Illustration 1: Concept map on Seismic Waves
Illustration 2: Chemicals that can be found in each layer of Earth
Plate Tectonics and Earth's Structure • Mount Pinatubo is a Philippine volcano often
• The theory of plate tectonics states that the seen on world maps due to its violent 1991
Earth's entire crust is broken into plates that eruption.
are in continuous, slow motion. • If you are in an area with active volcanoes and
• The primary driving force behind this receive a warning, the immediate action to take
movement is convection currents in the mantle. is to evacuate the area.
• The lithosphere, composed of the crust and the Other Concepts
upper mantle, is the part that is broken into • The location on the surface directly above an
plates. earthquake's focus is called the epicenter.
• Decayed radioactive elements in the core • To study the Earth's layered structure,
generate the heat that drives the convection geologists look for instances where seismic
currents. waves suddenly change paths when density
Plate Boundaries and Associated Features changes abruptly.
• Divergent Boundaries: Plates move away from • A volcanic island can be produced when magma
each other, creating new crust. A rift valley is a in the Earth’s mantle develops tremendous
typical landform associated with this boundary pressure and pushes the ground upward in the
type. middle of an ocean.
• Convergent Boundaries: Plates collide, which • A convection process is not described by a metal
can lead to mountain formation or subduction. pot handle getting hot while cooking; this is an
These boundaries are associated with frequent example of conduction.
earthquakes and significant volcanic activity. Evidence for Continental Drift and Seafloor
o When two continental plates converge, Spreading
volcanoes do not form. • Continental Drift:
o Volcanoes are mostly found where o Puzzle-like fit of the continents: The
continents meet the seas because it is where continents appear to fit together like pieces of
the oceanic plate subducts under the a jigsaw puzzle.
continental plate. o Fossil evidence: Similar fossils of ancient
o A chain of mountains is called a mountain plants and animals are found on continents
range. now separated by vast oceans (e.g.,
• Transform Boundaries: Plates slide past each Glossopteris and Mesosaurus).
other horizontally, causing earthquakes. o Glacial evidence: Evidence of ancient
• The Pacific Plate is unique as it is the only glaciation (glacial scratches or striations) is
major plate that is mainly underwater and has found in tropical regions, suggesting these
a "ring of volcanoes" around it. landmasses were once located closer to the
• Slab pull is a mechanism where the rest of a poles.
plate is pulled along as a slab subducts. o Matching rock formations: Similar types of
Earthquakes and Volcanoes rock formations and mountain ranges are
• A tectonic earthquake is caused by the sudden found on continents now separated by oceans,
release of energy from the shifting of Earth’s such as the Appalachian Mountains in North
plates. America and the Caledonian Mountains in
• The majority of earthquake epicenters are Europe.
situated at the exact locations as volcanoes, • Seafloor Spreading:
particularly along plate boundaries. o Age of seafloor rocks: The youngest rocks are
• Earthquake intensity and impact are influenced found at mid-ocean ridges, and the rocks get
by the depth of the earthquake's focus and the progressively older as you move farther away
location of the nearest fault line. from the ridge.
• It is essential to be aware of earthquake-prone o Magnetic striping: The oceanic crust has a
areas to perform necessary precautions. symmetrical pattern of magnetic stripes on
• The safest thing to do during an earthquake either side of a mid-ocean ridge, which
inside a building is to get under the strongest records the reversals of Earth's magnetic field
table or piece of furniture. The safety tip "duck, over time. This shows that new crust is
cover, and hold" involves kneeling on both continuously being created and pushed away
knees. from the ridge.
• A tsunami is created when a submarine
earthquake causes a massive amount of water
to be displaced.
