CIM CAT-1 Notes
[Module-1]
- Introduction to Automation
Automation is the use of technology to perform a process or procedure without human
assistance.
The goal of automation is to increase productivity, improve quality and precision, reduce costs,
and enhance safety. Automation is also used for tasks that are beyond human capacity.
There are four stages in the evolution of automation technology:
● First stage: Manual labor and simple facilities.
● Second stage: Unit control automation using CNC technology.
● Third stage: Information automation using computer-aided technology like CAD/CAM
and FMS.
● Fourth stage: Decision automation based on knowledge-intensive technology and
computer-integrated manufacturing systems (CIMS).
- The USA Principle
The USA Principle is a three-step strategy for automation and process improvement:
1.Understand the existing process: This involves an analysis of inputs and outputs, value
chains, and the use of charting techniques and mathematical modeling to fully
comprehend the current process.
2.Simplify the process: This step focuses on reducing unnecessary steps and movements
in the process.
3.Automate the process: After simplifying, automation is introduced.
- Basic Elements of an Automated System
An automated system is composed of three basic elements:
1.Power: To drive the process and operate the control system,
- Electricity is the main power source due to its wide availability, moderate cost, and
ability to be easily converted into other forms of energy such as mechanical,
thermal, and light.
- It can also be used for signal transmission, data processing, and communication.
2.Program of Instructions: A set of commands that specifies the sequence of steps and
details of each step in the work cycle.
- This program can include activities that change process parameters like temperature,
axis position, or motor status.
3.Control System: The element that executes the program of instructions.
- It causes the process to perform its intended function. The control system can be an
open-loop or a feedback control system.
- Advanced Automation Functions
Advanced automation functions go beyond simple work cycles to enhance system performance
and safety. These functions are enabled by special subroutines in the program of instructions.
● Safety Monitoring: This is a crucial function, as a major reason for automation is to
remove workers from dangerous environments.
- Safety monitoring can involve stopping the system, sounding an alarm, reducing
speed, or taking corrective action to address a safety violation.
- Sensors like limit switches, photoelectric sensors, and temperature sensors are used
for safety monitoring.
● Maintenance and Repair Diagnostics: These functions help identify the source of
potential or actual malfunctions and failures. This is especially important for complex
modern automated systems.
There are three modes of operation for a maintenance and repair diagnostics subsystem:
○ Status monitoring: The system monitors and records the status of key sensors and
parameters during normal operation.
○ Failure diagnostics: Activated when a failure occurs, this mode interprets
monitored values and analyzes data preceding the failure to identify its cause.
○ Recommendation of repair procedure: The system provides a recommended
repair procedure to the crew, sometimes using expert systems based on artificial
intelligence.
● Error Detection and Recovery: This involves the computer diagnosing malfunctions
and automatically taking corrective action to restore the system to normal operation.
- The error detection step uses sensors to identify, interpret, and classify a deviation or
malfunction.
- The error recovery step applies the necessary corrective action to overcome the error
and return the system to a normal state.
- Levels of Automation
Automation can be applied at different levels of factory operations. These levels form a
hierarchy:
1.Device Level: The lowest level, consisting of hardware elements like sensors and
actuators that form individual control loops of a machine, such as a CNC machine axis or
a robot joint.
2.Machine Level: Individual machines like CNC (Computer Numerical Control: a
computer-controlled machine tool used in manufacturing.) machine tools, industrial
robots, and conveyors.
- The control functions at this level ensure the correct execution of the program of
instructions.
3.Cell or System Level: A group of machines or workstations linked by a material
handling system, computer, and other equipment.
- This level includes production lines and functions like part dispatching and
coordination among machines.
4.Plant Level: The factory or production system level, which translates instructions from
the enterprise level into operational production plans.
- Functions include order processing, inventory control, and quality control.
5.Enterprise Level: The highest level, which encompasses the corporate information
system and is concerned with managing all company functions, including marketing,
sales, accounting, design, and research.
- Types of Automation
There are three basic types of automation in manufacturing:
● Fixed Automation: A system where the sequence of operations is determined by the
equipment's configuration.
- It is characterized by high initial investment for custom-engineered equipment, high
production rates, and inflexibility for product variety.
- It is best for high-volume, single-part production with a predictable and stable
demand over a long period.
● Programmable Automation: A system designed to change the sequence of operations to
accommodate different product configurations.
- It is suitable for batch production and is characterized by high investment in
general-purpose equipment, lower production rates than fixed automation, and
flexibility to handle variations in product design.
● Flexible Automation: An extension of programmable automation that can change from
one job to the next with no lost time for changeovers.
- It allows for continuous production of variable product mixes and is best for
moderate production volumes and significant product variability with short product
life cycles.
- It involves high investment for a custom-engineered system.
- Automation Migration Strategy
This strategy is used for introducing new products and allows for a gradual transition to higher
levels of automation. It consists of three phases:
1.Phase 1: Manual production. This involves single-station, manned cells working
independently. It is quick to set up and uses low-cost tooling.
2.Phase 2: Automated production. As demand increases, the single stations are
automated to reduce labor costs and increase the production rate. Work units are still
manually moved between stations.
3.Phase 3: Automated integrated production. This phase uses a multi-station automated
system with automated material handling between stations.
The advantages of this strategy include quick product introduction, gradual automation as
demand grows, and avoiding a high initial investment with the risk of low product demand.
- Computer-Integrated Manufacturing (CIM)
CIM involves the use of computers to integrate and automate the manufacturing support
systems and the factory floor operations.
The main goal is to reduce manual and clerical effort in various functions like product design,
planning, and control.
The computerized elements of a CIM system include:
● Manufacturing Systems: Automated equipment in the factory (e.g., CNC machines,
robots).
● Manufacturing Support Systems: People and procedures that manage production
operations. This includes functions like business functions, product design,
manufacturing planning, and manufacturing control.
Computerized Manufacturing Support Systems - These systems do not directly interact
with the product but are vital for planning and controlling its progress through the factory.
They are an essential part of the production system, providing the necessary data and
knowledge.
The activities of these systems form an information processing cycle. The key functions are:
● Business functions: Sales, marketing, accounting, and order processing.
● Product design: Computer-Aided Design (CAD).
● Manufacturing planning: Process planning, inventory control, and material
requirements planning.
● Manufacturing control: Shop floor control, quality control, and inventory control.
- Product Life Cycle Management (PLM) and Collaborative Product
Development
Product Lifecycle Management (PLM) is a strategic management concept and set of
methods for managing products and integrating product data throughout their entire lifespan,
from inception to disposal.
- PLM aims to speed up time to market, reduce costs, and efficiently manage resources.
- It uses specific software systems to integrate data from various systems involved in a
product's life phases.
PLM and Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) are two distinct but complementary systems.
- PLM focuses on managing product-related data and the product lifecycle, while ERP
manages overall business operations and resources like finance, supply chain, and
inventory.
- Integrating these systems can improve data consistency, streamline product development,
enhance compliance, and increase overall efficiency.
The key phases of the product life cycle include:
● Research and Pre-development (Research, Concept, Styling).
● Series Development (Design, Calculation, Prototype & Testing).
● Production (Manufacturing, Assembling, Distribution).
● Market (Use & Service, Liquidation & Recycling).
Product development processes include defining product specifications and requirements,
developing functional and physical concepts, and product design and production-related
development.
[Module-2]
- Introduction to Numerical Control (NC) and Computer Numerical Control
(CNC)
Numerical Control (NC) is an automated manufacturing method that operates a machine tool
using coded letters, numbers, and special characters.
- The program, or "part program," provides numerical data that is translated into electrical
signals to drive the machine's motors.
- NC technology is widely used for metal machining processes like turning, drilling, and
milling, and offers flexibility since new instructions can be written for different jobs.
Computer Numerical Control (CNC) is an evolution of NC that incorporates a dedicated,
built-in computer to perform basic and advanced NC functions.
- This computer is known as the Machine Control Unit (MCU).
- CNC systems are also called "soft-wired NC systems" because most of their control
functions are handled by software programs.
Advantages and Disadvantages of CNC Systems - NC systems offer significant advantages
over manual production methods, including better control of tool motion, improved part
quality and repeatability, reduced tooling costs, and faster manufacturing times.
The integration of computers further enhanced NC machines by increasing memory for
program storage and processing, allowing for easier program editing, and improving
operational reliability.
Some key benefits of CNC machining include:
● High Accuracy and Repeatability: CNC machines can produce identical parts to
precise specifications.
● Increased Production Speed: The automated nature of CNC machines significantly
reduces overall production time.
● Enhanced Safety: The automated process keeps the operator out of harm's way.
● Efficiency: Internal quality assurance detectors can stop the machine if a deficiency is
found, preventing material waste.
However, CNC systems also have disadvantages:
● High Cost: CNC machines are generally more expensive than manual machines due to
higher initial investment, electrical maintenance, and per-hour operating costs.
● Skill Requirements: While less-skilled operators are needed for supervision, specialized
knowledge is required for programming and maintenance.
- Classification of CNC Machines
CNC machines are classified based on several key characteristics, including their control loop,
motion type, and number of axes.
Control Loops: Open-Loop vs. Closed-Loop Systems
An open-loop system operates by sending instructions to a stepping motor without any
feedback to verify if the motion was executed correctly.
- This type of system is simple, economical, and stable but is inherently inaccurate because
it cannot correct for changes in the output caused by external disturbances, such as
unexpected loads or mechanical friction.
In contrast, a closed-loop system utilizes a feedback mechanism to continuously monitor the
actual position and velocity of the machine tool.
- This system employs sensors to measure the position of the moving parts.
- The MCU then compares the actual position with the desired setpoint from the program.
- The difference between these two values is an "error signal," which the controller uses to
adjust the motor commands in real time to minimize the error.
- This feedback loop is a direct solution to the open-loop system's lack of reliability. The
ability to verify and correct its own movements is what enables the high accuracy,
repeatability, and superior surface quality that is demanded in modern manufacturing.
Motion Control: Point-to-Point vs. Continuous Path Control
Motion control systems dictate how a machine moves between programmed points.
Point-to-Point (PTP) systems move the tool to a specific programmed location and stop
before performing an operation, such as drilling or punching.
- The path taken by the tool to reach the destination is not controlled and is typically made
as rapid as possible to save time.
Continuous Path (Contouring) systems, on the other hand, are capable of simultaneous,
coordinated control of two or more axes.
- This allows the tool to perform a machining operation while the worktable is moving,
generating precise straight lines, circular arcs, or other complex curvilinear paths.
- This capability is made possible by a core function of the MCU called interpolation,
which calculates thousands of intermediate points between the start and end points of a
programmed path. Without this mathematical function, the creation of angular surfaces
and complex contours would be impossible.
Interpolation In continuous path control, the MCU performs interpolation to generate the tool
trajectory from part program data. Common interpolation methods include:
● Linear Interpolation: Creates a straight line between two points in space.
● Circular Interpolation: Creates a circular arc defined by a starting point, end point, and
a center or radius.
● Helical Interpolation: Combines circular and linear motion.
- Number of Axes and Their Designation
The number of controlled axes determines the complexity of the shapes a machine can create
and the efficiency with which it can do so. CNC machine axes are defined using a standard
Cartesian coordinate system and the right-hand rule.
The linear axes are the mutually perpendicular X, Y, and Z axes. The rotary axes (A, B, and
C) represent rotations around the X, Y, and Z axes, respectively.
● 2-Axis Machines: These machines, typically CNC lathes, move the cutting tool along the
X-axis (inward/outward movement) and the Z-axis (longitudinal movement), which are
perpendicular to each other.
● 3-Axis Machines: Primarily used in CNC milling, these machines allow simultaneous
controlled movement along the X, Y, and Z axes, enabling material removal from the
length, width, and depth of a workpiece.
● 4-Axis and 5-Axis Machines: These machines add one or two rotary axes to the standard
three linear axes. The addition of these axes allows the cutting tool to reach and work on
multiple sides of a part without manual re-positioning, which is a time-consuming and
error-prone process. This capability significantly increases productivity and is a direct
application of lean manufacturing principles, as it reduces setup time, tooling costs, and
the potential for accumulated errors from multiple fixturing operations.
- *Elements of a CNC System
A CNC system consists of several key elements:
● Part Program: A series of coded instructions that controls the machine tool's movements
and auxiliary functions (e.g., spindle rotation, coolant on/off).
● Program Input Device: The means by which a part program is entered into the CNC
control, such as a computer, punched tape, or magnetic tape reader.
● Machine Control Unit (MCU): The core of the CNC system, it reads, decodes, and
implements the coded instructions. It generates axis motion commands, receives feedback
signals, and manages auxiliary functions like tool changes.
● Machine Tool: The part of the system that performs the mechanical work. It includes a
slide table and a spindle to control position and speed.
● Driving System: Composed of amplifier circuits, drive motors (like stepper or servo
motors), and ball lead-screws that provide controlled motion to the CNC elements.
● Feedback System: Also known as the measuring system, it uses position and speed
transducers to continuously monitor the tool's location. The MCU uses feedback signals
to correct any errors in position and speed.
● Display Unit: Used to show information about the machining process and to display any
errors that occur.
- CNC vs. PLC
● CNC (Computer Numerical Control): A specialized application, often controlling a
multi-axis machine tool like a mill or lathe. The CNC controller is purpose-built and uses
G-code to define tool movements based on CAD/CAM files.
● PLC (Programmable Logic Controller): A general-purpose logic controller designed
for users to create their own applications. It manages I/O and performs process and
sequence control functions.
● Relationship: In many CNC systems, a PLC is used for auxiliary functions such as tool
changing, clamping, cooling, and chip removal, while the NC part handles the geometric
motion of the cutting tool. The integration of both controllers into a single system offers
advantages like improved communication speed and reduced hardware costs.
[Module-3]
- Manual Part Programming
Part programming involves writing a series of commands for the CNC machine. These
commands are organized into "blocks," each starting with a letter address and ending with a
numerical value. The entire program consists of multiple blocks of instructions.
Elements of an NC Program A part program includes various elements to control the
machining process:
● Preparatory Functions (G-codes): Set up the machining conditions, such as units (G70
for inches, G71 for mm) and positioning mode (G90 for absolute, G91 for incremental).
● Miscellaneous Functions (M-codes): Control auxiliary actions like turning the spindle
on/off (M03/M05), coolant on/off (M08/M09), and automatic tool changes (M06).
● Coordinates (X, Y, Z): Specify the position of the cutting tool.
● Machining Parameters (F and S): Specify the feed rate and spindle speed, respectively.
● Tool Control (T-code): Identifies and selects a tool from an automatic tool changer.
Positioning Systems
● Absolute Positioning (G90): All tool locations are defined relative to a fixed origin, or
"absolute zero," which can be a corner or the center of the part.
● Incremental Positioning (G91): The next tool position is defined relative to the current
location, so the zero point shifts with each new position.
Canned Cycles Canned cycles are pre-programmed subroutines that simplify part
programming for common operations like drilling, boring, and tapping. They reduce the
number of blocks needed to perform a sequence of actions. For example, a drilling cycle (G81)
requires just one line of code to define the X, Y, Z, and feed rate for the operation, which
would otherwise require multiple lines. The G80 code is used to cancel a canned cycle.
- Computer-Assisted Part Programming
Computer-assisted part programming uses computer software to generate the NC code. This
process simplifies the creation of programs for complex geometries that would be difficult to
do manually. The
Automatically Programmed Tool (APT) language, developed at MIT in 1956, was one of the
first high-level programming languages specifically for NC machine tools. APT became the
standard for programming computer-controlled machine tools through the 1970s.
Look-Ahead Functions In high-speed CNC machining, a "look-ahead algorithm" is used to
process multiple blocks of a program in advance. This helps to create a smoother velocity
profile, avoiding unnecessary decelerations at the end of each block and reducing vibrations.
This prevents the tool path from deviating from the programmed path during high-speed
movements, which can cause machining errors and degrade surface quality.
- Open Architecture and CNC Controllers
An open-architecture CNC controller is one where the hardware and software are not
proprietary and can be modified or extended by the user. This contrasts with older, closed
systems where the manufacturer provided all hardware and software. The MCU's functionality
can be implemented using standard computer components, which enables greater
customization and flexibility. An open architecture can facilitate the integration of PLCs and
other systems, which can improve communication speed and reduce total cost of ownership by
eliminating the need for separate control hardware.
- DNC (Direct Numerical Control) and Distributed Numerical Control (DNC)
● Direct Numerical Control (DNC): In a DNC system, a central mainframe computer
coordinates the simultaneous operation of several NC machines. The computer's main
tasks are to program and edit part programs and then download them to the individual
machines.
● Distributed Numerical Control (DNC): This is a more modern version of DNC where a
central computer downloads complete programs to individual CNC machines, which may
be workstations or PCs. This approach increases system speed, allows for the handling of
large files, and expands the number of machine tools that can be used.
Adaptive Control Machining Adaptive control is a self-correcting form of optimal control
that combines feedback control and optimal control. In adaptive control machining, changes in
process variables like cutting force, power, and vibration are measured and used to adjust
process parameters such as cutting speed and feed rate. The system's controller continuously
measures process variables and uses a control algorithm to optimize an index of performance,
like production rate or product cost. This ensures the process operates optimally even in the
presence of disturbances.
- Codes
G - Codes
G00 - Rapid Positioning [Means to place the tool at a certain coordinate at a certain point]
G01 - Linear Interpolation [Linear movement in one direction, can be both +ve and -ve
direction]
G02 - Circular Interpolation - Clock-wise Direction
G03 - Circular Interpolation - Anti Clockwise Direction
G04 - Dwell - it tells the machine to pause (stay in place) for a specified amount of time
before continuing with the next command.
G17 - To select the XY Plane
G18 - To select the XZ Plane
G19 - To select the YZ Plane
G20 - To give the dimensions in Inch unit
G21 - To give the dimensions in Metric Unit
G28 - The machine to return back to the zero position.
M - Codes
