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CONVERGENCE
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CONVERGENCE
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editors edited by
Preben Maegaard
ASOKE K. TALUKDER
Anna Krenz
Wolfgang Palz NUNO M. GARCIA
JAYATEERTHA G. M.

The Rise of Modern Wind Energy

Wind Power
for the World
CRC Press
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 Contents

Preface xxi

1. All-IP Networks: Introduction 1

Asoke K. Talukder, Nuno M. Garcia, and Jayateertha G. M.

1.1 Introduction 1
1.1.1 Generations of the Internet 2
1.1.2 Wireless Internet 4
1.1.3 All-IP Networks 9

2. Addressing and Routing in IPv6 13

Jayateertha G. M. and B. Ashwini

2.1 Introduction 13
2.2 Addressing 14
2.2.1 Addressing Overview 15
2.2.1.1 Address representation 16
2.2.1.2 IPv6 header format 17
2.2.1.3 IPv6 address prefix representation 20
2.2.1.4 Address types 21
2.2.2 Unicast Addressing 22
2.2.2.1 Unicast address format 22
2.2.2.2 Local-use unicast addresses 22
2.2.2.3 Special unicast addresses 24
2.2.2.4 Compatibility unicast addresses 24
2.2.2.5 NSAP unicast address 26
2.2.2.6 Aggregatable global unicast address 26
2.2.2.7 Unique local IPv6 unicast address 28
2.2.2.8 EUI-64 address-based interface
identifier 29
vi Contents

2.2.3 Multicast Addressing 31

2.2.3.1 Multicast assignments 33
2.2.3.2 Solicited node multicast addresses 34
2.2.4 Anycast Address 35
2.2.4.1 Subnet-router anycast address 36
2.2.5 Addresses for Hosts and Routers 36
2.2.6 Address Block Allocation 38
2.2.6.1 Best-fit algorithm 38
2.2.6.2 Sparse allocation method 39
2.2.6.3 Random allocation method 39
2.2.7 Unicast or Anycast Address Assignment
Procedures 40
2.2.7.1 Address autoconfiguration 40
2.2.7.2 Address autogeneration through the
random interface identifier 45
2.2.7.3 DNS support 46
2.3 IPv4 to IPv6 Transition 46
2.3.1 Transition Techniques 49
2.3.2 Dual-Stack Approach 49
2.3.2.1 Dual-stack architecture 50
2.3.2.2 Dual-stack deployments 52
2.3.3 The Tunneling (Protocol Encapsulation)
Approach 54
2.3.3.1 Tunnel types 55
2.3.3.2 IPv6 over IPv4 tunneling 58
2.3.3.3 IPv4 over IPv6 tunneling 64
2.3.4 Translation Approach 65
2.3.4.1 SIIT algorithm 66
2.3.4.2 Bump in the stack 69
2.3.4.3 Bump in the API 71
2.3.4.4 Network address translation-protocol
translation 73
2.4 Routing 74
2.4.1 Network Architecture 75
2.4.2 Routing Essentials 76
 Contents vii

2.4.2.1 IPv6 routers 77

2.4.2.2 Routing tables 77
2.4.2.3 Routing algorithms 80
2.4.3 Routing Protocols 82
2.4.3.1 Static routing 83
2.4.3.2 RIPng (RIP for IPv6) 83
2.4.3.3 OSPFv3 86
2.4.3.4 Border gateway protocol version 4 98
2.5 Multihoming 110
2.5.1 Internet Structure 111
2.5.2 Host Multihoming 113
2.5.2.1 Issues with host multihoming 113
2.5.2.2 Host multihoming possible solution
models 114
2.5.2.3 IPv6 host multihoming solutions 114
2.5.3 Site Multihoming 121
2.5.3.1 Site multihoming in IPv4 122
2.5.3.2 Site multihoming in IPv6 124
2.6 Mobility 129
2.6.1 Mobility in IPv4 131
2.6.2 Mobility in IPv6 133
2.6.2.1 Mobile IPv6 design advantages 133
2.6.2.2 Mobile IPv6 and mobile IPv4: a
comparison 134
2.6.2.3 Mobile IPv6 operations 135

3. Routing Inside the Internet Cloud 145

Dattaram Miruke

3.1 Networks, the Internet, and Layers 145

3.1.1 Layer Interaction 149
3.1.2 Internet Infrastructure (What Is Inside the
Internet Cloud?) 152
3.2 Networks and Routing 154
3.2.1 IP Addressing 154
viii Contents

3.2.1.1 Network masks and variable length

submasking 155
3.2.2 Network and Traffic: Circuit and Packet
(Datagram) Switching 158
3.2.3 Network Devices 159
3.2.4 Network Traffic Routing 163
3.2.4.1 Routing tables 164
3.2.4.2 Routing protocols 165
3.2.4.3 Classification of the routing
protocols 167
3.2.4.4 Core considerations for selecting or
designing a routing protocol 175
3.2.4.5 Comparison of routing algorithms 176
3.2.4.6 Route metrics 178
3.2.4.7 Route analytics 178
3.2.4.8 Router components and
architecture 179
3.3 Routing Protocols 181
3.3.1 Switching and Routing 186
3.4 Main Routing Protocols 187
3.4.1 Routing Information Protocol 187
3.4.2 Interior Gateway Routing Protocol 193
3.4.3 Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing
Protocol 196
3.4.3.1 EIGRP operation 198
3.4.3.2 EIGRP DUAL 199
3.4.3.3 EIGRP: packets and protocol 204
3.4.3.4 Main strengths and weaknesses
of EIGRP 205
3.4.4 Open Shortest Path First 206
3.4.4.1 Distance vector vs. link-state
routing algorithms 206
3.4.4.2 Open shortest-path-first:
operations 208
3.4.4.3 Types of areas 210
 Contents ix

3.4.5 Types of Routers 213

3.4.5.1 The LSA types 214
3.4.6 Border Gateway Protocol 215
3.5 Multicast Routing 219
3.5.1 Multicast Addressing Assignments 221
3.5.2 Multicast Groups 224
3.5.3 Multicast Trees 225
3.5.3.1 Source-based trees 227
3.5.3.2 Shared trees 228
3.5.3.3 Source trees vs. shared trees 230
3.5.4 Multicast Forwarding 231
3.5.5 Multicasting Routing Algorithms 231
3.5.5.1 Reverse path forwarding 232
3.5.5.2 Reverse path broadcasting 233
3.5.5.3 Truncated reverse path
broadcasting 234
3.5.5.4 Reverse path multicasting 235
3.5.6 Multicast Group Membership Protocols 235
3.5.7 Multicast Routing Protocols 236
3.5.7.1 Multicast extensions to OSPF 240
3.6 Virtual Routers and Load Balancing 242
3.7 Policy-Based Routing 244
3.7.1 Introduction 244
3.7.2 Policy Routing 245
3.7.3 Policy Routing Structure 246
3.7.4 Implementing Policy Routing 247
3.8 Routers and Switches: Platform Architectures 250
3.8.1 Router Components and Architecture:
A Physical View 252
3.8.1.1 Centralized routing/shared bus
architecture 256
3.8.1.2 Distributed router architecture 257
3.8.1.3 Switched plane architecture 258
3.9 Security Management 259
 Contents

3.9.1 OSPF 259

3.9.2 BGP 261
3.10 Telecommunication and Public Networks:
Switching and Routing 261
3.10.1 Switching and Signaling 265
3.11 Routing in Wireless, Mobile, Ad Hoc, and Sensor
Networks 266
3.12 On the Nature of Networks, Complexity, and Other
Innovations 267

4. All-IP Networks: Mobility and Security

Asoke K. Talukder

4.1 Introduction 275

4.2 Mobile IP 277
4.2.1 Discovery 280
4.2.2 Registration 280
4.2.3 Tunneling 282
4.3 Mobile IP with ipv6 282
4.3.1 Basic Operation of Mobile IPv6 282
4.3.2 Differences between Mobile IPv4 and
Mobile IPv6 283
4.3.3 Mobile IPv6 Security 284
4.3.4 Handovers in Mobile IPv6 284
4.3.5 Handover in Mobile IPv6 over 3G CDMA
Networks 286
4.4 Security in IP Networks 288
4.4.1 How IPsec Works? 290
4.4.2 Elements in IPsec 292
4.4.3 Outbound IP Traffic Processing (Protected
to Unprotected) 294
4.4.4 Processing Inbound IP Traffic (Unprotected
to Protected) 295
4.5 Authentication, Authorization, and Accounting in
Converged Networks 297
4.5.1 Diameter 297
4.5.2 AAA in Mobile IPv6 298
 Contents xi

4.5.3 Security Frameworks for a Converged Mobile

Environment 299
4.5.4 3GPP Security 299

5. Transforming Extended Homes: Next Step toward

Heterogeneous User-Centric Convergent Environments
Based on IP 307
Josu Bilbao and Igor Armendariz
5.1 Introduction 308
5.1.1 Once Upon a Time 309
5.2 New All-IP Home Scenario 311
5.2.1 High-Definition Multimedia Services Bloom 311
5.2.2 Redistribution of Communication Flows 314
5.2.3 Services Redistribution in the IP Home 315
5.2.3.1 Voice and telephony services 315
5.2.3.2 Internet access and the Internet of
Things 316
5.2.3.3 TV services (HDTV bloom) 316
5.2.3.4 Interactive video and multimedia
content streaming 317
5.2.3.5 Home automation services 317
5.2.3.6 Ambient assisted living (AAL)
services 318
5.2.4 All-IP Home Backbone’s Capacity 318
5.3 Home (All-ip) Backbone 320
5.3.1 IP as the Key Entity in the Home Backbone
Network 320
5.3.2 Networking Technologies Relevant for the
Home Network 321
5.3.2.1 Ethernet (IEEE 802.3) 321
5.3.2.2 Industrial Ethernet (real-time
Ethernet) 322
5.3.2.3 IEEE 1394 322
5.3.2.4 Powerline 322
5.3.2.5 HomePNA 323
5.3.2.6 USB 323
xii Contents

5.3.2.7 UWB and IEEE 802.15.3a 324

5.3.2.8 Wireless USB 324
5.3.2.9 Bluetooth 324
5.3.2.10 IEEE 802.11a/b/g 325
5.3.2.11 IEEE 802.11n 325
5.3.2.12 IEEE 802.11e 326
5.3.2.13 ZigBee and IEEE 802.15.4 326
5.3.2.14 MoCA 326
5.3.3 Networking Technologies Summary 327
5.4 Home Gateway 328
5.5 Bridging Technologies: Toward an All-ip
Infrastructure 329
5.5.1 Bridged All-IP-Convergent Architecture 329
5.5.1.1 Bridging protocol stack 333
5.5.2 No-New-Wires as a Solution for the All-IP
Infrastructure 335
5.5.3 Physical Medium and Protocol Convergence 337
5.6 Services over the All-IP Home Network
Infrastructures 338
5.6.1 Follow-Me Quadruple-Play Services over
the Extended Home 338
5.6.2 e-Health Applications 340
5.6.3 Privacy, Security, and User Profiles 342
5.7 Extended-Home Networks 343
5.7.1 Vertical and Horizontal Transport over
All-IP-Convergent Networks 343
5.7.2 QoS in All-IP Extended-Home
Infrastructures 344

6. Wireless Vehicular Networks: Architecture, Protocols,

and Standards 349
Rola Naja

6.1 Introduction 349

6.2 Enhancing Active Safety 351
6.3 Vehicular Network Architecture 352
 Contents xiii

6.3.1 Smart Vehicles 352

6.3.2 Roadside Units and Onboard Units 353
6.3.3 Vehicular Communications 354
6.3.3.1 V2V characteristics 355
6.3.3.2 V2I characteristics 356
6.3.3.3 Differences from ad hoc networks 357
6.4 Vehicular Applications 359
6.4.1 Safety-Related Applications 360
6.4.1.1 Information applications 360
6.4.1.2 Assistance applications 360
6.4.1.3 Warning applications 361
6.4.2 Nonsafety (Convenience, Comfort)
Applications 362
6.4.2.1 In-vehicle entertainment
applications 362
6.4.2.2 Vehicular sharing applications 362
6.4.2.3 Traffic management applications 363
6.4.2.4 Cargo applications 364
6.5 Vehicular Standards 364
6.5.1 Communication Access for Land Mobiles 365
6.5.1.1 CALM concept and benefits 365
6.5.1.2 CALM communication modes 366
6.5.1.3 CALM media 366
6.5.1.4 CALM standards 367
6.5.1.5 CALM protocol stack 367
6.5.1.6 CALM handover support 369
6.5.2 Car-to-Car Communication Consortium 370
6.5.2.1 C2C-CC concept 370
6.5.2.2 C2C-CC domains 370
6.5.2.3 Basic communication principles 373
6.5.2.4 Layer architecture and related
protocols 374
6.5.3 Wireless Access in Vehicular Environments 378
6.5.3.1 WAVE concept 378
xiv Contents

6.5.3.2WAVE standards 378

6.5.3.3WAVE protocol stack 379
6.5.3.4WAVE channel types 381
6.5.3.5WAVE management entity and
priorities 381
6.6 Challenges in Wireless Vehicular Networks 381
6.7 Conclusion 383

7. Next-Generation IPv6 Network Security: Toward

Automatic and Intelligent Networks 387
Artur M. Arsénio, Diogo Teixeira, and João Redol

7.1 Introduction 388

7.1.1 Background 388
7.1.1.1 Traffic congestion 389
7.1.1.2 Network security 390
7.1.1.3 Security motivation for automatic
and intelligent networks 391
7.1.2 Next-Generation IPv6 Networks 392
7.1.2.1 IPv6 network security threats 392
7.1.2.2 IPv6 vs. IPv4 394
7.1.2.3 IPv6 autoconfiguration and trust 397
7.1.3 Chapter Organization 397
7.2 Related Work, Tools, and Protocols 398
7.2.1 Overview of Intrusion Detection/Prevention
Systems 398
7.2.1.1 Detection methods 399
7.2.1.2 Architectures 401
7.2.1.3 IPSec with ESP 402
7.2.2 Monitoring Network Traffic 402
7.2.2.1 Simple network management
protocol 403
7.2.2.2 NetFlow and sFlow 404
7.2.3 Packet Sampling and Flow Sampling 406
7.2.3.1 Stratified sampling 406
7.2.3.2 Adaptive sampling 408
 Contents xv

7.2.4 Deep Packet Inspection 410

7.3 Intelligence for IPv6 Network Security and User
Profiling 412
7.3.1 Analyzer 413
7.3.2 Centralized Server 415
7.4 Conclusions 416

8. The Internet of Things 421

Syam Madanapalli

8.1 The Internet of Things: The New Internet 421

8.1.1 Introduction 421
8.1.2 Social Impact 423
8.2 Characteristics of the Internet of Things 423
8.2.1 Typical LoWPAN Node Characteristics 424
8.2.1.1 Limited processing capability 424
8.2.1.2 Small memory capacity 424
8.2.1.3 Small footprint 424
8.2.1.4 Low power 424
8.2.1.5 Short range 424
8.2.1.6 Low bit rate 425
8.2.2 LoWPAN 425
8.2.2.1 Typical LoWPAN considerations 425
8.3 Standards for Realizing the Internet of Things 427
8.3.1 The Role of IPv6 and hence the Internet 429
8.3.1.1 Open standards 429
8.3.1.2 Everything-over-IPv6-over-
everything 429
8.3.1.3 Unique and uniform addressing
mechanism 429
8.3.1.4 Simple network architecture 430
8.3.1.5 Seamless web services 430
8.3.1.6 End-to-end security 430
8.3.1.7 Existing resources and knowledge 430
8.4 Protocol Layers for the Internet of Things 430
xvi Contents

8.5 IEEE 802.15.4–PHY and MAC for the Internet

of Things 431
8.5.1 868/915 MHz Band 432
8.5.2 2.45 GHz ISM Band 432
8.5.3 Network Topologies 433
8.5.4 Star Network Topology 434
8.5.5 Peer-to-Peer Network Topology 434
8.6 IPv6 435
8.7 6LoWPAN: Transmission of IPv6 over Wireless
Personal Area Networks 436
8.7.1 LoWPAN Frame Format and Delivery 437
8.7.1.1 6LoWPAN dispatch headers 437
8.7.1.2 Mesh addressing type and header 439
8.7.1.3 Fragmentation header 439
8.7.2 Neighbor Discovery in a 6LoWPAN 441
8.7.2.1 Extensions to IPv6 neighbor
discovery (RFC 4861) 442
8.7.3 IPv6 Address Autoconfiguration in a
6LoWPAN 442
8.7.4 Header Compression 443
8.7.4.1 Encoding of IPv6 header fields in
stateless header compression (HC1) 444
8.7.4.2 Encoding of UDP header fields in
stateless header compression (HC2) 445
8.7.4.3 Stateful or context-based header
compression 447
8.7.4.4 LoWPAN NHC encoding for UDP 450
8.7.5 6LoWPAN Mesh Routing 451
8.7.6 LoWPAN Broadcast 453
8.8 Transport Layer 453
8.9 Application Layer Protocols 454
8.10 Network Architecture for the Internet of Things 455
8.10.1 Autonomous LoWPANs 456
8.10.2 LoWPANs with Extended Internet
Connectivity 456
 Contents xvii

8.10.3 The True Internet of Things 456

8.11 Security Considerations 457
8.12 Applications for the Internet of Things 458
8.12.1 Smart Grid 458
8.12.2 Industrial Monitoring 458
8.12.2.1 Process monitoring and control 459
8.12.2.2 Machine surveillance 459
8.12.2.3 Supply chain management and
asset tracking 459
8.12.2.4 Storage monitoring 459
8.12.3 Structural Monitoring 460
8.12.4 Health Care 460
8.12.5 Connected Home 460
8.12.6 Telematics 460
8.12.7 Agricultural Monitoring 461

9. 6LoWPAN: Interconnecting Objects with IPv6 463

Gilberto G. de Almeida, Joel J. P. C. Rodrigues, and Luís M. L. Oliveira

9.1 Introduction 463

9.2 Sensor Nodes 465
9.3 The IEEE 802.15.4 Standard 467
9.3.1 LoWPAN Frames 470
9.4 6LoWPANs 470
9.4.1 The 6LoWPAN Adaptation Layer 471
9.4.2 6LoWPAN Routing 473
9.4.3 Mesh-Under Routing 474
9.4.4 Route-Over Routing 475
9.4.5 6LoWPAN Address Assignment 477
9.4.6 6LoWPAN Header Compression 478
9.4.7 6LoWPAN Fragmentation 479
9.4.8 6LoWPAN Neighbor Discovery 480
9.5 6LoWPAN Implementations 482
9.5.1 TinyOS 482
9.5.2 ContikiOS 483
9.6 Conclusion 485
xviii Contents

10. IP over Optical Fiber 489

Nuno M. Garcia and Nuno C. Garcia

10.1 Introduction 490

10.2 Network Data in Envelopes 491
10.3 Why Do We Need Frames? 496
10.4 IP and Optical Networks 500
10.5 Control in WDM Networks 506
10.6 Packet Aggregation in the IP Domain 510
10.6.1 The Machine Concept 513
10.7 All-IP Optical Burst Switching Networks 517
10.8 Conclusion 520

11. IPv6 over WiMAX 527

Jayateertha G. M. and B. Ashwini

11.1 Introduction 527

11.2 Overview of WiMAX Technology 529
11.2.1 The Physical Layer 530
11.2.1.1 OFDM as an access technique 530
11.2.1.2 Time division duplex 531
11.2.1.3 Advanced antenna techniques
(MIMO and BF) 531
11.2.1.4 Full mobility support 531
11.2.1.5 Flexible frequency reuse 531
11.2.2 The MAC Layer 532
11.2.2.1 Scheduled connection–based data
transmission 532
11.2.2.2 Flexible bandwidth allocation
mechanism 533
11.2.2.3 Classification and quality of service
per connection 533
11.2.2.4 Support for different network
services 534
11.2.2.5 MAC overhead reduction 535
11.2.2.6 Mobility support: handover 535
 Contents xix

11.2.2.7 Power saving 536

11.2.2.8 Security 536
11.2.2.9 Support for downlink multicasting
and broadcast service 536
11.3 WiMAX Network Architecture 536
11.3.1 The Network Reference Model 537
11.3.1.1 Network functional entities 538
11.3.1.2 Inter-ASN reference points 539
11.3.1.3 ASN logical entities 540
11.3.1.4 Intra-ASN reference points 541
11.4 IPv6 and WiMAX 542
11.4.1 Neighbor Discovery 542
11.4.1.1 Router discovery 543
11.4.1.2 Address autoconfiguration 543
11.4.1.3 Address resolution 544
11.4.1.4 Next hop determination 544
11.4.1.5 Duplicate-address detection 544
11.4.2 Stateless Autoconfiguration 544
11.4.3 WiMAX and Autoconfiguration 545
11.5 Challenges in Deploying IPv6 over WiMAX 546
11.5.1 Multicast Support 546
11.5.2 Subnet or Link Model 547
11.5.2.1 Per station IPv6 prefix 547
11.5.2.2 Shared IPv6 prefix 548
11.5.2.3 IPv6 functionalities and the CS 549
11.5.2.4 Multilink issue 550
11.5.2.5 SS/MS’s connection to the WiMAX
network 551
11.6 Discussion on Proposed Solutions 551
11.6.1 Multicast Support 552
11.6.1.1 Supporting multicast CID 552
11.6.1.2 The MRP layer 552
11.6.1.3 Emulation of multicast 553
11.6.2 BS and AR/ASN-GW Interface 553
xx Contents

11.6.2.1 BS and AR/ASN-GW separated 554

11.6.2.2 BS and AR/ASN-GW colocated 554
11.6.2.3 WiMAX forum architecture 555
11.6.3 AR/ASN-GW and NDP Procedures 556
11.6.3.1 Address cache updating 557
11.6.3.2 RA/RS exchange 557
11.6.3.3 NA/NS exchange 557
11.6.4 The Subnet Model 557
11.6.4.1 Heterogeneity of the MAC CS 557
11.6.4.2 The multilink problem 558
11.6.5 Mobility 558
11.6.5.1 The WiMAX 16ng proposition 558
11.6.5.2 The IEEE 802.21 draft 559
11.6.5.3 The MIPSHOP draft 559
11.6.5.4 Cross-layer design 559

Index 563
 Preface

The success of a technology is measured by how invisible the

technology is to a user. The 21st century is the century of anywhere
communication—anybody can communicate, anytime, anywhere in
the world, so easily, so seamlessly, be it voice, data, multimedia, or
even video. Though it looks trivial to a user, from the science and
engineering point of view there is a complex fabric of networks and
technologies that work in tandem in the background to orchestrate
these synergy and wonders. A book to explain the interworking
of these wonders was the motivation behind the title Convergence
through All-IP Networks.
On April 28–30, 2009, we had the 6th IEEE and IFIP International
Conference on Wireless and Optical Communication Networks
(WOCN2009) at Cairo. In the said conference, Dr. Talukder offered
a tutorial on next-generation networks (NGNs). The foundation
of the book started then—Dr. Talukder and Dr. Garcia met each
other at that conference, and Mr. Stanford Chong of Pan Stanford
Publishing approached Dr. Talukder to author a book on the said
topic. Dr. Jayateertha joined the team later.
Our goal was to bring out a volume with the entire technology
spectrum of NGNs from a backbone to varied network elements
with myriads of end-user devices. We wanted a volume that
exposes all IP and its convergence that otherwise remain invisible.
In this regard, this book encompasses a variety of topics, including
specialized services and applications scenarios. In doing this, our
main endeavor was to introduce these complex topics to the reader
at large without losing simplicity and legibility in presentation. We
wanted a comprehensive handbook for the industry and a reference
book for students, professionals, and researchers.
To achieve the above goals of convergence and NGN, we includ-
ed topics starting from a fiber-optic backbone to the wireless last
mile, including routing. We included the “Internet of Things,” low-
power wireless personal area networks (LoWPANs), and extended
networked homes. We included mobility and worldwide inter-
operability for microwave access (WiMAX). We included routing,
xxii Preface

extensively including IPv6 routing. We included the network for

vehicles on highways and intravehicle and intervehicular com-
munication. In the 21st century a book on networks is incomplete
without addressing security issues; therefore, we included
security issues in NGNs as well.
Having a book with such a wide spectrum of topics that covers
the next generation of the Internet and convergence has its own
challenges. The most difficult part of the challenge was to get the
right mix of experts and authors who could contribute. Though it
took us time, we have been lucky to get some of the world leaders to
participate as authors in this volume. We tried to make the volume
error free and respect the original creators as well as trademarks
and copyright; however, any unintended errors or omissions are
regretted.
We would like to sincerely acknowledge all the contributors
and specially thank Pan Stanford Publishing for coming forward to
publish this volume. We appreciate the efforts of the reviewers and
the editorial team for coming up with an excellent edition. We also
would like to thank all the family members of each and every author
and editor for their support.

Asoke K. Talukder
Nuno M. Garcia
Jayateertha G. M.
August 2013
Chapter 1

All-IP Networks: Introduction

Asoke K. Talukder,a,b,* Nuno M. Garcia,c,d,e,** and

Jayateertha G. M.f,g,†
aInterpretOmics, Bangalore, India
bIndian Institute of Information Technology & Management,
Gwalior, India
cUniversidade da Beira Interior, R. Marquês D’Ávila e Bolama, Covilhã, Portugal
dLusophone University of Humanities and Technologies, Lisbon, Portugal
eInstituto de Telecomunicações, R. Marquês D’Ávila e Bolama, Covilhã, Portugal
fDepartment of Telecom Engineering, R. V. College of Engineering, Bangalore, India
gXavier Institute of Management and Entrepreneurship, Bangalore, India

*[email protected], **[email protected], and †[email protected]

1.1 Introduction
The birth of the term “internet” dates to 1969, when the Internet
Engineering Task Force (IETF) released the first Request for
Comments (RFC 1), a publicly available document that summarizes
the contributions of the Internet community on a particular topic.
It can also be termed the birth of first-generation Internet—the
data communication protocol for researchers. RFC 1 was entitled

Convergence through All-IP Networks

Edited by Asoke K. Talukder, Nuno M. Garcia, and Jayateertha G. M.
Copyright © 2014 Pan Stanford Publishing Pte. Ltd.
ISBN 978-981-4364-63-8 (Hardcover), 978-981-4364-64-5 (eBook)
www.panstanford.com
 All-IP Networks

“Host Software” and dealt with interface message processor (IMP)

and host-to-host protocols. The IMP was the packet-switching
node used to interconnect participant networks to the Advanced
Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET) from the late
1960s to 1989. The official name for ARPANET was ARPA Network.
ARPANET was founded in the United States Department of
Defense (DoD) to encourage and fund advance scientific and
engineering research to establish the United States as a leader in
science and technology. After about 50 years, and after more than
four decades of evolution, the Internet became one of the most
disruptive technologies that has touched everybody’s life across
the world, from infant to old, rich to poor, and woman to man. It is
now the main vehicle for data communication, be it in the context
of simple e-mail communication, social networking, or even a tool
to organize political mass movements.

1.1.1 Generations of the Internet

IMP was the first generation of gateways, which are known today
as routers. This is where the foundation of interconnection of data
networks was built. Ray Tomlinson, while working as a computer
engineer for Bolt Beranek and Newman (BBN) Technologies,
invented Internet-based electronic mail in late 1971, which became
one of the most popular applications in the Internet. The file
transfer protocol (FTP) was introduced through RFC 113 in 1971.
Telnet specification RFC 137 was also released in 1971. Then in the
following year, in 1972, through RFC 360, remote job entry (RJE)
was introduced, which integrated telnet and FTP. Also, in October
1972, Larry Roberts and Robert Kahn demonstrated ARPANET at
the International Conference on Computer Communication (ICCC)
held in Washington, DC. In the spring of 1973, Vinton Cerf, the
developer of the existing ARPANET network control program (NCP)
protocol, joined Kahn to work on open-architecture interconnection
models with the goal of designing the next protocol generation for
ARPANET. ARPA then contracted with BBN Technologies, Stanford
University, and the University College at London, England, to
develop operational versions of the communication protocol on
different hardware platforms. Four versions of the transmission
control protocol (TCP) were developed: TCPv1, TCPv2, a split
into TCPv3 and IPv3 in the spring of 1978, and then stability with
 Introduction 

TCP/IPv4—the standard protocol still in use on the Internet [1]. This

protocol was published through RFC 760 in January 1980.
Some researchers suggest 1971 to be the year of the birth
of the Internet. In fact, it can be said that internet with lowercase
i was born in 1969 and Internet with uppercase I was born
in 1971. However, the Internet reached its adulthood in 1980 with
the introduction of IPv4 in the Internet protocol (IP) stack. Unlike
the internet, which included only the communication protocol
of TCP and IP for the data network, the Internet covered both
network and applications protocol stacks, including e-mail,
telnet, FTP, and RJE. Irrespective of the internet or the Internet,
this generation of packet-switching networks and applications
on these networks were used by the research community only.
On the contrary, in those days, the industry was using its own set
of proprietary protocols, such as system network architecture
(SNA) from IBM and DECnet from DEC, which included a suite of
products comprising both applications and data communication
protocols.
Soon the Internet evolved—we can call this the second-
generation (2G) Internet. The 2G Internet was the generic data
communication protocol; it can be dated to 1989, when interdomain
routing was included in the Internet with specifications such
as the open shortest-path-first (OSPF) protocol (RFC 1131), the
border gateway protocol (BGP) (RFC 1105), and IP multicasting
(RFC 1112). These network protocols helped acceptance of the
Internet beyond the United States; it became an interworking
protocol and spread its influence across the world. Australia,
Germany, Israel, Italy, Japan, Mexico, the Netherlands, New Zealand,
and the United Kingdom joined the Internet [2]. The number of
hosts doubled from 80,000 in January 1989 to more than 160,000
in November 1989.
Then came the emergence of the third-generation (3G)
Internet with the invention of the hypertext transfer protocol
(HTTP) by Tim Berners-Lee. He wrote the first web client and server
in 1990. His specifications of a uniform resource identifier (URI)
through RFC 1738, hypertext markup language (HTML) (RFC 1942),
and HTTP (RFC 1945) helped the common man use the Internet
for general information access. Soon voice was integrated into
the Internet in 1995 through the voice over IP (VoIP) protocols.
Convergence of these two pathbreaking technologies in the Internet
 All-IP Networks

helped it graduate and become a generic media for communication—

be it data or information or be it voice, image, or multimedia.
By the turn of the century, the domain of the Internet started
expanding as more and more services were integrated into the
Internet; it took 27 years for the RFC database to reach from RFC
1 to RFC 1945, but following the release of HTTP, in just 13 years
more than 4,000 RFCs were added to the Internet specification
suite. From this evolution, the emergence of the next-generation
Internet (NGI) became apparent; NGI will overcome most of the
current shortfalls of the Internet to allow it to become the technology
platform for general communication and services.

1.1.2  Wireless Internet

Freedom from being confined in a determined space is a powerful
driver to make researchers and industry want to integrate wireless
communications into the target technology. The Internet was no
exception—research and industry have constantly been working
to make communication mobile through innovative wireless
technologies. In the last decade or so, the exponential increase of
Internet use (as its evolution traced in the previous pages) has had
a tremendous impact on wireless communication. Wireless Internet
has undergone phenomenal growth in the sense of technology
evolution and development from providing voice services to
providing data services, at present, leading to online real-time
multimedia connectivity. The evolution of the market of wireless
networks can be traced logically, dividing it into three classes:
voice-oriented market, data-oriented market, and online multimedia
connectivity.
The voice-oriented market has evolved around wireless
connection to the public switched telephone network (PSTN).
These services further evolved into local and wide-area markets.
The local voice-oriented market is based on low-power, low-mobility
devices with higher quality of voice. The local voice-oriented
applications started with the introduction of the cordless phone (in
the 1970s), which uses similar technology used in walkie-talkies
that existed since the Second World War. The first digital cordless
telephone was the CT-2 standard developed in the United Kingdom
in the early 1980s. Then the next-generation cordless telephone
was a wireless private branch eXchange (PBX) using the Digital
 Introduction 

European Cordless Telephone (DECT) standard. Both CT-2 and

DECT had minimal network infrastructure to go beyond the simple
cordless telephone and over a larger area and multiple applications.
These local systems soon evolved into a personal communication
system (PCS), which was a complete system with its own
infrastructure, very similar to cellular mobile networks. However,
all together, none of the PCS standards became a commercial
success and, hence, in the later 1990s were merged with the cellular
telephone industry, which was a big commercial success. The idea
of cellular networks was very old—in 1947, AT&T Bell Labs came
up with an idea of frequency reuse by dividing the coverage area
into smaller cells. However, due to various licensing and commercial
issues, the cellular mobile telephone technology did not take off
at that time [3, 4].
The wide-area voice-oriented market evolved around cellular
mobile telephony services that are using terminals with high
power consumption, comprehensive coverage, and low quality
of voice. The first generation of wireless mobile communication
was based on analog signaling. Analog systems implemented in
the United States were known as Analog Mobile Phone Systems
(AMPSs), while the systems implemented in Europe and the rest of
the world were identified as Total Access Communication Systems
(TACSs). Analog systems were primarily based on circuit-switched
technology and solely designed for voice, not data. The 2G mobile
network was based on low-band digital data signaling. The most
popular 2G wireless technology is known as the global system for
mobile communication (GSM). GSM [5] was first implemented in
1991. GSM technology is the combination of frequency division
multiple access/time division multiple access (FDMA/TDMA)
and is now operating in about 140 countries. A similar technology
called personal digital communications (PDC) using TDMA
technology emerged in Japan. Since then, several other TDMA-based
systems have been deployed worldwide. While GSM was being
developed in Europe, code division multiple access (CDMA) was
being developed in the United States. CDMA uses spread spectrum
technology to break speech into small digitized segments. CDMA
technology is recognized as providing clearer voice quality with
less background noise, fewer dropped calls, enhanced security,
and greater reliability and network capacity. The 2G systems are
based on circuit-switched technology. The 2G wireless networks
 All-IP Networks

are digital and expand the range of applications to more advanced

voice services. Although 2G wireless technologies can handle
some data capabilities, such as fax and short message service (SMS),
the data rate only goes up to 9.6 kilobits per second (kbps).
The wireless data-oriented market evolved around the
Internet and computer communication network infrastructure. The
wireless data-oriented services may be divided into broadband
local, ad hoc, and wide-area mobile data markets. Wireless local
networks support higher data rates and ad hoc operations for
a low number of users. The wireless local networks are usually
referred to as wireless local area networks (WLANs). The major
WLAN standard is IEEE802.11; it was first introduced in 1980 and
took nearly a decade to complete. Since then, this technology has
evolved from IEEE 802.11 to IEEE 802.11 a/b/g/e/n, becoming
a powerful wireless technology that supports data rates from
2 Mbps, 11 Mbps, 54 Mbps, up to 600 Mbps. It operates in the
industrial, scientific, and medical (ISM) 2.5 GHz band and uses direct
sequence spread spectrum (DSSS), orthogonal frequency division
multiplexing (OFDM), and multiple input multiple output (MIMO)
technologies. Ad hoc networks include wireless personal area
networks (WPANs) such as Bluetooth, infrared, and near-field
communication (NFC). The coverage of WPANs is smaller than that
of WLANs, and they are designed to allow personal devices, such as
laptops, cell phones, headsets, speakers, and printers, to connect
together without any wiring. Bluetooth is the technology for ad hoc
networking and was introduced in 1998. Like a WLAN, Bluetooth
operates in ISM but in lower data rates and uses the voice-oriented
wireless access method, which provides a better environment for
the integration of voice and data services. NFC or radio frequency
tags work in very close proximity of only a few centimeters [3].
The wide-area wireless data market provides for Internet
access for mobile users. The technologies belong to this category
are 2G+ and worldwide interoperability for microwave access
(WiMAX). GSM, PDC, and other TDMA-based mobile system providers
and carriers have developed 2G+ technology, which is packet based
and increases the data communication speed to as high as 384 kbps.
These 2G+ systems are based on the following technologies: high-
speed circuit switched data (HSCSD), general packet radio service
(GPRS), and enhanced data rates for global evolution (EDGE).
HSCSD, a circuit-switched technology, improves data rates up to
 Introduction 

57.6 kbps by introducing 14.4 kbps data coding and by aggregating

four radio channel time slots of 14.4 kbps. GPRS is an intermediate
step that is designed to allow the GSM world to implement a full
range of Internet services without waiting for full-scale deployment
of 3G systems. GPRS technology is packet based and designed to
work in parallel with the 2G GSM, PDC, and TDMA systems that are
used for voice communications and to obtain GPRS user profiles
from the location register database. GPRS uses multiples of one to
eight radio channel time slots in 200 kHz frequency band allocation
for a carrier frequency to enable data speeds up to 115 kbps.
The data is packetized and transported over public land mobile
networks (PLMNs) using an IP backbone so that mobile users can
access services on the Internet, such as the simple mail transfer
protocol (SMTP)/post office protocol (POP)-based e-mail, and
FTP- and HTTP-based web services. The EDGE standard improves
the data rates of GPRS and HSCSD by enhancing the throughput per
time slot [4].
The wireless real-time multimedia market has evolved around
high-speed Internet connectivity and real-time multimedia
communications. The major technologies in this domain are 3G,
WiMAX, and Wi-Fi. The 3G technology represents a shift from
voice-centric services to multimedia-oriented (voice, data, and
video). 3G mobile devices and services have transformed wireless
communications into online real-time connectivity providing
location-specific services that offer information on demand. 3G
wireless technology represents the convergence of various 2G
wireless communication systems into a single global system that
includes both terrestrial and satellite components. 3G uses three
air interfaces to accomplish this: wideband CDMA, CDMA2000
(also known as International Mobile Telecommunications (IMT)-
multicarrier, or IMT-MC), and Universal Wireless Communications
(UWC)-136. Through these technologies, 3G systems provide good
quality of voice, higher data rates for mobile service users to get
high-speed Internet, and multimedia connectivity.
WiMAX technology is developed as a broadband wireless
communication standard to provide wireless data services with
high data rates with high-speed Internet connectivity. Within a
few years, it has emerged as the de facto standard for broadband
wireless communication, providing stiff competition to 3G systems.
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