung 2 P1
CR1(2)

Figure 1-9. Typical Electrical Ladder Diagram

The same control application can be implemented using a PLC LD

program as shown in Figure 1-10. The diagrams are read in the same
manner from left to right, with the logic input conditions on the left and
the logical outputs on the right. In the case of electrical diagrams, there
must be electrical continuity to energize the output devices; for
Introduction to Programmable Controllers 17

programmable controller ladder programs, there must be logic continuity

to energize the outputs.

Start_PB Level_Not_ High Run_Pump

I:010/00 I:010/01 O:000/00

Rung 0

Run_Pump
O:000/00

Pump_On
Run_Pump
O:000/01
O:000/00
Rung 1

Figure 1-10. Typical Ladder Diagram Program

In ladder programs, three basic instructions are used to form the program.
The first symbol is similar to the normally open (NO) relay contacts used
in electrical ladder diagrams; this instruction uses the same NO symbol in
ladder programs. It instructs the processor to examine its assigned bit
location in memory. If the bit is ON (logic 1), the instruction is true and
there is logic continuity through the instruction on the ladder rung. If the
bit is OFF (logic 0), there is no logic continuity through the instruction on
the rung.

The second important instruction is similar to the normally closed (NC)

contact from electrical ladder diagrams and it is called the “examine off”
instruction. Unlike the “examine on” instruction, it directs the processor to
examine the bit for logical zero or the OFF condition. If the bit is OFF, the
instruction is true and there is logic continuity through the instruction. If
the bit is ON, the normally closed instruction is false and there is no logic
continuity.

The third instruction is the output coil instruction. This instruction is

similar to relay coil in electrical ladder diagrams and it directs the
processor to set a certain location in memory to ON or 1, if there is logic
continuity in any logic path preceding it. If there are no complete logic
continuity paths in the ladder rung, the processor sets the output coil
instruction bit to zero or OFF.

Figure 1-10 shows a typical Allen-Bradley Ladder Program. In this

proprietary and non-standard ladder programming language, the letters
18 Introduction to Programmable Controllers

O or I followed by a 5-digit number above the instructions are the

reference addresses for the logic bits. The letter “I” before the 5-digit
number indicates an input bit and the letter “O” before the 5-digit number
indicates an output bit. The reference address indicates where in the
memory the logic operation will take place.

In the Allen-Bradley LD program shown in Figure 1-10, the “examine on”

instruction for the start pushbutton (PB) directs the processor to see if the
reference address I:010/00 is ON. In the same manner, the examine on
instruction for the “tank level not high” input instructs the processor to
see if the reference address I:010/01 is OFF. If there is logic continuity
through both instructions, the output coil instruction at address O: 000/00
is turned ON. Logic continuity from the left side to the right end of a rung
is called “Logical Power Flow” in PLC programming.

This same output bit is then used to “seal in” the start pushbutton
instruction and turns on the energized instruction bit O:000/01 to turn on
the pump run light.

In the IEC LD programming language standard, the input address I:010/

00 would have the form %IX010.00 and the output address O:000/01
would be listed as %QX000.0. Now not all PLC manufacturers fully
comply with the IEC programming standard, so many programming
examples used in this book will not comply with the IEC standard. Before
using any programmable example from this book, a PLC manufacturer’s
instruction manual must be consulted for the proper programming
language format.

Instruction List
Instruction List (IL) is a textual programming language that can be used to
create the code for a PLC control program. Its syntax for statements is
similar to microprocessor assembly language and consists of instructions
followed by addresses on which the instructions act. The IL language
contains a comprehensive range of instructions for creating a complete
user program. For example, in the Siemens S7 programming software
package, there are over 130 different basic IL instructions and a wide
range of addresses available depending on the model PLC used.

IL instruction statements have two basic structures. One, a statement

made up of an instruction alone (e.g., NOT) and another where the
statement is made up of an instruction and an address. The most common
structure is for the statement to have an instruction and an address. The
address of an instruction statement indicates a constant or the location
where the instruction finds a value on which to perform an operation.
Introduction to Programmable Controllers 19

The most basic type of IL instructions is the Boolean Bit Logic Instructions.
These instructions perform logic operations on single bits in PLC memory.
The basic Bit Logic Instructions are: 1) “AND” (A) and its negated form
“And Not” (AN), 2) “Or” (O), and 3) “Exclusive Or “ (Or) and its negated
form, “Exclusive Or Not” (XN). These instructions check the signal state of
a bit address to establish whether the bit is activated “1” or not activated
“0”.

Bit logic instructions are also called relay logic instructions since they can
execute commands that can replace a relay logic circuit. Figure 1-11 is an
example of “AND” logic operation where the IL program is listed on the
left side and the relay logic circuit is shown on the right side for
comparison. In this example the IL program uses an AND instruction (A)
to program two normally open (NO) contacts in series. Only when the
signal state of both the NO contacts is “1”, can the state of output Q4.0 also
be “1” and the coil is then energized.

Instruction List Relay Logic Diagram

Program
Power Rail

A I 1.0 I 1.0 NO Contact

A I 1.1 I 1.1 NO Contact

= Q 4.0 Q 4.0 Coil

Figure 1-11. Comparison of IL Program and Relay Logic Circuit

Function Block Diagram

The function block diagram (FBD) is a graphical programming language.
It allows the programmer to build complex control procedures by taking
existing functions from the FBD library and wiring them in a graphic
diagram area. An FBD describes a relationship or function between input
and output variables. A function is described as a set of elementary
function blocks as shown in Figure 1-12. Input and output variables are
connected to blocks by connection lines.

An entire function operated by a FBD program is built with standard

elementary function blocks from the FBD library. Each elementary
20 Introduction to Programmable Controllers

function block has a fixed number of input connection points and a fixed
number of output connection points. For example, the Boolean AND
function block shown in Figure 1-12 has two inputs and only one output.
The inputs are connected on its left border. The outputs are connected on
its right border. An elementary function block performs a single function
between its inputs and its outputs. For example, the elementary function
block shown in Figure 1-12 performs the Boolean AND operation on its
two inputs and produces a result at the output. The name of the function
to be performed by the block is written in its symbol, in the case of the
“AND” function the symbol is ”&”.

Function Block Logical “AND” symbol

input_1 &
output
input_2

Figure 1-12. Typical Elementary Function Block

Programming Devices
The programming device can be a vendor-designed portable unit or a PC
with programming software installed. The PC-based systems normally
have the following basic components: keyboard, visual display or CRT,
PC, printer, and communications interface card and cable as shown in
Figure 1-13.

The programming devices are normally connected to the programmable

controller system only during programming, start-up, or troubleshooting
of the control system. Otherwise, the programming device is disconnected
from the system.

The vendor-designed portable units are generally only used to program

small programmable controllers. Most of these units resemble portable
calculators, but with larger displays and a somewhat different keyboard.
The displays are generally light-emitting diode (LED) or dot-matrix liquid
crystal display (LCD), and the keyboard consists of alphanumeric keys,
programming instruction keys, and special function keys. Even though
they are mainly used for writing and editing the control program, the
portable programmers are also used for testing, changing, and monitoring
the program.
 Introduction to Programmable Controllers 21

Color
Graphics
PLC Display
Comm.
Card Personal
Computer Printer
Communications Cable
Keyboard Mouse

Power
Supply PLC DI DI DO DO AI AI AO TC TC

Typical I/O Modules

Figure 1-13. Typical Programmable Controller System

The standard programming terminal is a PC with the programming

software loaded on the hard drive. These units can perform program
editing and storage. They also have added features such as program
printouts and connection to local area networks (LANs). LANs give the
programmer or engineer access to any programmable controller in the
communications network, so that any device in the network can be
monitored and controlled. Normally, laptop PCs are used because they
are light and portable and can be easily used in the field during testing,
start-up, and modification of the control program.

Process Visualization
There are two methods commonly used to provide operators with real-
time visual interface to programmable controller–based control systems.
The first method is to wire directly from the programmable controller I/O
modules to hard-wired lights and digital indicators on a display or control
panel. This method is cost effective in small systems that will not be
changed, but it is generally not recommended or used in larger control
systems that might be expanded in the future.

The more common method is to use PCs with HMI software that can
generate a visual representation of the process or machine being
controlled. The process or machine display screens are usually based on
the process and instrument drawings or mechanical drawings for the
system being controlled and provide the operators with an overall view of
the process or machine under control.

The software-based graphical display method has advantages in that the

process display screens can be easily modified for process changes, and
22 Introduction to Programmable Controllers

the software can perform other functions, such as control, alarms,

messaging, report generation, historical trending, integrated real-time
statistical process control (SPC), and batch process recipe control.

The process overview pictures are generally interesting to visitors but

historical trending and alarm message display are more widely viewed
and used by the operators in daily operations.

Alarms must be quickly analyzed and responded to by the operators to

prevent product or process damage or injury to personnel. Most HMI
software packages allow the operator to configure or tailor the messages
to the process or plant being controlled. The messages can be derived from
individual I/O bits or analog signals that are out of range or process
limits. Message systems minimize process or machine downtime by
alerting the operators to out-of-tolerance conditions or events.

The historical trending of key process or machine parameters allows the

operator to detect and then prevent potential production or machine
problems. The SPC software continuously records process or machine
sequences and events that are related to product quality. This makes it
possible to verify product quality on a continuous basis.

HMI software provides standard screen objects, such as pushbuttons,

selector switches, and panel indicators to create user interfaces that are
appropriate to the process being controlled. HMI systems not only acquire
process data, messages, and events, the software may also store the
information in archives and then the information can be made available on
a filtered or sorted basis. The configuration engineer can design a message
or alarm so that an operator must acknowledge the condition.

In a typical system, a Microsoft SQL Server is used to archive messages.

The system archives information when a message or an alarm occurs or
when there is a change in status. Message and alarm sequence logs are
used to document events on a chronological basis. The system can
generally print out all changes in status (new, departed or acknowledged)
of the alarms or messages. Process values are generally archived cyclically
on an event or limits violation basis. The analog process values can also be
archived on a condensed basis using signal averaging.

The Microsoft SQL Server uses effective loss-free data compression

functions so that memory resources are conserved. However, a large
process can generate an archive of considerable size so the user must set a
maximum archiving period, such as one week or month, to limit the data
volume. Each data archive can be segmented (e.g., per week, per month)
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