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 ICE manual of
construction materials
Volume 2
Metals and alloys; Polymers; Polymer fibre composites in civil engineering;
Timber; Glass; Non-conventional materials; Appendices

Editor:
Mike Forde
University of Edinburgh

ice | manuals
Published by Thomas Telford Limited, 40 Marsh Wall, London E14 9TP, UK.
www.thomastelford.com

Distributors for Thomas Telford books are

USA: ASCE Press, 1801 Alexander Bell Drive, Reston, VA 20191-4400, USA
Australia: DA Books and Journals, 648 Whitehorse Road, Mitcham 3132, Victoria

First published 2009

Future titles in the ICE Manuals series from Thomas Telford Limited

ICE manual of geotechnical engineering

ICE manual of health and safety
ICE manual of construction law
ICE manual of highway design and management

Currently available in the ICE Manual series from Thomas Telford Limited

ICE manual of bridge engineering – second edition. 978-0-7277-3452-5

www.icemanuals.com

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN: 978-0-7277-3642-0 (volume I)

ISBN: 978-0-7277-3643-7 (volume II)
ISBN: 978-0-7277-3597-3 (two volume set)

# Thomas Telford Limited 2009

All rights, including translation, reserved. Except as permitted by the Copyright, Designs and
Patents Act 1988, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise,
without the prior written permission of the Publisher, Thomas Telford Ltd, 40 Marsh Wall,
London E14 9TP, UK.

This book is published on the understanding that the authors are solely responsible for the
statements made and opinions expressed in it and that its publication does not necessarily imply
that such statements and/or opinions are or reflect the views or opinions of the publishers. While
every effort has been made to ensure that the statements made and the opinions expressed in
this publication provide a safe and accurate guide, no liability or responsibility can be accepted in
this respect by the authors or publishers.

The authors and the publisher have made every reasonable effort to locate, contact and
acknowledge copyright owners. The publisher wishes to be informed by copyright owners who
are not properly identified and acknowledged in this publication so that we may make necessary
corrections.

Typeset by Academic + Technical, Bristol

Index created by Indexing Specialists (UK) Ltd, Hove, East Sussex
Printed and bound in Great Britain by Latimer Trend & Company Ltd, Plymouth
Contents
Volume II Copper alloys 506
Brass 507
List of contributors ix Surface treatments 507
Bronze 509
SECTION 5: Metals and alloys Applications for copper and copper alloys 510
Section editor: Wei Sha Corrosion 514
Compatibility 515
Chapter 38: Metals and alloys: an introduction 465 Sustainability 517
Wei Sha References 518
Metals and alloys as construction materials 465 Further reading 518
Microstructure and properties of metals and alloys 465
Chapter 43: Zinc 519
Sustainability and recycling 467
A. Lyons
Section contents and authors 467
Introduction 519
Reference 468
Resources 519
Chapter 39: The nature and behaviour of alloys 469 Production 519
J. Robson Properties 519
Introduction 469 Soft solders 524
Microstructure of metals and alloys 469 Sustainability and recycling of zinc 524
Phase transformations 469 Zinc as a trace element 524
Defects in metals and alloys 470 Further information 524
Plastic deformation of metals and alloys 471 References 524
Strengthening of metals and alloys 472 Further reading 525
Other mechanical properties 473 Chapter 44: Titanium 527
Processing and forming of metals 474 N. Lowrie
Physical properties of metals and alloys 474 Sources and production 527
Corrosion of metals 475 Titanium alloy categorisation 529
Alloy selection 476 Mechanical properties of titanium alloys 531
Key points 476 Corrosion resistance 532
References 476 Titanium in construction 532
Further reading 477 Emerging technologies 536
Chapter 40: Ferrous metals 479 Reference 536
A. Lyons Further reading 536
Introduction 479 Chapter 45: Structural steel 537
Cast iron 479 R. M. Lawson
Wrought iron 481 Introduction 537
Steel 482 Technical characteristics of steel 540
References 490 Structural steel 544
Further reading 491 Stainless steel 551
Strip steel specification 555
Chapter 41: Aluminium 493 Corrosion protection 557
D. A. Harris Fire protection 562
Introduction 493 Site installation 564
Aluminium alloys 493 Tolerances 567
Aluminium finishing processes 496 References 568
Examples of the use of aluminium products in construction 498
Recycling of aluminium used in construction 500 SECTION 6: Polymers
Sustainability of aluminium used in construction 501 Section editor: Christopher Hall
Summary and future trends 502
References 502 Chapter 46: Polymeric materials: an introduction 571
Further reading 502 V. Koutsos
Introduction 571
Chapter 42: Copper 505 Definitions, structure and types 571
P. Webster and N. Hay Specific examples and chemical structure 573
Introduction 505 The polymer solid state 575

ICE Manual of Construction Materials # 2009 Institution of Civil Engineers www.icemanuals.com v

 ice | manuals Contents

References 577 Quality assessment 638

Bibliography – Further reading 577 Future trends 639
References 639
Chapter 47: Polymer engineering 579
C. Hall Chapter 54: Mechanical properties of FRP composites 641
Introduction 579 T. Yu, J. G. Teng and J. F. Chen
Polymerisation reactions 579 Introduction 641
Compounding of polymers 580 Micromechanics of a lamina 641
Processing methods 580 Stress–strain relationship of a lamina 643
Composites 580 Classical lamination theory 645
Cellular polymers 581 Additional information 647
Sheet, mesh and grid 581 References 647
Emulsions and gels 581
Chapter 55: Failure criteria for FRP composites 649
Coatings and paints 581
T. Yu, J. G. Teng and J. F. Chen
Reference 583
Introduction 649
Further reading 583
Failure criteria for a lamina 649
Chapter 48: Engineering properties of polymers 585 Failure analysis of a laminate 651
V. Koutsos 585 Interlaminar failure of a laminate 652
Introduction 585 Additional information 653
Mechanical properties 585 References 653
Thermal properties 589
Chapter 56: Codes and standards 655
Permeability 589
G. Sims and W. R. Broughton
Environmental resistance and durability 590
Introduction 655
References 591
Polymer composites – material standards 655
Bibliography – Further reading 591
Product standards 659
Chapter 49: Polymer uses in civil engineering 593 Design guides for composites in construction 662
C. Hall Future trends 664
Introduction 593 References 664
Structural plastics and composites 593 Appendix: Other standards and codes 664
Pipework 593 Further reading 665
Membranes and geosynthetics 594
Chapter 57: Adhesives for externally bonded FRP reinforcement 667
Coatings 595
A. Hutchinson
Adhesives and sealants 596
Introduction 667
Expansion bearings and anti-vibration mounts 596
Adhesive bonding technology 667
Chemical grouts for soils 596
Surface preparation 669
References 597
Strengthening of concrete, metallic and timber structures using
Further reading 597
pre-cured composites 669
SECTION 7: Polymer fibre composites in civil engineering Strengthening of structures using in-situ lamination techniques 672
Section editor: Len Hollaway Summary and future trends 672
References 672
Chapter 50: Polymer fibre composites: an Introduction 599
L. C. Hollaway Chapter 58: Applications of fibre-reinforced polymer
Introduction 599 composite materials 675
The development of fibre/matrix composites in construction 600 L. C. Hollaway
References 601 Introduction 675
The building industry 676
Chapter 51: Characterisation of fibre and matrix materials used The civil engineering industry 676
in construction 603 References 689
L. C. Hollaway Appendix: Design codes, codes and specifications for the design
Introduction 603 of FRP composites in structural engineering 692
The matrices for fibre-reinforced polymer composites 603
Chapter 59: Recycling of FRP materials in construction 695
The physical properties of thermosetting polymers 607
S. Halliwell
In-service properties of the thermosetting polymers 609
Introduction 695
The mechanical properties of the thermosetting polymers 610
Legislation 695
The fibre 611
Waste minimisation 697
Mechanical properties of fibres 615
Reuse of FRP materials 697
In-service properties 615
Recovery of FRP waste 698
References 617
Recycling technologies 698
Chapter 52: Advanced polymer composites 619 Disposal 702
L. C. Hollaway Future and emerging technologies 702
Introduction 619 Summary 703
The properties of composite material 619 References 704
Mechanical properties of FRP composites 623 Further reading 704
The in-service properties of polymer composites 626
Future work on FRP materials 630 SECTION 8: Timber
References 630 Section editor: Keith Crews
Fire codes and standards 632 Chapter 60: Timber engineering: an introduction 707
Chapter 53: Testing and evaluation of polymer composites 633 A. Harte
W. R. Broughton and G. D. Sims Introduction 707
Introduction 633 Basic properties of wood 707
Tension 633 Physical properties of wood 709
Compression 635 Mechanical properties of wood 710
Shear 636 Sustainability 714
Flexure 637 References 715
Fracture toughness 638 Further reading 715

vi www.icemanuals.com ICE Manual of Construction Materials # 2009 Institution of Civil Engineers

 Contents ice | manuals

Chapter 61: Timber products and manufacturing processes 717 Chapter 68: Production techniques – a brief history 793
F. Lam J. Colvin
Introduction 717 Raw materials, melting and annealing 793
Round wood 717 Roman window glass 794
Timber or lumber 717 Cylinder glass 794
Engineered wood products 720 Crown glass 794
Conclusion 725 Sheet glass 794
References 726 Plate glass 795
Further reading 726 Rolled glass 795
Wired glass 795
Chapter 62: Effects of moisture 727
Float glass 795
H. Bier
Multiple glazing 796
Introduction 727
Laminated glass 798
Water and wood 727
Toughened glass 800
Shrinkage and swelling 729
Heat-strengthened glass 801
Water, wood and durability 732
Heat soaked toughened glass 801
Construction practices 732
Enamelled glass 802
Conclusions 737
Coated glass 804
References 737
Fire-resistant glass 806
Chapter 63: Understanding timber structural connection systems 739
J. Broughton and J. Custódio Chapter 69: Strength and durability of glass 807
Overview of connection types 739 C. Jofeh
Mechanical connections 739 Introduction 807
Glued connections 744 Physical properties of glass, compared with other materials 807
Adhesives types 747 Durability 807
References 756 Design approaches 808
Further reading 759 Safety 809
Chapter 64: Hazards, specification and service life performance 761 Falling glass 810
J.-W. van de Kuilen Rules of thumb 810
Introduction 761 Laminated glass 811
Hazard types 761 The buckling of laminated glass 812
Timber specification 765 Insulating glass units 812
Application classes 766 Concluding remarks 812
Strength grades and classes 767 References 812
Surface finishes and sizes 769 Further reading 813
Service life performance and design for durability 769
Examples 770 Chapter 70: Common glass products 815
References 771 J. Colvin
Basic glass to EN 572 815
Chapter 65: Case studies: current uses of timber in the UK 773 Annealed glass 815
J. Bregulla Toughened glass to BS EN 12150 816
Introduction 773 Heat-strengthened glass to BS EN 1863 816
Case study 1: the ‘Lighthouse’ 773 Heat-soaked toughened glass to BS EN 14179 817
Why timber? 774 Enamelled glass 817
Case study 2: multi-storey timber structures 776 Laminated glass to BS EN ISO 12543 and BS EN 14449 817
Case study 3: Savill Building, Windsor Great Park 779 Coated glass to BS EN 1096 818
Summary 782 Insulating glass units to BS EN 1279 819
References 782 Fire-resistant glass to BS EN 357 819
SECTION 9: Glass Chapter 71: Characteristics and problems of glass products 821
Section editor: Chris Jofeh J. Colvin
Chapter 66: Glass in construction: an introduction 783 General glass defects 821
J. Colvin Annealed glass 821
Light relief 783 Clear float glass 822
Rationality or mystique 783 Toughened glass and heat strengthened glass 822
Definition of glass 783 Coated glass 824
Sustainability and recycling 784 Laminated glass 824
Further reading 784 Insulating glass units 825
British Standards relating to glass in buildings 827
Chapter 67: What is glass? 785
J. Colvin
Silicate glass 785 SECTION 10: Non-conventional materials
Glass as a material 785 Section editor: Peter Walker
Stress and strain 786
Homogeneity and isotropy 787 Chapter 72: Low-carbon natural building materials 831
The effect of the glass structure on its properties 787 P. Walker
Tensile strength levels 787 Introduction 831
Surface flaws 787 Earth as a building material 832
Scratches, shells, chips and vents 788 Building with lime 839
Glass and water 788 Hemp-lime building 841
Static fatigue 788 Other renewable materials in construction 843
Glass strength testing 789 Carbon benefits of renewable materials 845
Compressive strength 789 Future potential 846
Toughened glass 789 Acknowledgements 846
Fracture 790 References 846
References 792 Further reading 847

ICE Manual of Construction Materials # 2009 Institution of Civil Engineers www.icemanuals.com vii
 ice | manuals Contents

Chapter 73: Straw bale construction – state of the art 849 Chapter 75: Architectural fabrics 873
M. Offin, S. Vardy and C. MacDougall W. Lewis
Introduction 849 Introduction 873
Construction details 850 Fabric structure and properties 873
Performance of straw bale assemblies 854 Patterning 876
Plaster structural performance 854 Main categories of architectural fabrics 876
Individual bale structural performance 855 Factors to consider in the choice of fabric 882
Bale wall structural performance 855 Future trends 884
Case study – the 4C’s food bank and thrift store (adapted from References 884
Vardy et al., 2006) 857
The future of straw bale construction 858
References 859
APPENDICES
Chapter 74: Alternative materials for construction 861 Appendix A: Fire performance of commonly used building
S. Aghedo and C. Baillie materials 887
Introduction 861 D. Hopkin
Source of natural fibres 861 Introduction 887
Sources of waste plastic 862 References 893
Development of hemp fibre/bale wrap composites for construction 863 Further reading 893
Harvesting, retting and extraction of hemp 864
Waste plastic preparation process 864
Appendix B: Guide to the recycled content of mainstream
Fabrication of composites 864
Mechanical properties of hemp fibre composites 866 construction products: Waste & Resources Action
Programme (WRAP) 895
Moisture-resistance properties of hemp fibre composites 869
Introduction 895
Examples of building products 870
Conclusion 870
References 870 Index to volume I and II 899

viii www.icemanuals.com ICE Manual of Construction Materials # 2009 Institution of Civil Engineers
Section 5: Metals and alloys
Section editor: Wei Sha
 ice | manuals

doi: 10.1680/mocm.35973.0465
Chapter 38

Metals and alloys: an introduction CONTENTS

Metals and alloys as

Wei Sha School of Planning, Architecture and Civil Engineering, Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast, UK construction materials 465
Microstructure and properties
of metals and alloys 465
This chapter introduces metals and alloys as a type of construction material, including
Sustainability and recycling 467
discussions of their background and use in construction, their mechanical and
Section contents and authors 467
physical properties, microstructural factors that influence properties, and recycling and
Reference 468
sustainability issues associated with metals and alloys. It references chapters in the
Metals and Alloys Section of the Manual of Construction Materials and gives a brief
overview of the coverage in order to point readers towards those chapters. The
chapter serves as a starting point to a practitioner researching the properties and
usefulness of metals and alloys to construction applications.

Metals and alloys as construction non-ferrous metals and alloys has been more rapid than
that of iron and steel, although this is mainly to catch up
materials with rather than replace the ferrous metals.
In terms of volume or weight, metals and alloys as con-
struction materials are well behind concrete. However, Microstructure and properties of
their strength, ductility, toughness, surface properties,
weldability, electrical and thermal conductivity, and many metals and alloys
other properties unique to this group of materials, make
metals and alloys indispensible materials for construction. Microstructural defects and their
These materials are used in houses and other buildings, relations to strength and ductility
structural steelwork including buildings, bridges, offshore The properties of metals and alloys which are unique to this
structures and piling, road structures, and does not require group of materials, as opposed to say ceramics and poly-
the extensive machinery necessary for completing any mers are due to their microstructure, starting from the
major construction project, for example cranes, trucks small, atomic scale of metallic bonds, up to their grain
and concrete mixers. and phase structures, usually in the micrometre scale,
A variety of metals are used. The predominant type is, of hence the term microstructure. In metals, there are free
course, the ferrous metals, i.e. iron and steel. Within this electrons shared by many atoms, as against the ionic
type, there are cast iron, wrought iron, carbon steels and bond or covalent bond in ceramics and polymers. Such
alloy steels, differentiated mainly by their composition. free electrons are the cause of the metals’ electrical and
Among them, carbon steels form the basis of structural thermal conductivity. This unique type of bonding also
steelwork as well as concrete reinforcing bars, and thus determines the high strength and ductility of metals and
are used in the largest quantity among all types of metals. alloys.
Although metals were used extensively from ancient In materials science, materials are broadly divided into
times, as indicated by history terminologies such as the structural materials and functional materials. The applica-
Bronze and Iron Age, the scale of their use was dramatically tion of the first group is based on the material strength,
increased with the modern steelmaking technology. while for the second group it is based on electrical and elec-
Although the development of steelmaking technology has tronic, magnetic and optical properties. The most widely
stabilised in the last few decades, the processing techniques used properties of metals and alloys for construction
for steels as well as for iron have continued to develop and purposes are their strength and ductility, for the so-called
improve to great effect, including thermomechanical structural materials. In physical metallurgy and materials
processing, heat treatment, and surface engineering. science, the strength and ductility are explained mainly
Among the non-ferrous metals, aluminium, zinc, lead, with two microstructural terms, namely grain structures
copper and tin are traditionally widely used. Less widely and dislocation structures.
used are nickel and chromium. There are also new metallic Microscopically, with the exception of amorphous
materials for construction, for example titanium for clad- materials not normally used in construction, a piece of
ding purposes. Although far from widely used, titanium metal is packed with small crystals, although the exterior
offers an attractive alternative, due mainly to its aesthetic of the metal does not normally show features of crystal
features and corrosion resistance. The development of that we normally associate with geological minerals. The

ICE Manual of Construction Materials # 2009 Institution of Civil Engineers www.icemanuals.com 465
 Metals and alloys

P M

Burgers vector

Q N

P P

Burgers
M vector M

Q
Q

N
N

Figure 1 The lattice arrangements of edge (top right) and screw (bottom right) dislocations compared to perfect crystal structures

reason why we cannot see the crystals (or even signs of locations (but not too many because then they will tangle
them) with the naked eye is because they are very tiny, up and be hard to move), plastic deformation becomes
usually around the scale of 10
6 m (one micrometre) but easier because, instead of moving the whole crystal planes
they could be manipulated by special treatment to down in one go, it is much easier to push each dislocation to
to 10
9 m (one nanometre). Recent research has resulted move. This is very similar to moving carpets by first
in the development of nanostructures in bulk metallic forming a kink, and then pushing the kink from one end
materials (Bhadeshia, 2005). of the carpet to another. Worms move in the same way,
These tiny crystals are packed densely with no gaps too.
between them, and are only separated by grain boundaries. The deformation mechanism through the movement of
The grain boundaries have significant effects on metal prop- dislocations is the reason why metals have good ductility.
erties such as strength, ductility, atom diffusion and Grain boundaries, on the other hand, limit the movement
conductivity. of dislocations because it is not always easy for dislocations
For the perfect crystal structure to deform plastically, to traverse across them. By controlling the quantity and size
extremely large forces are required, in order for the of the grain boundaries and dislocations, virtually un-
atomic planes to slide against each other. Imagine even limited range of property combinations can be achieved.
the force required to pull from one end and slide a large A grain boundary caused by the discontinuity of crystals
carpet on a floor, in one single movement. The friction is a 2D defect, and a dislocation caused by atomic plane
force between the carpet and the floor is huge. The sliding misalignment is a 1D defect. In addition to 1D and 2D
of atomic planes has similar difficulties, only a million defects, there are 0D defects, the so-called point defects,
times harder because of the tight bonding between atoms usually in the form of vacancies, i.e. lattice spots, but not
next to each other in adjacent atomic planes. In real occupied by any atom. The vacancies determine the rate
metals, however, there is a common type of defect called of diffusion because metal atoms diffuse by jumping into
dislocations (Figure 1) that completely change the an adjacent vacancy. There are 3D defects, too, in the
mechanism of plastic deformation. form of inclusion and precipitation for example, which
Dislocations appear in large numbers in metals and weakens or strengthens the metallic materials depending
alloys, some formed naturally during cooling after melting on their characteristics. As it transpires, atomic and
during the alloy manufacture, and some formed during micro-scale defects in metals are far more important and
deformation processing such as rolling and forging, and useful than the perfect crystal structure.
some even formed during the plastic deformation process The physical metallurgy and materials science of metals
which is facilitated by them in the first place. With dis- and alloys are described in many metallurgy textbooks. A

466 www.icemanuals.com ICE Manual of Construction Materials # 2009 Institution of Civil Engineers
 Metals and alloys: an introduction

comprehensive source of information for metals is the ASM adds a significant amount of cost. In recent years, there
Handbook series published by ASM International. For free have been large advances in fire engineering research and
online information, the Wikipedia (http://en.wikipedia.org) development, resulting in some reduction of fire protec-
contains many relevant articles, although they may not be tion cost in structural steelwork.
as authoritative.

Corrosion and fire resistance Sustainability and recycling

The most commonly used metals, i.e. structural steels, are Metals and alloys are champions in the race towards
one order of magnitude stronger than concrete, and even maximum sustainability and recycling. In principle, all
much stronger than other construction materials such as metals and alloys can be recycled, usually up towards
timber and bitumen. However, some other properties of 100%, although in practice, this may be achieved only
metals and alloys also contribute, or sometimes limit their with considerable cost.
use in the construction industry. The fundamental reason for the excellent recyclability of
One such property is corrosion. Most metals react with this class of materials is, in the author’s view, that metals
oxygen, i.e. they are oxidised in air. When moisture is originally appear in earth not in their pure form but in
present, e.g. under water or in a high humidity environ- compound form with, for instance, oxygen, i.e. oxides.
ment, the combined effect of water and oxygen can cause These are ores. Metals need to be extracted from the ores,
corrosion. This is a major problem for structural steels, i.e. separated from the compounded or mixed elements,
and a high proportion of construction cost of structural which is a long and costly process. After a metal is used,
steelwork is on corrosion prevention. However, other if it has changed from its pure state, it may be contami-
metals, such as aluminium, titanium and stainless steel, nated, or mixed or compounded with other materials, it
have means of overcoming the corrosion problem, by may be corroded or rusted and it may be oxidised.
forming a thin and stable protective layer on their surface. However, in principle, the goal of returning such used, or
The prevention or minimisation of corrosion does not non-pure metal to its pure form (i.e. from old to new) is
always rely on using non-metals which do not have corro- fundamentally no different from extracting the metal
sion problems themselves, such as polymer-based paints. from ore. The process may be very different however, but
One of the most effective anti-corrosion measures is to it is in many cases cheaper. This, plus the pressure from
use zinc and, to a lesser extent, aluminium, two of the the vanishing resources that we are facing, make the idea
most active metals. There is a wide variety of protection of recycling metals very attractive.
techniques based on the galvanising action between zinc/ One major example is the use of the electric arc furnace
aluminium and steels, because zinc/aluminium, when in for steel making. This process uses scrap steel as its raw
contact with steels, will corrode first and in fact eliminate material, and produces high-quality alloy steels, for
the corrosion of steels. Such techniques include zinc example stainless steel, a product used heavily for construc-
(alloy) galvanising, metal spraying and painting containing tion. The process has been in use for more than 100 years,
zinc or aluminium. Metals can be used to protect other long, long before the word ‘sustainability’ was invented.
metals. This was because metallurgists and steel users knew the
Another consideration, usually to the disadvantage of recyclability of steels, and the value of it. This same example
using metals in construction, in particular structural also illustrates the cost factor mentioned above, because an
steels, is related to the properties of metals at high electric arc furnace operates with a high consumption of
temperatures, for example in a fire. The reason for the electricity, and the cost of running it is higher than the
usually relatively poor metal performance at elevated other route of steel making, the basic oxygen furnace,
temperatures is related to its metallic bond. The high which does not use scrap steel as the main source of raw
thermal conductivity is as important as the loss of material. Despite the cost factor, a higher and higher frac-
strength itself, because it permits heat to reach and spread tion of metals and alloys is being recycled, due to environ-
over metal parts quickly. This is a particular issue for mental regulations and sustainability issues and concerns.
structural steelwork, the issue of its fire resistance.
Although the concrete strength would have dropped even
more heavily at a given temperature than steel, the low Section contents and authors
thermal conductivity and the bulkiness of the concrete This section of the ICE Manual of Construction Materials
mean that a concrete structure does not usually have any gives detailed information on the class of materials of
fire resistance problem, simply because the heat does not metals and alloys. Before dealing with individual types,
reach the inside of concrete. On the other hand, structural the section starts with describing the nature and behaviour
steelwork, with some exceptions of, for example, open car of alloys, which essentially covers basic metallurgy, needed
park structures, will always need fire protection, which for understanding and appreciating the properties of metals

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 Metals and alloys

and alloys. This chapter is not about specific types of are written by Arthur Lyons. His textbook, Materials for
metals, it intends to give the basic metallurgical theory Architects & Builders, is widely used by universities for
that is applicable to all metals and alloys. teaching of their Construction Materials module, including
The chapters that follow describe the most common that run at my own university, coordinated by myself.
types of metals and alloys used in construction, including However, for the Manual, Dr Lyons is able to elaborate
ferrous metals, aluminium, copper and zinc. In addition, to a much more advanced level compared with the
an up-and-coming metal not previously used in construc- undergraduate textbook. The chapters on aluminium and
tion, titanium, is discussed in Chapter 44. The focus is on copper are written by respective top specialists in these
the properties and uses of these metals, so that the reader metals, namely David Harris of Aluminium Advocates
can apply the knowledge straight to the practical use of and Peter Webster of the Copper Development Associa-
them in the design and maintenance of structures and tion. Neil Lowrie, a technologist at NAMTEC, has
construction projects. contributed the chapter on titanium (NAMTEC is the
Traditionally and for the foreseeable future, in terms of National Metals Technology Centre in the UK).
tonnage, structural steels are dominant among metals and The last chapter of the Metals and Alloys Section is
alloys used in construction, so the final chapter con- written by Mark Lawson, a most familiar name in struc-
centrates on the application and design issues of struc- tural steels in the UK and beyond, for his influential
tural steels. The aim of this chapter is for the reader to work at the Steel Construction Institute (SCI). Technical
gain an advanced knowledge of these materials, and be publications on structural steel design produced by SCI
able to apply this knowledge directly in civil engineering under his direction are widely used by consulting engineers
construction. as well as in the relevant professional and higher education
I am extremely proud to say that we have got a top, sectors. SCI also has a strong influence in British Standards
distinguished team of British authors for these chapters and now Eurocodes for structural steelwork.
and topics, each a world authority in his own field. Chapter Each of these authors is a fellow or member of the
39, ‘The nature and behaviour of alloys’, is written by Dr relevant professional bodies in the UK.
Joseph Robson, a Senior Lecturer in Physical Metallurgy I am therefore confident that this section of the Manual of
at the University of Manchester. Among other professional Construction Materials forms a most authoritative guide of
achievements and credentials, he is an associate editor of metals and alloys for construction practitioners.
Materials Characterization, an international journal
published by the International Metallographic Society on Reference
materials structure and behaviour.
Bhadeshia H. K. D. H. Bulk Nanocrystalline Steels. Ironmaking
As Chapter 40 is concerned with different types of metals, and Steelmaking, 2005, 32, 405–410.
we have several authors, writing about each type of metal
and its alloys. The chapters on ferrous metals and zinc

468 www.icemanuals.com ICE Manual of Construction Materials # 2009 Institution of Civil Engineers
 ice | manuals

doi: 10.1680/mocm.35973.0469
Chapter 39

The nature and behaviour of alloys CONTENTS

Introduction 469
Joseph Robson School of Materials, University of Manchester, UK
Microstructure of metals and
alloys 469
The performance of metal alloys is understood by studying the relationships Phase transformations 469
between composition, processing, structure and properties. Knowledge and control Defects in metals and alloys 470
of structure on the microscopic scale is critical in optimising macroscopic Plastic deformation of
metals and alloys 471
performance, producing the versatile range of alloys available today.
Strengthening of metals
and alloys 472
Other mechanical properties 473
Processing and forming
of metals 474
Physical properties of
metals and alloys 474
Corrosion of metals 475
Alloy selection 476
Key points 476
References 476
Further reading 477

Introduction The arrangement of atoms in a crystalline material can be

defined by its ‘unit cell’. The unit cell is the minimum
Metal alloys form one of the most widely used classes of
volume of material that fully characterises the crystal struc-
materials in engineering applications. Metals are rarely
ture and symmetry. The structure of any (perfect) crystal
used in their pure elemental form, but are combined into
can be generated by repetition of its unit cell in three dimen-
mixtures of elements known as alloys. Alloying is the delib-
sions. The metals that form the basis of the common
erate addition of extra elements to a pure metal to improve
engineering alloys have crystal structures that can be char-
some aspect of its properties. In addition to deliberate
acterised by one of three unit cells. Figure 1 shows how the
alloying elements, all commercial metals also contain
atoms are arranged in each of these cells.
impurity elements that are uneconomical to remove
From an engineering perspective, the crystal structure of
during refinement and processing. Alloying can produce
alloys is important, since it is critical in determining many
large improvements in properties. For example, steels and
of the macroscopic properties. For example, aluminium is
aluminium alloys can have strength levels that are over an
easily deformed at room temperature without fracturing,
order of magnitude greater than the base metal (iron and
whereas magnesium will crack if deformed under the
aluminium respectively) in pure form.
same conditions. This can be largely attributed to the
The engineering properties of metals, such as strength,
hexagonal crystal structure of magnesium compared with
toughness and corrosion resistance, are controlled by the
the face-centred cubic crystal structure of aluminium, as
structure of the metal on the nano- (10
9 m) and micro-
discussed later.
(10
6 m) structural scale. In particular, it is through manip-
ulation of alloy structure at the micro-scale (the microstruc-
ture) that required properties are obtained. The metallurgist
Phase transformations
therefore has to consider the relationships between alloy In many alloys, several different crystal structures (allo-
composition, processing, microstructure and properties. tropes) are possible. The most stable crystal structure will
This chapter will introduce the most important of these then depend on the external conditions (such as tempera-
relationships for commonly used engineering alloys. ture and pressure). Alloying additions can also influence
the relative stability of the different allotropes. If the condi-
tions are changed so that the most stable crystal structure
Microstructure of metals and alloys changes, the atoms will attempt to rearrange from the old
Structural alloys are all crystalline at an atomic scale; that to the new stable crystal structure. The different crystalline
is, their atoms are arranged in a regular, ordered way. forms that an alloy can exist in are referred to as different
The individual crystals (which are usually referred to as phases, and so the change from one crystal structure to
grains) are typically less than a millimetre in size, so that another is known as a phase transformation. Phase transfor-
bulk metals are an aggregate of many millions of grains mations are exploited in the processing of alloys to obtain
(i.e. polycrystalline). the required microstructure. The best-known example is

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 Metals and alloys

60°

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 1 Unit cells showing the arrangement of atoms in (a) face-centred cubic, (b) body-centred cubic and (c) hexagonal close-packed crystal
structures. The atoms outlined in bold define one of the planes of closest atomic packing in each structure

the phase transformation that occurs in iron and steel Particle precipitation refers to the formation of (usually)
(steels are based on the iron–carbon system, with additional micron- or sub-micron-sized particles of a second phase
alloying elements). At room temperature, the most stable in the initial (matrix) phase. Precipitation occurs because
crystal structure for iron is body-centred cubic (BCC). the solubility of alloying elements in the matrix phase
This phase is called ferrite. When heated above 9108C decreases with decreasing temperature. When the solubility
(1183 K), the face-centred cubic (FCC) structure becomes is exceeded, there will be a driving force for precipitate
more stable, and a phase transformation occurs. The formation. Precipitation involves alloying elements leaving
FCC iron phase is called austenite. the matrix phase and forming particles of a different phase
The presence of additional elements, as in steel, adds to with distinct composition and structure. This process takes
the complexity of the phase transformations that can time, however, and precipitation can be suppressed by
occur. Steels are often processed with the iron in the high- cooling very rapidly. In this case, excess alloying elements
temperature (austenite) form before being cooled to room can be trapped in the matrix phase. These elements will
temperature, where the ferrite phase is stable. Austenite then form precipitate particles over time, and heating can
has a higher solubility for carbon than ferrite (approxi- accelerate this process by enhancing atomic movement
mately 100 times more carbon can be dissolved in austenite (diffusion). This method can be used to produce a fine
than ferrite, by weight). This means that for iron to form and uniform distribution of precipitate particles that can
stable ferrite on cooling, carbon must be rejected from the provide a large strengthening effect (precipitation strength-
transforming austenite. This carbon forms a new phase, ening) (AluMATTER, 2007). Precipitation strengthening is
which in simple (plain carbon) steels has the chemical exploited in many aluminium alloys, steels, and other alloy
formulae Fe3C, and is called cementite. If other alloying systems.
elements are present, they can also form new phases with
the excess carbon, known as carbides.
If cooling is very rapid (such as obtained if steel is Defects in metals and alloys
quenched into water) then there is usually insufficient The crystals that are generated by stacking together unit
time for the movement of atoms that is required to re- cells, as described in the previous section, are perfect;
arrange the austenite crystal structure to the two new there are no irregularities in such a structure, and each
crystal structures of ferrite and cementite. In this case, a part of the crystal is identical to every other part. In reality,
series of different phase transformations is possible, real crystals are not perfect but contain defects. These
forming phases that give different microstructures and defects play a crucial role in controlling the properties of
properties. The ability to exploit the phase transformations metals and alloys.
from austenite to give a range of different structures is a Two types of defect are of particular importance in metals
great advantage of steels. Apart from iron/steel, other and alloys: vacancies and dislocations. A vacancy is a ‘gap’ in
important industrial metals that transform from one crystal the crystal structure, where there is no atom where one would
structure at high temperature to another at lower tempera- be expected (Figure 2(a)). Vacancies are important in the
ture include titanium and zirconium. The stable structure process of atomic diffusion (the movement of atoms within
for both of these is hexagonal close packed (HCP) at the crystal structure). Any one of the atoms that surround
room temperature, but BCC at high temperature. the vacancy can move by jumping into the vacant site, leaving
Another type of phase transformation that is widely a vacant site behind (the atom and vacancy swap positions).
exploited in engineering alloys is particle precipitation. Another atom can then jump into the newly vacant site and so

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 The nature and behaviour of alloys

and, if the load is removed, the specimen will return to its

original dimensions. However, above a certain applied
stress (the yield stress) the specimen starts to permanently
(plastically) deform. It is found that when the surface of a
suitable chosen crystal is examined after such a test, it is
characterised by a series of bands, close to 458 to the axis
along which the crystal was pulled, and these bands form
steps at the surface of the crystal (Figure 3(a) shows these
slip bands in a single crystal of cadmium after deformation).
(a) (b) Furthermore, it is found that the planes defined by the slip
Figure 2 Schematic showing (a) a vacancy in a crystal structure (b) an bands (slip planes) correspond to the planes of closest
edge dislocation: the atoms outlined in bold form the extra half plane, atomic packing in the crystal structure. For certain crystal
and the line where this ends inside the crystal defines the dislocation line structures and orientations, it may be that none of the
planes of closest atomic packing lie close to 458 to the
on. A vacancy is one type of point defect since it is localised to axis along which the tensile load is applied. In such cases,
a single point in the crystal structure. it is often found that failure will occur by brittle fracture,
Dislocations are an example of a line defect, creating a rather than progressive plastic deformation.
disruption to the crystal lattice around a line rather than a Several important conclusions can be drawn from these
single point. Figure 2(b) shows an example of one type of observations. First, deformation occurs by shearing of the
dislocation, an edge dislocation. An edge dislocation is crystal along well-defined slip planes. This is true even if a
caused by the presence of an extra portion of a plane of purely tensile or compressive load is applied, since such a
atoms that terminates within the crystal (commonly referred load will generate a shear stress (which is a maximum at
to as an extra ‘half plane’). The atoms that form the extra 458 to the axis along which the tensile load is applied – the
half plane are circled in blue in Figure 2(b). Other dislocation tensile axis). Second, deformation occurs only on certain
types, such as screw and mixed dislocations are also possible well-defined planes in the crystal structure and in certain
(Hull and Bacon, 2001). Dislocations play a key role in the well-defined directions. These directions and planes are
deformation of metals and alloys; deformation, usually known as slip directions and slip planes respectively. It is
occurs primarily by dislocation motion. found that the slip planes usually correspond to the planes
on which the atoms in the crystal are most closely packed
Plastic deformation of metals and together, with the slip directions corresponding to the direc-
tions along which the atoms are in closest contact.
alloys Figure 3(b) shows four unit cells of the FCC crystal struc-
It is possible to prepare and deform large single crystals of ture. The slip directions and slip planes for this crystal
metals. For example, consider a single crystal specimen structure are marked. It can be seen that there are four
pulled in tension. At first, deformation occurs elastically possible slip planes, each containing three possible slip

100 mm
σ
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 3 (a) A cadmium single crystal after deformation showing slip bands at the surface. (b) The close-packed planes and directions in the FCC crystal
structure that define the 12 slip systems. (c) Schematic showing how an applied tensile stress
produces a shear stress  on a slip plane inclined close
to 458 to the tensile axis

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 Metals and alloys

directions. This gives 12 combinations (4  3), and each material can be subjected without permanent plastic defor-
combination is known as a slip system. Therefore, metals mation. There are several ways that the yield strength of a
with FCC crystal structures have a total of 12 possible metal can be increased, both by alloying additions and
slip systems. Metals with BCC crystal structures also have processing. Fundamentally, each of these methods works
at least 12 possible slip systems, whereas metals with HCP by making dislocation movement more difficult, thereby
crystal structures may have as few as three slip systems. increasing the resolved shear stress that is required to
This is of practical importance, since the ease with which initiate plastic deformation.
a metal can be deformed or shaped without cracking is
strongly dependent on the number of available slip systems Grain size strengthening
that can accommodate deformation. So far, the deformation of a single crystal has been
Plastic deformation will initiate on a slip plane in a parti- considered. In practice, bulk metals are nearly always
cular slip direction when the shear stress on that plane, polycrystalline and consist of aggregates of many crystals
resolved in the slip direction, exceeds a critical value. For (grains) in different orientations. The boundaries between
a crystal pulled in tension (as shown in Figure 3(c)), the grains provide a barrier to dislocation motion. These
resolved shear stress will be a maximum on the slip planes boundaries therefore provide a strengthening effect and, the
that are oriented close to 458 to the tensile axis. Deforma- more grain boundary area there is per unit volume, the
tion will therefore take place by shearing on these planes. greater the strengthening effect. This means that fine-grained
How, on an atomic scale, does this shearing occur? It materials will be stronger than the same coarse-grained
might be imagined that all of the atoms on one slip plane material, because a fine-grained material will have more
slide over all of the atoms on the slip plane below, since grain boundary area to impede dislocation motion. The
this would produce the observed deformation at the crystal relationship between the grain size of an alloy and its yield
surface. However, when a calculation is made of the strength is described by the Hall–Petch equation, which
theoretical critical shear stress required for this process, it states that the yield strength is inversely proportional to the
is found to be several orders of magnitude greater than square root of the grain size (Callister, 2006).
the critical shear stress measured, suggesting another A reduction in grain size can be achieved in practice by
mechanism must be operating. thermomechanical processing of the alloy (e.g. rolling it
In practice, it is much easier to produce slip by introducing to produce sheet, or extruding it to produce rods or bars).
and propagating a dislocation into the crystal structure, It is a widely used strengthening mechanism since it does
rather than sliding one whole atom plane over another. not rely on expensive alloying elements and, in addition, a
Then, rather than having to move all the atoms in the slip grain size reduction also improves the toughness of many
plane at the same time, disrupting the crystal structure alloys (in contrast with the other strengthening mechanisms
across the whole crystal, only a local region of the crystal discussed here, where the increase in strength is usually
structure is disrupted at any one time. An animation illus- accompanied by a decrease in toughness).
trating this process can be found at (DoITPoMS, 2007).
The movement of one dislocation and its destruction at Solid solution strengthening
the surface of the crystal produce a deformation step of Some alloying elements can be dissolved into the crystal
less than 0.5 nm for a typical metal, from which it is clear structure of the matrix phase forming a solid solution.
that movement of many millions of dislocations is needed Alloying elements can be accommodated into the crystal
to provide easily seen macroscopic deformation. Some of of the parent element in one of two ways. If the atomic
these dislocations will already exist in the crystal (since, as radius of the alloying element is much smaller than the
discussed, no real crystal is perfect). Others are generated parent atomic radius, then the alloying element atoms can
during deformation (see Hull and Bacon, 2001 for more sit in the gaps (interstices) between the parent atoms.
details). Such small atoms are commonly referred to as interstitials
The knowledge that deformation in metals occurs on an when in solution. Carbon atoms occupy the interstitial
atomic level by movement of dislocations has important sites when dissolved in iron and this plays a key role in
practical consequences, since it suggests that increasing a the metallurgy of steels.
metal’s resistance to plastic deformation (i.e. increasing More often, soluble alloying elements will not be small
strength) requires inhibition of dislocation movement. enough to be accommodated within gaps between parent
The mechanisms used to do this are discussed next. atoms, in which case the alloying addition will be dissolved
in the parent phase by replacing parent atoms in the crystal
structure. Such elements are referred to as being substitu-
Strengthening of metals and alloys tional when in solution.
In many applications, yield strength is a critical mechanical Both interstitial and substitutional additions will create
property, since this is the maximum stress to which a distortions (strains) in the crystal structure due to the

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 The nature and behaviour of alloys

mismatch in size between the parent and alloying element Strengthening Mechanisms Module). The correct particle
atomic radius. Dislocations also result in a local distortion size is obtained by carefully controlling the alloy composi-
(strain) because the atoms around the dislocation are not in tion and heat treatment.
their ideal positions. The strains due to dislocations will
interact with the strains surrounding solute atoms because
strains of opposite signs will try to cancel each other out. Other mechanical properties
This creates an attraction between the dislocation and The discussion so far has focused on the use of alloying
solute atom that must be broken for the dislocation to elements and processing to increase the yield strength of
move, increasing strength. The effectiveness of solute alloys. While strength is usually a critical design property,
elements in increasing yield strength increases with an there are other mechanical properties that must be consid-
increase in the misfit between the solute and parent atoms ered, and may indeed be of overriding importance in some
and also with the amount of the solute element that can applications.
be dissolved into the matrix crystal structure.
Stiffness
Strain hardening Stiffness (usually characterised by the Young’s modulus) is
Most metals have the useful property that they become the ability of a material to resist elastic deformation. Since
stronger as they are plastically deformed. This effect is most components are designed to operate within the elastic
known as strain or work hardening, and it is often exploited deformation regime (i.e. without plastic deformation) then
in the strengthening of metals and alloys. The origins of the stiffness is usually a key property. However, although
strain hardening effect can be traced to interactions between different metals have widely varying stiffness values (e.g.
the dislocations that are generated during plastic deforma- the Young’s modulus of tungsten is 400 GPa, that of
tion. As discussed, these dislocations locally distort the magnesium is 45 GPa), processing and alloying elements
crystal structure and are thus surrounded by strain fields. added at typical levels do not usually greatly change the
As the number of dislocations increases during deforma- stiffness of the parent metal. Only in alloys that contain
tion, and the dislocations move, their spacing decreases several phases, which have markedly different stiffness
until their strain fields start to interact with each other. values, is it possible to obtain significant variations in
On average, the interaction between the strain fields of stiffness by varying the proportion of the two phases.
neighbouring dislocations leads to repulsive forces between
the dislocations, with the result that an additional applied Fracture toughness
stress is required to overcome this repulsion. This results Fracture toughness characterises the ability of a material to
in an increase in strength. The effectiveness of strain hard- resist the propagation of cracks. Tiny cracks and defects are
ening will depend on the amount of deformation imparted present in all commonly used materials. These cracks will
and also the type of alloy (some alloys show much greater lead to the concentration of stress at the crack tip; the
strain hardening than others). Like grain size refinement, critical stress concentration required to propagate the
strain hardening is a widely used method to strengthen crack characterises the fracture toughness of the material.
low-cost alloys, since it does not depend on the addition Materials with low fracture toughness, such as many
of expensive alloying elements. ceramics, will tend to fail by rapid growth of intrinsic
cracks before reaching the yield stress required for general
Precipitation strengthening plastic deformation. Most alloys have a higher fracture
The most potent strengthening mechanism that is exploited toughness than this, and will yield plastically before
in the highest-strength alloys is precipitation strengthening fracture.
(also known as age hardening). This strengthening Alloying and processing often have a large influence on
mechanism involves forming fine (sub-micron) particles of fracture toughness of metals. The general trend observed
a second crystallographic phase that are embedded in the is that any mechanism that increases the strength of an
matrix crystal. These particles are usually formed by a suit- alloy concomitantly reduces its toughness. This is because
able precipitation heat treatment, as discussed previously. once the yield stress is exceeded at the crack tip, plastic
The precipitate particles increase strength by acting as deformation is able to redistribute the stress and reduce
barriers to dislocation motion. It is found that there is an the stress concentration. The exception to this trend is
optimum size and spacing of particles that gives the best strengthening by grain size refinement, which usually
strengthening effect (the optimum particle size is usually increases both strength and fracture toughness. Fracture
only a few nanometres). If the particles are too small, toughness is also degraded by the presence of a low-tough-
dislocations are able to cut through them, whereas if the ness brittle second phase, which can both act as sites for
particles are large and widely spaced dislocations can pass initial crack formation and as easy pathways for crack
between the particles by bending (AluMATTER, 2007, growth.

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 Metals and alloys

Fatigue
Fatigue occurs when a material is subject to a fluctuating
stress, and can lead to failure after a period of time even if
the maximum stress level experienced is considerably below
the stress required for global plastic deformation (i.e. the
(a) (b) (c)
yield stress). Fatigue is caused by the initiation and growth
of a crack at a point of high stress concentration, which Figure 4 Thermomechanical processing methods used for the
production of wrought alloy components: (a) rolling; (b) extrusion; and
may be due to a design feature (e.g. a sharp corner) or a (c) forging
microstructural feature (e.g. large, hard particle).
Microstructure will influence both the initiation and
propagation of fatigue cracks in alloys. Local defects in solid particles that sink to the bottom or float to the top
the microstructure such as voids or particles (e.g. of the melt, binding impurity elements).
inclusion particles formed by impurity elements) can act The molten metal is then solidified. In the case of cast
as stress concentrators and sites of crack initiation. Since components, solidification takes place in a mould that is
fatigue is often initiated at surface scratches or defects, close to the final shape of the product, so that once solidifi-
changing the surface properties can have a marked effect cation is complete little further fabrication is undertaken
on fatigue resistance. Alloying additions and microstruc- (although heat treatment of the casting is common). The
ture will also influence crack growth. Solute strengthening majority of metals, however, are predominantly used to
elements tend to increase fatigue properties in parallel make wrought products, which requires thermomechanical
with their effect on yield strength. Second phase particles processing (TMP). In the fabrication of wrought products,
and grain size have a more complex relationship with casting is the first step in a process chain that includes defor-
fatigue properties that depends both on alloy and the mation of the alloy. Deformation is initially carried out at
fatigue conditions, e.g. whether low-stress amplitude elevated temperature, since this reduces the strength of
fatigue or high-stress amplitude fatigue (Callister, 2006). the alloy, making it easier to work. Final deformation
In general, alloys that rely on precipitates to obtain their steps may be carried out cold. Typical processes used to
strength generally have lower fatigue properties in relation make wrought components include rolling (to produce
to their yield strength than alloys strengthened by other sheet, plate and beams), extrusion (to produce rods and
mechanisms. bars), forging (to produce components with simple shapes
but excellent properties), and drawing (to produce wire)
Creep (Dieter, 1989). These processes are shown in Figure 4.
Creep describes the process by which alloys deform per- Wrought products generally have better and more
manently when subject to a stress below the yield stress reliable properties than those of as-cast components. This
when held at elevated temperature. Creep in metals only is because it is very difficult to produce defect-free castings
becomes significant at temperatures greater than about with the optimum microstructure (e.g. fine grain size,
0.4 Tm, where Tm is the absolute melting temperature (K). uniform distribution of strengthening particles). TMP
It follows that metals with lower melting points (e.g. allows greater control over the final microstructure and a
aluminium Tm ¼ 933 K, lead Tm ¼ 600 K) are more suscep- reduction of defects such as pores, leading to the better
tible to creep than higher melting point metals (e.g. nickel properties exhibited by wrought products.
Tm ¼ 1728 K, titanium Tm ¼ 1941 K). Creep resistance The microstructural changes that occur during TMP are
also depends on microstructural features. Grain boundaries complex, since both deformation and heat influence key
accelerate creep deformation, so a fine grain size is undesir- microstructural features. The size, shape, and orientation
able for maximum creep resistance. Indeed, in the most of each grain (crystal) is changed by deformation. New
demanding applications, such as high-performance jet grains may form, consuming the old grains (a process
engines, an entire component (e.g. a turbine blade) is known as recrystallisation). Alloying elements can form
made from a single crystal. Solid solution elements and precipitate particles, either during cooling from elevated
precipitate particles can also enhance creep resistance, temperature deformation, or during a separate precipitation
provided they are stable at elevated temperature. heat treatment. Defects from casting, such as pores and large
brittle particles, can be largely eliminated by TMP.
Processing and forming of metals
The starting point for nearly all fabrication processes using
Physical properties of metals and
alloys is molten metal. Alloying is most easily achieved by alloys
co-melting the base metal and alloying additions. Impuri- In some applications, alloys are chosen based on their
ties can also be removed (e.g. by additions which form physical rather than mechanical properties. The key

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 The nature and behaviour of alloys

physical properties of relevance to metals and alloys are materials that show a high resistance to demagnetisation
discussed briefly below. thanks to favourable microstructures, making them suit-
able for applications where permanent magnetism is
Electrical properties required.
Most metals are very good conductors of electricity due
to their delocalised electrons that respond readily to the Optical properties
application of an electric field. Microstructural features Bulk metals are all opaque throughout the whole visible
that act as barriers to electron motion decrease the conduc- light spectrum; light radiation falling on a metal is either
tivity of metals. Such features include alloying additions absorbed or reflected. Reflectivity for most metals is
dissolved in solid solution and defects such as dislocations between 0.9 and 0.95 of the incident light energy. Metals
and vacancies. The conductivity of alloys also decreases that appear bright and silvery do so because they are
with increasing temperature due to increased thermal vibra- reflective over the whole light spectrum. Metals that
tion of the atoms and an increase in defect density, both of appear coloured (such as copper) do so because there is a
which increase electron scattering. bias in the visible light photons they reflect when white
light is incident, and photons of certain wavelengths are
Thermal properties missing from the reflected spectrum.
The thermal conductivity of metals occurs largely through
free electrons, and thermal conductivity is therefore closely
linked to electrical conductivity and is influenced by the Corrosion of metals
same microstructural features. Other thermal properties In choosing an alloy for a given application, it is critical to
of alloys such as heat capacity and coefficient of thermal consider the environment in which the alloy is to be used.
expansion (CTE) vary significantly from metal to metal, All metals and alloys can be subject to corrosion. In this
but are relatively insensitive to microstructural changes process, metal interacts with its environment leading to
for a given alloy composition. degradation of the metal.
Corrosion of metals is most commonly an electro-
Magnetic properties chemical process that involves both a chemical reaction
Metals may either show a permanent magnetic moment (be and a transfer of electrons. Corrosion occurs by the
magnetic) or show magnetisation only in the presence of an elemental metal undergoing a reaction that results in a
applied electromagnetic field (be non-magnetic). Non- loss of electrons, creating metal ions, which are then
magnetic alloys may be divided into two types: diamagnetic taken into solution. The chemical driving force for corro-
and paramagnetic. Diamagnetic metals react weakly to an sion varies widely from metal to metal and also depends
applied field, with the weak induced magnetic moment on alloying. Another critical factor is whether the metal
being in a direction that opposes the applied field. Dia- can form a protective oxide coating which results in its
magnetism is so weak that it rarely has any practical passivation (reduction in chemical reactivity). Aluminium,
consequences. Diamagnetic metals include copper, silver, for example, is a reactive metal but forms a protective
and zinc. Paramagnetic metals respond to an external oxide film in many environments, giving a high level of
field in a way that enhances the field (rather than opposes corrosion resistance. Stainless steels have a high corrosion
it, as with diamagnetic metals). This effect, although resistance under many conditions due to the presence of
stronger than that exhibited by diamagnetic metals, is chromium, which reacts to form a protective surface
weak compared with the magnetism exhibited by magnetic layer. Care must be taken with metals that rely on passiva-
metals. Aluminium, titanium and chromium are examples tion for corrosion resistance, since a change in environ-
of metals that show paramagnetic behaviour. mental conditions can result in a breakdown of the
Magnetism is most important in metals that show a large protective film, and a very large increase in corrosion rates.
and permanent magnetisation, which is known as ferromag- Alloying and microstructure both influence corrosion
netism. Iron (in its BCC ferrite form), cobalt and nickel performance. Grain boundaries and second phase particles
show ferromagnetic behaviour. The strength of the mag- can act as sites for preferential attack, leading to
netisation depends on temperature. As temperature intergranular and pitting corrosion respectively. The
increases, thermal vibration of atoms results in a decrease simultaneous action of corrosion and an applied stress
in magnetisation until a critical temperature is reached can result in greatly accelerated rates of failure, due to
(the Curie temperature), above which there is no permanent stress corrosion cracking.
magnetisation (and paramagnetic behaviour is shown). Particular care has to be taken when metals of different
Alloying can be used to optimise magnetic properties for reactivity are used together in a component. Coupling
a given application. Steels containing chromium and tung- together of two different metals can lead to galvanic corro-
sten, Cu-Ni-Fe alloys, and Al-Ni-Co alloys are all magnetic sion, accelerating the dissolution of the more reactive metal.

ICE Manual of Construction Materials # 2009 Institution of Civil Engineers www.icemanuals.com 475
 Metals and alloys

This problem can be avoided by ensuring the two metals are often used where electrical conductivity is important, and
not in electrical contact (e.g. by using a non-conductive they are also used in architectural applications (e.g. as a
interlayer). roofing material) because of their high corrosion resistance
and aesthetic properties (forming a green protective surface
film when weathered). Copper is also used with significant
Alloy selection additions of other metals to form bronzes and brasses;
Metal alloys are extremely versatile materials, offering a bronze is most commonly used to refer to alloys based on
wide range of properties depending on alloy type, composi- the copper–tin system, whereas brasses are based on the
tion and microstructure. Steel is by far the most dominant copper–zinc system. The copper–zinc system in particular
alloy in technological use today, with more than 40 times can be used to produce a wide range of useful alloys by
more steel produced than aluminium, which is the next varying the zinc content, which can be as much as 50% in
most widely used metal. some brasses. The microstructure of these alloys can
The dominance of steel can largely be attributed to either be single phase, with the zinc as substitutional
the huge range of different microstructures that can be atoms in the FCC copper phase, a two phase mixture of
obtained through changes in composition and processing copper-rich FCC and zinc-rich BCC phases, or at the
by exploiting the wide range of solid state phase trans- highest zinc levels single BCC phase (containing both
formations that are possible. Steel can also be produced copper and zinc). The wide range of possible micro-
with good properties at a cost that can compete effectively structures explains the versatility of this alloy system.
with other materials. It should be noted that there are huge Other metals that are used as engineering materials
ranges of steels of different compositions for different include lead and tin alloys. Both have a relatively low
applications. Examples of steel types include plain-carbon melting point and are soft and weak. The advantages of
steel, high-strength low-alloy steel, stainless steel, tool these attributes are that these metals are easy to cast
steel and many others. (which requires melting and resolidification) and form.
Other metals are usually used primarily in applications Metals used in significant quantities in special applications
where there is a special requirement that makes them include zirconium alloys that are widely used in the nuclear
more suitable than steel. For applications where weight is industry for in-reactor components because of their combi-
important such as in aerospace or other transport appli- nation of good corrosion performance and low neutron
cations, aluminium or magnesium are often preferred. capture characteristics.
Aluminium has density that is approximately one-third
that of iron, giving aluminium alloys specific properties
(e.g. specific yield strength ¼ yield strength/density) that
Key points
can exceed those of steels. Aluminium alloys are also Metal alloys are a versatile class of materials; the addition
highly formable, and many of them are much more of the correct alloying elements to a pure metal can lead
corrosion resistant than plain-carbon steels. Magnesium is to large property improvements.
lighter still, having a density that is approximately two- The properties of alloys depend critically on their micro-
thirds that of aluminium. However, as a consequence of structure, which in turn is strongly dependent on both the
their HCP crystal structure, magnesium alloys are more alloy composition and processing route.
difficult to form. Magnesium alloys can also suffer from The deformation of alloys is controlled on an atomic
high levels of corrosion if not properly protected. scale by the movement of crystal defects known as disloca-
High-temperature applications require alloys that are tions. Alloy strengthening mechanisms work by inhibiting
resistant to creep and thermal fatigue. Nickel-based ‘super- the movement of dislocations.
alloys’ are used in aerospace gas turbines (jet engines) to In addition to mechanical properties, physical properties
produce components for the hottest part of the engine, and corrosion resistance are often key to determining which
where creep resistance is paramount. Since weight is also alloy is best for a given application.
important in aerospace applications, titanium alloys are
widely used where temperatures are lower, since these References
alloys combine good thermal resistance with lower density
AluMATTER, 2007, http://aluminium.matter.org.uk.
than nickel alloys. Titanium alloys are often also highly Callister W. D. Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduc-
corrosion resistant and for this reason are used widely in tion, New York: Wiley, 2006.
the chemical industry and also in biomedical applications Dieter G. E. Mechanical Metallurgy, McGraw-Hill Education,
(such as for hip replacements and other implants). New York, 1989.
Other alloys have properties that make them suited for DoITPoMS, 2007 http://www.doitpoms.ac.uk/.
applications that are usually dominated by one particular Hull D. and Bacon D. J. Introduction to Dislocations, Butterworth-
requirement. For example, copper and copper alloys are Heinemann, Oxford, 2001.

476 www.icemanuals.com ICE Manual of Construction Materials # 2009 Institution of Civil Engineers
 The nature and behaviour of alloys

Further reading Polmear I. Light Alloys (3rd Edition), Butterworth-Heinemann,

Bhadeshia H. K. D. H. and Honeycombe R. W. K. Steels: Oxford, 1995.
Microstructure and Properties (3rd Edition), Butterworth- Porter D. A. and Easterling K. E. Phase Transformations in Metals
Heinemann, Oxford, 2006. and Alloys, CRC Press Inc., London, 1992.
Humphreys F. J. and Hatherly M. Recrystallization and Related Steel University http://www.steeluniversity.org.
Annealing Phenomena (2nd Edition), Pergamon, Oxford, 2004.

ICE Manual of Construction Materials # 2009 Institution of Civil Engineers www.icemanuals.com 477
 ice | manuals

doi: 10.1680/mocm.35973.0479
Chapter 40

Ferrous metals CONTENTS

Introduction 479
Arthur Lyons Leicester School of Architecture, De Montfort University, Leicester, UK
Cast iron 479
Wrought iron 481
Ferrous metals describes steels, cast and wrought iron, and alloy steels in relation to Steel 482
manufacture, composition, physical properties and applications. Paint and metallic References 490
coatings for steel are described in relation to corrosion protection. The sustainability of Further reading 491
steel as a construction material is discussed.

Introduction so its maximum content is specified according to the parti-

cular application. Current processing techniques can lower
Steels are defined as the alloys between iron and carbon, but
the content to 0.01% or less; also the addition of manganese
are distinguished from cast iron with its very high carbon
to the steel ameliorates the effects of sulfur by producing
content and wrought iron which is virtually free of
manganese sulfide rather than the iron sulfide which causes
carbon. In addition to varying the carbon content, the
embrittlement. For machining an increased brittleness
range of steels is extended by the addition of further
caused by higher sulfur content (typically 0.12%) allows
metallic and non-metallic alloying elements and various
faster machining speeds, but sulfur at this level would
heat treatments which modify the mechanical properties
cause welding failure. The addition of up to 0.15% phos-
and crystal structures. Figure 1 shows the range of ferrous
phorus is used to harden steel, but again greater quantities
metals, and the broad effect of carbon content on the key
cause embrittlement. As with sulfur, phosphorus is always
physical properties of steels is illustrated in Figure 2.
present to some degree, and its content is also controlled
Steels are categorised by carbon content, but the broad
according to the anticipated application, particularly where
descriptive terminology is applied flexibly to the following
welding is anticipated. Nickel, chromium and niobium, as
ranges of carbon content:
minor alloying components, enhance strength, and molyb-
Ultra low carbon steel <0.01% denum can improve impact resistance.
Extra low carbon steel <0.02% Typical applications for the various carbon content steels
Low carbon steels 0.05–0.15% are listed in Table 1. Figure 3 illustrates structural steelwork
Mild steels 0.10–0.25% in the construction of Wembley Stadium.
Medium carbon steels 0.25–0.5%
High carbon steels 0.5–0.9% Cast iron
Carbon tool steels 0.9–1.7% Cast iron is an alloy of iron with a carbon content within
The ultra and extra low carbon steels are used for high form- the range 2–4% and typically 1–3% silicon. It is commonly
ability and drawing applications; the products have a good manufactured from blastfurnace pig iron, scrap and coke in
surface finish. Low carbon and mild steels are relatively soft a cupola furnace, and refined to the appropriate carbon
and can be cold worked due to their ductility and formability; content. Alternative production methods involve proces-
they also can be welded. Most structural steels are within the sing in a coreless induction furnace or an electric arc
range 0.13–0.25% carbon content, although pipes and some furnace. The low melting point (approximately 11508C)
sections have a low 0.07% carbon content. Cast steel, which and the high fluidity when molten give rise to its excellent
is usually normalised, is commonly within the range casting properties, but it cannot be hot worked, and it is
0.13–0.25% carbon content, similar to rolled structural generally a brittle material. Different grades of cast iron
steel, the lower carbon contents having greater toughness. are associated with distinct microscopic crystal structures.
Medium carbon steel, which is frequently heat treated, has The designation systems for cast iron based on symbols
high strength, is hard-wearing and difficult to weld. High and on numbers are described in BS EN 1560: 1997, and
carbon and carbon tool steels exhibit increasing strength, examples of the graphitic microstructures are illustrated
hardenability and wear resistance with increasing carbon in BS EN ISO 945: 1994.
content; they cannot be welded and may be brittle.
In addition to the effects of carbon content, steels’ proper- Types of cast iron
ties are significantly affected by the presence of other minor Grey cast iron
alloying components. Sulfur is always present to some Grey cast iron is the common form with 2.5–4% carbon
extent, as its total removal would be prohibitively costly, and 2% silicon. Much of the carbon exists in the form of

ICE Manual of Construction Materials # 2009 Institution of Civil Engineers www.icemanuals.com 479
 Metals and alloys

Ferrous metals
matrix producing a stronger and harder material. Grey
cast iron expands on solidification to give sharp castings.
Although brittle and with poor shock resistance, grey cast
iron can be machined. It has good compressive strength
Wrought iron Steels Cast iron
and corrosion resistance but is very difficult to weld. It is
used for machine blocks where it is effective at damping
vibrations and historically for structural units in compres-
Plain carbon steels Alloy steels Grey cast iron sion. For locations where impact resistance is not critical,
White cast iron
Malleable cast iron
certain road iron goods (BS EN 124: 1994) such as gully
Ductile cast iron tops, manhole covers and pipes, are manufactured from
Low carbon Low alloy steels grey cast iron.
Medium carbon High alloy steels
High carbon Stainless steels
Carbon tool steels Weathering steel White cast iron
White cast iron has a structure of pearlite within a
Figure 1 The range of ferrous metals cementite matrix, and is very hard, brittle and difficult to
machine. It can however be annealed to malleable cast
iron (BS EN 1562: 1997). The greater hardness of white
graphite flakes within a ferrite crystal matrix. The graphite compared with grey cast iron, together with its wear and
is visible when the brittle material is fractured. BS EN 1561: abrasion resistance, makes it appropriate for use in
1997 describes, for a range of grey cast irons, the tensile machinery and moulds.
properties which can vary with cooling rate and section
thickness. Thin sections can have reasonable tensile Malleable cast iron
strengths. This is associated with some of the carbon Different grades of malleable cast iron are manufactured
remaining as cementite crystals (Fe3C), within a pearlite from white cast iron by annealing through different time,

Ultra/extra low carbon steels <0.02%

Low carbon steels 0.05–0.15%

Mild steels 0.10–0.25%

Medium carbon steels 0.25–0.5%

High carbon steels 0.5–0.9%

Carbon tool steels 0.9–1.7%

Increasing ductility

Increasing ease of welding

Increasing tensile strength

Increasing quenched hardness

Increasing ease of casting

0 0.5 1.0 1.5

Carbon content by weight: %

Figure 2 The effect of carbon content on the properties of steels (adapted from A. Lyons, Materials for Architects and Builders, 3rd edition
#2007 Elsevier)

480 www.icemanuals.com ICE Manual of Construction Materials # 2009 Institution of Civil Engineers
 Ferrous metals

Ultra low Extra low Low Mild Medium High Carbon

carbon steel carbon steel carbon steel steel carbon steel carbon steel tool steel

Carbon content: % <0.01 <0.02 0.05–0.15 0.10–0.25 0.25–0.5 0.5–0.9 0.9–1.7

Alternative treatments Normalised, Normalised Normalised Normalised Quenched Quenched Quenched
may be work and tempered and tempered and tempered
hardened
Properties Ductile Ductile High strength High strength High strength High strength Very hard
High formability Good formability Ductile Ductile High toughness Low ductility Low toughness
Weldable Weldable Weldable Weldable Difficult to weld Difficult to weld Wear resistant
Brittle below room Cannot be welded
temperature May be brittle
Applications Automotive Automotive Offshore Structural rolled Machinery rails Machinery Machine tools
sheets, wire sheets, pipes engineering, sections, tubes, dies, springs
mesh pipes plates, pipes,
cast steel

Table 1 Typical properties and applications of steels according to carbon content

temperature and atmosphere cycles. The three principal bends before breaking and can be welded. It is used in
grades of malleable cast iron are whiteheart, blackheart machinery including tools and gears.
and pearlitic. Whiteheart is produced by annealing in a
decarburising atmosphere, creating a difference in composi- Ductile cast iron
tion between the surface material which is pure ferrite and Nodular ferritic ductile iron (spheroidal graphite cast iron)
the core which is composed of pearlite, ferrite and temper (BS EN 1563: 1997) is manufactured by the addition of
carbon (nodules of graphite). Blackheart is produced by small quantities of magnesium to the melt before casting.
slow annealing at a high temperature (900–9508C for The material consists of nodules of graphite within a
several days) producing a matrix of ferrite with temper matrix of ferrite and/or pearlite. The material has enhanced
carbon nodules. However, the material can be produced properties of improved strength, ductility and hot work-
more rapidly by small additions of magnesium or cerium ability compared to grey cast iron. Heat treatment of
on casting. Pearlitic malleable cast iron has a matrix of ductile cast iron produces the higher-strength austempered
pearlite or tempered martensite with carbon nodules, ductile cast iron (BS EN 1564: 1997). Ductile cast iron has
produced by high-temperature annealing followed by good casting properties, impact and fatigue resistance,
more rapid cooling in air or quenching in oil giving a and can be welded. It is used in machinery applications,
higher strength. Malleable cast iron has greater tensile water and sewerage pipes (BS EN 545: 2006 and BS EN
strength and impact resistance than grey cast iron. It 598: 2007 respectively) and for road iron goods where
impact resistance is important.

Wrought iron
Production of ‘puddled’ wrought iron ceased in the UK in
1974, so any new wrought iron is either recycled or, more
frequently, low carbon steel. Traditional wrought iron
contains approximately 0.02% carbon. Because of its
manufacturing process, wrought iron is fibrous in
character, incorporating up to 5% veins of siliceous slag
residues. Wrought iron has a melting point of around
15408C depending upon its purity. It is ductile and easily
forged when hot (1350–14508C) and has a greater resistance
to corrosion than low carbon steel. Traditionally, in
addition to the manufacture of ornamental ironwork, it
was used for tension components such as bolts and
chains, due to its tensile strength of approximately
350 MPa. Recycled ‘puddled’ wrought iron is commercially
available in certain stock sizes, particularly for specialist
Figure 3 Structural steelwork in the construction of Wembley Stadium conservation work, where its replacement with mild steel
(Architects: Foster and Partners. Photograph by Arthur Lyons)
would be inappropriate.

ICE Manual of Construction Materials # 2009 Institution of Civil Engineers www.icemanuals.com 481
 Metals and alloys

Steel basic oxygen furnace will convert 350 t of iron into steel
within 30 minutes.
Manufacture
The production of steel is a multi-stage process, involving Electric arc process
the production of impure iron in a blastfurnace, followed The electric arc process is used mainly for recycling scrap
by its conversion into steel by either the basic oxygen steel. The furnace consists of a refractory lined hearth
or electric arc process. Molten steel is then cast and sub- with a removable lid through which graphite electrodes,
sequently hot-rolled. Thin sections may then be cold-rolled which heat the furnace, can be raised and lowered. The
and coated as required. furnace is charged with scrap steel and appropriate quanti-
ties of alloy steel to produce the required composition. The
Manufacture of iron
powerful electric arc melts the scrap and the molten steel is
Iron ore, which is essentially naturally occurring iron oxide, purified by a lime slag and the oxygen atmosphere. The
is blended to give an appropriate composition then heated process uses approximately half the energy per tonne of
with coke to form a granular sinter. The sinter, coke, iron recycled steel compared with manufacturing new material
ore and limestone are fed into the top of the blastfurnace. by the basic oxygen process. A typical furnace will produce
Hot air is blown into the base of the furnace through the 150 t of steel or stainless steel within 90 min.
tuyères, raising the temperature to 22008C to melt the raw
materials and cause the chemical reduction of the iron
Continuous casting
oxide to metallic iron. The limestone fuses to produce a
slag on the surface which absorbs some impurities from In order to save energy, most steel is continuously cast
the molten iron. Molten metal collects at the base of the directly from the steel-making process into slabs, blooms
furnace and is tapped into a ladle when required for conver- or billets. Molten steel is transferred from the basic
sion into steel. The slag is run off for use as a by-product in oxygen or electric arc furnace in a teeming ladle and run
cement manufacture and aggregate in the construction into a ‘tundish’. This supplies molten metal at a controlled
industry. The iron produced contains impurities of sulfur, rate into a series of refractory tubes, then water-cooled
phosphorus, manganese and silicon which are removed copper moulds to create a continuous block of solid steel
during the subsequent conversion to steel which also which is automatically cut to length by gas burners as
reduces the carbon content from approximately 4%. Iron billets, blooms or slabs depending on its shape, for transfer
production is continuous, with a blastfurnace shutting to the rolling mills. Flat slabs are used for rolling into plate
down only for refractory brick relining after several years and sheet, blooms for structural sections and billets for
of operation. A large blastfurnace working at maximum smaller sections including rod.
capacity can produce up to 10 000 t of iron per day. Continuous cast steel is normally ‘killed’ by the addition
of aluminium and/or silicon at casting to remove all oxygen
2C þ O2 ! 2CO and prevent the evolution of gases, particularly carbon
carbon ðcokeÞ oxygen carbon monoxide monoxide, during solidification.
Although most steel for construction is produced as
Fe2 O3 þ 3CO ! 2Fe þ 3CO2 rolled plate, sheet or section, a small proportion is directly
iron ore carbon monoxide iron carbon dioxide cast. Units such as nodes for circular hollow section struc-
ðhematite=magnetiteÞ
tural systems may be made as individual castings. They can
Basic oxygen process be subsequently welded in situ to the standard milled steel
The basic oxygen process is used for the bulk production of hollow sections to give structural continuity.
steel. A refractory lined steel furnace is charged with scrap
metal, followed by molten iron directly from the blast- Forming steel
furnace. A water-cooled lance blows high-pressure pure Hot-rolled steel – heavy sections, plate and coil
oxygen just above the surface of the metal. The oxidation The majority of steel forms are produced by the repeated
of the impurities produces heat and refines the metal. The hot-rolling of billets, blooms or slabs at approximately
temperature is controlled by the addition of iron ore and 12508C through a series of ‘mill stands’ until the required
scrap metal; lime is added to produce a slag. The refining shape and dimensions are achieved. This process is used
is continuously monitored and adjusted by blowing to produce the standard construction sections including
argon, nitrogen or oxygen through the base of the columns, beams, channels and angles in addition to flat
converter. The carbon content is reduced from 4% in the plate and coiled sheet. High-strength hot-rolled low-alloy
‘hot metal’ from the blastfurnace to approximately steel with good welding properties is used in building
0.05%, and other alloying components are added as including bridge construction. Hot-rolled steel floor plate
appropriate when the molten steel is tapped. A typical is manufactured with a self-draining non-slip patterned

482 www.icemanuals.com ICE Manual of Construction Materials # 2009 Institution of Civil Engineers
 Ferrous metals

surface. Hot-rolled sheet and strip with good formability to

BS EN 10111: 2008 is subsequently used for cold forming by
bending and deep drawing, leading to the manufacture of
pipes and industrial furniture. Hot-rolled high carbon
steel is used in the manufacture of quenched and tempered
machine parts.

Cold-rolled steel – light sections and profile

sheet
Cold rolling is used to further reduce the thickness of sheet
steel. A higher quality of finish is produced by cold rolling
and the cold working increases the tensile strength of the
steel. High strength grades may be annealed or full hard
condition. Coiled steel may be rolled into profiled sections
for roofing and cladding sheets or into light structural
Figure 4 Curved hollow section steelwork at Renaissance Bridge,
sections for internal stud partitions. BS EN 10209: 1996 Bedford (courtesy of The Angle Ring Company Ltd)
details cold-rolled low carbon steel suitable for vitreous
enamelled architectural wall panels. Cold-rolled high-
strength steel (BS EN 10268: 2006) alloyed with aluminium,
and some titanium or niobium, is appropriate for use in section size the thicker gauge units can be bent to tighter
internal structural components and tubes. The standard radii than the thinner gauge products. Press braking is
BS 1449-1.1: 1991 details the broad range of carbon and used for bending sheet steel along its full length in one
carbon-manganese steels that may be cold rolled for struc- pressing.
tural steelwork and tubing furniture. The higher quality
finish of cold-rolled steel is suitable for the application of Drawing wire
zinc, tin or paint coatings. Steel wire is manufactured by drawing annealed rod
through a series of lubricated tungsten carbide tapered
Forming hollow sections dies to produce the required elongation and reduction in
Welded hollow steel sections are manufactured by bending diameter. The process reduces ductility and increases the
flat sheet into a tube which is then continuously welded strength of the steel. Special heat treatment is therefore
either by high-frequency electric resistance induction required to increase the ductility of high-tensile steel suffi-
welding or by arc welding. Tubes for construction are ciently to facilitate the drawing process. Steel cables for pre-
smoothed off, normalised by heat treatment to unify their stressed concrete or suspension/tensile structures are
strength properties, then stretched, reduced or rolled into manufactured by twisting wires into strand. A series of
the required circular, oval, square or rectangular structural strands is woven around a central core strand to produce
hollow sections. rope or cable of the required dimensions and load-bearing
The rotary forge process is used for the production of capacity. Typical configurations use 7 or 19 strands or
seamless hollow tubes, particularly heavier sections. A hot ropes to form heavy-duty cables, frequently in grade
cylindrical or tapered ingot is pierced by a hydraulic ram; 1.4401 stainless steel.
the central void is then opened up by the action of rollers
and a rotating mandrel. Subsequently the steel passes Casting components
through a series of eccentric rollers which elongate the Although most steel for construction is produced as rolled
tube reducing the section thickness to the required dimen- plate, sheet or section, a small proportion is directly cast.
sion. Units can subsequently be welded in situ to the standard
milled steel sections to give structural continuity. The stan-
Bending curved structural sections dard BS ISO 19960: 2005 refers to cast steels with special
Specialist manufacturers use progressive roller bending to physical properties. Castings include nodes for hollow
produce curvature on mild steel and stainless steel standard section structural systems and special components for
sections, castellated beams, solid and hollow sections and fixing tension members where architectural requirements
tapered beams, without visible distortion, as illustrated in preclude the use of standard sections.
Figure 4. Roller bending to coordinates with variable or
reversed curvatures and bending in three dimensions are Manufacturing meshes and nets
all possible. Generally smaller sections can be bent to Perforated sheets with a range of open area are manufac-
tighter radii than larger sections; however, for a given tured in both mild and stainless steel. Stainless steel units

ICE Manual of Construction Materials # 2009 Institution of Civil Engineers www.icemanuals.com 483
 Metals and alloys

usually have polished or brushed finish, whilst for exposed S355K2W

applications mild steel is galvanised or powder coated. Very Structural steel with a yield strength is 355 MPa at 16 mm.
fine holes, either round or square, to micron scale can be K is the higher impact energy and at
208C.
laser cut. Both expanded metal and woven meshes are W refers to weather-resistant steel.
appropriate for architectural screens and other applications.
Steel number
Fabrication The first digit is the material group number with steel 1.
Fabrication processes include circular saw cutting for accu- The first decimal pair of digits is the steel group number
rate section lengths. Plasma arc cutting is used for more with, for example, 01 referring to a non-alloy quality steel.
complex cuts. An electric arc is struck between the copper Special alloy steels have numbers between 20 and 89, for
nozzle and the steel, and a fast gas plasma flow from the example, while stainless steels have numbers between 40
nozzle removes the arc-fused dross at 20 0008C during the and 46.
cut. The plasma gas may be air, oxygen or an inert gas The final two digits refer to the particular grade of steel.
depending on the particular system. Oxyacytylene cutting 1.0143
burns the steel to iron oxide at a temperature of 700–9008C. 1. Steel.
Holes in plates up to 15 mm may be punched, but for 01 General structural non-alloy steel – tensile strength
greater plate thicknesses drilling is required. Metal active <500 MPa.
gas welding with an arc electrode and an argon/carbon 43 Sequential number refers specifically to the particular
dioxide shield is appropriate for small sections, whereas steel.
submerged arc welding with powder protection of the
welded joint is necessary for large steel sections. 1.8966
Steel is frequently shot-blasted to produce a good 70 1. Steel.
micron textured finish for subsequent welding or painting. 89 High-strength weldable alloy steel not intended for
Most structural steelwork is fabricated offsite for heat treatment by the user.
immediate bolt fixing, reducing construction time on site. 66 Sequential number refers specifically to the particular
steel.
Composition of steel The standard BS EN 10020: 2000 gives a definition of
The extensive range of steels arises from varying composi- classes of steel as non-alloy steels, stainless steels and
tions and heat treatments. Each product, including tech- other alloy steels, by chemical composition. The standard
nical delivery conditions, may be specified either by the BS EN 10021: 2006 defines the delivery conditions for
alpha-numeric steel name (BS EN 10027-1: 2005) or by the steel products and BS EN 10079: 2007 defines the range of
unique steel number (BS EN 10027-2: 1992). The following steel products including a list of references to further
examples for a standard structural steel and a weathering European standards on each product type (e.g. tubes,
steel illustrate the operation of the Steel Name and Steel sections, prestressing wire, stainless steel, etc.).
Number coding systems.
Grades of steel
Steel name Structural steels
The principal symbols are the letter S (structural steel) or G The following series of European Standards relate to struc-
(steel casting) and the numbers that refer to minimum yield tural steels.
strength (MPa) for the smallest thickness range. BS EN 10025-1: 2004
The additional symbols refer to impact property J (low General technical data.
impact energy) and K (high impact energy) at the specified BS EN 10025-2: 2004
temperatures R, 0, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 ¼ 20, 0,
20,
30,
40, Non-alloy structural steels.

50 and
608C respectively. BS EN 10025-3: 2004
Further additional symbols, where required, refer to Weldable fine-grained structural steels.
treatments, end uses or special chemical composition (e.g. BS EN 10025-4: 2004
N – normalised, W – weather resistant, H – hollow section, Rolled weldable fine-grained structural steels.
M – thermomechanically rolled, Q – quenched and BS EN 10025-5: 2004
tempered, T – tubes, and D – hot dip coating, F – forgings). Steels with improved atmospheric corrosion resistance.
S275J0 BS EN 10025-6: 2004
Structural steel with a yield strength is 275 MPa at 16 mm. High yield strength structural steels.
J is the lower impact energy and at 08C. BS EN 10210-1: 2006
(Longitudinal Charpy V-notch impacts 27 J @ 08C.) Hot finished structural hollow sections.

484 www.icemanuals.com ICE Manual of Construction Materials # 2009 Institution of Civil Engineers
 Ferrous metals

α = Ferrite δ = delta iron

Y = Austenite Fe3C = cementite

1535
Liquid
δ

1403

Austenite
and liquid
Fe3C and
Temperature: °C

liquid
Austenite
1147

Austenite
910 and cementite

α +Y
723
α

Pearlite Pearlite Cementite

and and and
ferrite cementite pearlite

0.008 0.5 0.8 1.0 2.0 4.3 6.0

Weight: % carbon

Figure 5 The iron–carbon phase diagram

BS EN 10219-1: 2006 This material is strong and relatively brittle. With an

Cold-formed welded structural hollow sections. intermediate cooling rate, bainite which is between pearlite
and martensite in character is produced. This form is
The standards list a range of steels by grade, steel number
harder, stronger and tougher than pearlite.
and key physical properties.
Microstructure of steel Heat treatments
The phase diagram, in Figure 5, for iron and carbon, shows The range of heat treatments to modify the physical proper-
the forms of the iron and carbon alloy depending upon ties of steels is extensive, but the standard treatments
composition and temperature. Ferrite (-iron) essentially are hardening, normalising, annealing, tempering and
pure iron with low carbon solubility exists up to 9108C. carburising. The full range of heat treatments is listed in
Above this temperature the solid solution of carbon in BS EN 10052: 1994.
iron (up to 2% at 11478C) is austenite (-iron). Cementite
is a hard and brittle compound of 6.7% carbon in iron Hardening
with a chemical composition of Fe3C. Above 14038C iron
Steels in the range 0.3–0.6% carbon are frequently hardened
exists as -ferrite.
by heating to a high temperature followed by quenching in
The rate of cooling from the high-forming temperature
oil or water. If the material is excessively hard and brittle
determines the proportion of the high-temperature crystal
due to the retention of the high-temperature crystal struc-
structure remaining at room temperature. Thus if austenite
ture, it is subsequently tempered to the required physical
with less than 0.8% carbon is cooled slowly it converts to
properties.
pearlite consisting of alternate plates of cementite and
ferrite in a matrix of ferrite. An austenite with greater
than 0.8% carbon will similarly convert to pearlite but Normalising
within a matrix of cementite. Normalising involves heating to 830–9508C, depending
If, however, austenite is cooled rapidly, preventing upon carbon content, followed by cooling in air. The
migration of the carbon atoms, then martensite, which is process relieves stresses and softens the material to permit
a distorted ferrite containing trapped carbon, is formed. cold working and machining.

ICE Manual of Construction Materials # 2009 Institution of Civil Engineers www.icemanuals.com 485
 Metals and alloys

Annealing Alloy steels

Annealing requires soaking at a high temperature, typically A wide range of alloy steels is produced for specific end
500–6508C, depending upon the carbon content, for a uses. However, apart from stainless and weathering steel,
predetermined period followed by slow controlled cooling carbon-manganese steels and micro-alloy steels are impor-
giving an equilibrium microstructure. The process generally tant within construction. Carbon-manganese steels are
produces the softest steel for a given composition. typically 1.2% carbon steels with 1.8% manganese added
to improve strength and toughness.
Tempering The high-strength low-alloy (HSLA) or micro-alloyed
Tempering is the reheating of steel to a moderate tempera- steels have good weldability, similar to that of mild steel,
ture (400–6008C) to allow some recrystallisation of the and with high strengths in rolled or noramalised condition.
higher temperature brittle structure produced by rapid They are manufactured by adding between 0.05 and 0.10%
quenching. The extent of the tempering is related directly of additional alloying elements to carbon-manganese steel
to the temperature and timescale of the process. Ductility with a low sulfur and phosphorus content (typically 1.6%
increases and strength decreases with increased tempering manganese). Additions include boron, vanadium, titanium
temperatures. The Standard BS EN 10083 Parts 1, 2 and and niobium, which control grain size producing a material
3: 2006 detail the technical delivery conditions for steels which may be forged without subsequent costly heat treat-
for quenching and tempering. ment. Other additions may include molybdenum, silicon
and zirconium. Micro-alloyed steels also have good tough-
Carburising ness and fatigue strength due to their refined microstructure.
Carbon or alloy steels (usually less than 0.25% carbon) may
be case hardened to produce a hard-wearing higher carbon
content surface material over the unmodified softer core Stainless steel
material. The carburising process usually involves soaking Stainless steels form a group of ferrous alloys containing a
the manufactured components at 9008C for several hours minimum of 10.5% chromium and a maximum carbon
in a furnace whilst surrounded by carbon. content of 1.2%. The standard BS EN 10088-1: 2005 gives
an extensive list of the compositions and properties with
Steel in reinforced concrete the relevant steel names and steel numbers. BS EN 10088
The specifications of steels for plain, ribbed and indented Parts 2 and 3: 2005 describe the approved technical delivery
wire for the reinforcement of concrete, steel fabric and conditions for various production forms. The materials
weldable reinforcing steel are described in the standards commonly used in construction are categorised by metal-
BS 4482: 2005, BS 4483: 2005 and BS 4449: 2005 respec- lurgical terminology into austenitic, ferritic and auste-
tively, which are used in conjunction with BS EN 10080: nitic/ferritic (duplex) stainless steels. The martensitic
2005. The minimum tensile properties and appropriate stainless steels are not normally used in construction.
chemical compositions are noted. The type, dimensions Table 2 lists the standard materials and suitable working
and physical properties of fibres for concrete are described environments.
in the standard BS EN 14889-1: 2006. Terminology is Stainless steel is manufactured by a two-stage process.
described in BS ISO 16020: 2005. Initially scrap metal is melted in an electric arc furnace.
The hot metal is then transferred to an argon–oxygen
Tension components decarburiser where it is refined. On tapping, appropriate
Steels for tension components, including rope end con- alloying additions are made prior to transfer of the
nectors, anchorages and their corrosion protection, are molten metal to a continuous casting machine for forming
described in Eurocode 3 – BS EN 1993-1–11: 2006. and subsequent fabrication.

Designation/type Name (indicating composition Number Suitable environments

of alloying components)

Austenitic X5CrNi18-10 1.4301 Rural and clean urban

X5CrNiMo17-12-2 1.4401 Urban, industrial and marine
Ferritic X6Cr17 1.4016 Interior
Austenitic/ferritic (duplex) X2CrNiMoN22-5-3 1.4462 Severe industrial and marine
Notes: Cr, Ni, Mo and N refer to chromium, nickel, molybdenum and nitrogen respectively. X2, X5 and X6 refer to the carbon contents of 0.02, 0.05 and 0.06% respectively.
This table includes data derived from British Standards. British Standards can be obtained in PDF format from the BSI online shop: http://www.bsi-global.com/en/Shop/ or by
contacting BSI Customer Services for hard copies: Tel: +44 (0)20 8996 9001; email: mailto:[email protected]

Table 2 Stainless steel compositions and grades to BS EN 10088-1:2005 for different environmental conditions

486 www.icemanuals.com ICE Manual of Construction Materials # 2009 Institution of Civil Engineers
 Ferrous metals

The corrosion resistance of stainless steel is due to the

passive film of chromium oxide which forms over the
surface of the metal on exposure to atmospheric oxygen.
The film is self-healing if the surface is scratched or
damaged. The corrosion resistance is increased by the inclu-
sion of nickel and molybdenum, therefore the ferritic alloys
(e.g. 1.4016) are only appropriate for interior use where
corrosion is not a critical factor. The austenitic alloys
(e.g. 1.4301 and 1.4401) are the standard products used
for exterior roofing, cladding and fitments. The duplex
alloys (e.g. 1.4462) are used for applications within severe
industrial or marine environments.
In highly aggressive environments, stainless steel can be
susceptible to localised corrosion by pitting, crevice corro-
sion or bimetallic corrosion. Pitting or crevice corrosion
Figure 6 Stainless steel façade of the Lowry Centre, Manchester
may occur in chloride-contaminated environments where (Architects: James Stirling and Michael Wilford) (courtesy of Corus)
either the natural oxide film is penetrated or where differen-
tial oxygen levels between the crevice and exposed regions
exist, typically at fixings. Bimetallic corrosion is liable to used in marine environments and all exposed steel should
occur where dissimilar metals are in electrical contact in be carefully detailed to ensure that initial rainwater run-
the presence of moisture. For example, carbon steel bolts off does not cause staining to other adjacent materials, as
should be avoided in fixing stainless steel, as the bolts will the brown coloration develops over the first years of expo-
be subject to corrosion. Dissimilar metals should be electri- sure. Grades of weather-resistant steels are listed in the
cally insulated and contact with copper should be avoided. standard BS EN 10025-5: 2004. Weathering steels are used
The standard BS EN 1993-1-4: 2006 lists the range of alloys in structural (Figure 7) and cladding applications and also
appropriate for use under various atmospheric conditions for townscape sculptural works of art.
and offers design advice on the avoidance of potential
corrosion risks. Coatings
Stainless steel finishes include polished, matt, brushed, Coating systems are required on exposed steelwork to form
patterned and profiled. Additionally coloured finishes can a barrier between the steel and its environment to prevent
be produced by the incorporation of dyes into the surface corrosion. This involves the preparation of the metal
oxide film by chemical and cathodic processes, giving a surface followed by the application of an appropriate
range of colours from bronze, gold and red to purple, metallic or non-metallic coating. Cleaning and surface
blue or green according to the final thickness. preparation techniques are listed in standards BS 7773:
Stainless steel is available in sheet form, bars, standard 1995 and BS EN ISO 12944-4: 1998.
and hollow sections. It is widely used for cladding, roofing
and trim owing to its combined strength, low maintenance
and aesthetic properties, as illustrated by the Lowry Centre
in Manchester (Figure 6). The corrosion resistance of stain-
less steel makes it appropriate for use in fixings, such as
tensile wires and anchors, wall ties, corbel plates and
concrete reinforcement. In addition it is widely used in
plumbing and catering facilities where a quality finish is
required.

Weathering steel
Weathering steels (BS 7668: 2004) are ferrous alloys
containing small proportions of copper, usually between
0.25 and 0.55%, together with other alloying components,
typically chromium, silicon, manganese, phosphorus and
minor quantities of aluminium, titanium, vanadium or
niobium. The alloying ensures that the brown iron oxide
rust adheres to the surface, preventing further corrosion Figure 7 Structural weathering steel, Motorway M4 at Chieveley
(courtesy of Corus)
after the initial exposure. Weathering steel should not be

ICE Manual of Construction Materials # 2009 Institution of Civil Engineers www.icemanuals.com 487
 Metals and alloys

The first element in the cleaning cycle is degreasing using Zinc and zinc alloys
organic solvents, emulsion cleaners or alkali washing. This Zinc finishes to steel are typically zinc (Z), zinc–iron alloy
is followed by grit or shot-blast cleaning to remove any rust (ZF) and zinc–aluminium alloy (ZA). A zinc coating may
or mill scale and to produce a 70 micron textured finish be applied by hot-dipping in 99% molten zinc at approxi-
which is good for welding and promotes good adhesion mately 4558C or by spraying with molten zinc. Sheradising
for paint finishes. in heated zinc powder or electrodepositioning are used for
coating small components. Hot-dipped zinc-coated steel
Paint systems may have a normal (N) spangled finish associated the
Paints consist of a blend of components, each having a crystallisation of the zinc, or a minimised (M) spangle
specific function. Usually these include the binder which finish if the crystalline appearance would adversely affect
solidifies to produce the paint film, a solvent to ensure subsequent painting or coating.
fluidity during application, a base, often titanium dioxide, Zinc–iron alloy (ZF) coating is produced by the heat
to give opacity and pigments to give colour. Other additives treatment of hot-dipped zinc-coated steel. The annealing
include inert extenders and also driers to accelerate the process allows some iron to diffuse into the zinc layer
setting or polymerisation of the binder. producing a coating of 8–12% iron. The alloy surface has
Paints are usually applied as a three-coat system for a uniform matt grey appearance.
maximum corrosion protection. The primers are normally Zinc–aluminium alloy (ZA) coating is produced by hot-
zinc-rich compounds in alkyd or epoxy-ester resins which dipping the steel in a 5% aluminium in zinc alloy. The
adhere well to the cleaned surface, form a good base for alloy has a metallic lustre, which varies with the production
subsequent coats and provide corrosion inhibition. Alter- conditions which control the crystallisation of the metal
natively, acrylated rubber paint may be used as a primer coating.
to form a physical barrier over steelwork. In severe environ- The durability of galvanised steel is directly related to the
ments two-part epoxy or polyurethane paints mixed thickness of the coating and the environmental conditions.
immediately prior to application are advisable. Undercoats The standard coating mass for zinc in hot-dipped sheet steel
increase the overall film thickness, whilst providing cover is 275 g/m2 (i.e. 137.5 g/m2 on each face), but this can be
and a good base for the finishing coat which gives the increased for example to 350 g/m2 for greater durability.
colour and weather protecting gloss or satin finish. Details Standards BS EN 10326: 2004 and 10327: 2004 specify the
of a broader range of protective paint systems are given in requirements for hot-dip coated structural steel and sheet
the standard BS EN ISO 12944-5: 1998, following the steel respectively. Table 3 illustrates the corrosion risk
general introduction in Part 1: 1998 and the classification categories associated with different environments listed in
of environments in Part 2: 1998. BS EN ISO 14713: 1999.

Metallic coatings Aluminium alloys

Cold-rolled steel suitably cleaned has a good surface for Aluminium zinc (AZ) coated steel is produced by hot-
subsequent coating with zinc, zinc alloys or terne. dipping in a molten bath composed of 55% aluminium,

Corrosion Typical environment Typical corrosion rate in microns (mm) per year
Category Risk Low-carbon steel Zinc

C1 Very low Interior – dry <1.3 <0.1

C2 Low Interior – occasional condensation 1.3–25 0.1–0.7
Exterior – exposed rural inland
C3 Medium Interior – high humidity, some air pollution 25–50 0.7–2.1
Exterior – moderate urban or mild marine
C4 High Interior – swimming pools, chemical plants 50–80 2–4
Exterior – industrial inland or urban coastal
C5 Very high Interior – aggressive industrial with high humidity 80–200 4–8
Exterior – aggressive industrial or marine coastal
Note: Environmental conditions change with time, hence these values should only be used as indicative.
This table includes data derived from British Standards. British Standards can be obtained in PDF format from the BSI online shop: http://www.bsi-global.com/en/Shop/ or by
contacting BSI Customer Services for hardcopies: Tel: +44 (0)20 8996 9001, Email: mailto:[email protected]

Table 3 Corrosions risk associated with different environments for sheet low-carbon steel and zinc sheet (BS EN ISO 12944-2: 1998 and BS EN
ISO 14713: 1999) (reproduced with kind permission from BSI)

488 www.icemanuals.com ICE Manual of Construction Materials # 2009 Institution of Civil Engineers
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