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 METHODS IN GEOCHEMISTRY
AND GEOPHYSICS

(Volumes 1–28 are out of print)

29. V.P. Dimri – Deconvolution and Inverse Theory – Application to
Geophysical Problems
30. K.-M Strack – Exploration with Deep Transient Electromagnetics
31. M.S. Zhdanov and G.V. Keller – The Geoelectrical Methods in
Geophysical Exploration
32. A.A. Kaufman and A.L. Levshin – Acoustic and Elastic Wave Fields in
Geophysics, I
33. A.A. Kaufman and P.A. Eaton – The Theory of Inductive Prospecting
34. A.A. Kaufman and P. Hoekstra – Electromagnetic Soundings
35. M.S. Zhdanov and P.E. Wannamaker – Three-Dimensional
Electromagnetics
36. M.S. Zhdanov – Geophysical Inverse Theory and Regularization
Problems
37. A.A. Kaufman, A.L. Levshin and K.L. Larner – Acoustic and Elastic
Wave Fields in Geophysics, II
38. A.A. Kaufman and Yu. A. Dashevsky – Principles of Induction
Logging
39. A.A. Kaufman and A.L. Levshin – Acoustic and Elastic Wave Fields in
Geophysics, III
40. V.V. Spichak – Electromagnetic Sounding of the Earth’s Interior
41. A.A. Kaufman and R.O. Hansen – Principles of the Gravitational
Method
42. A.A. Kaufman, R.O. Hansen and Robert L.K. Kleinberg – Principles of
the Magnetic Methods in Geophysics
43. Michael S. Zhdanov – Geophysical Electromagnetic Theory and
Methods
44. A.A. Kaufman and B.I. Anderson – Principles of Electric Methods in
Surface and Borehole Geophysics
45. A.A. Kaufman, D. Alekseev and M. Oristaglio - Principles of
Electromagnetic Methods in Surface Geophysics
 VOLUME FORTY FIVE

METHODS IN
GEOCHEMISTRY
AND GEOPHYSICS
Principles of Electromagnetic
Methods in Surface Geophysics
A.A. KAUFMAN
Colorado School of Mines
Department of Geophysics
Golden, CO, USA

D. ALEKSEEV
Nord-West Ltd.,
Shirshov Institute of Oceanology
Russian Academy of Sciences
Moscow, Russia

M. ORISTAGLIO
Stonewall Ridge
Newtown, CT, USA

AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON • NEW YORK • OXFORD

PARIS • SAN DIEGO • SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • SYDNEY • TOKYO
Elsevier
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ISBN: 978-0-444-53829-1
ISSN: 0076-6895

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Printed and bound in the UK

INTRODUCTION

This book is devoted to the theory of electromagnetic methods of applied

geophysics. It is intended for students and lecturers in geophysical depart-
ments, as well as for engineers and scientists involved in the use of elec-
tromagnetic fields in resource exploration and crustal geophysics. The
content is divided into several parts. The first part is an introduction to the
properties of static electric and magnetic fields in conducting and polarizable
media. (A static field is one that has no variation in time; the terms steady,
stationary, or time invariant are also used.) The full theory and application of
steady fields is described in more detail in our previous books. We decided
nevertheless to include this theory here, in a shortened form, because the
basic physical laws governing the behavior of static fieldsdthe laws of
Coulomb and Amperedremain fully valid for quasistationary electromag-
netic fields, which are prominent in applied geophysical methods. The
inclusion of this chapter at the start also enables us to avoid later use of the
expressions “it can be shown” and “well known” that are a source of
justifiable frustration for readers.
The second part of the book, “The propagation and diffusion of elec-
tromagnetic fields”, treats the full set of physical laws that govern the
behavior of the electromagnetic field. In this part, we present the equations
that describe the behavior of the field in conducting and polarizable media
and provide simple examples showing the effect of conduction and
displacement currents and of electric charges that vary in time. We describe
in detail sinusoidal and nonsinusoidal (transient) fields in a homogeneous
environment that is characterized by specific values of conductivity and
dielectric constant. In particular, we describe the concepts of wavelength,
velocity of propagation, and attenuation of sinusoidal waves in a medium
where conduction currents are much larger than displacement currents.
Our treatment pays special attention to the relationships between the
fields, the parameters of the medium and the distance from the source at
different intervals of time. These intervals correspond to the time of arrival of
the signal, to the interval when conduction and displacement currents
significantly affect the field and, finally, to later time intervals when the
effects of displacement currents are negligible. We emphasize that even in
these later time intervals the field has wavelike properties. In other words, no
matter how large the measurement time or how low the frequency, the

xvii j
xviii Introduction

electromagnetic field (signal) appears as a wave. This observation does not

contradict the fact that the electromagnetic field in later time intervals, or at
low frequencies, is described with high accuracy by the diffusion equation.
Given that most of the well-known books on electromagnetics do not
discuss in detail the behavior of the fields in conducting media, it is quite
possible that the second part of the book, as well as several subsequent
chapters, will be interesting for students of physics.
The third part of the book, “Quasistationary field in a horizontally
layered medium”, treats the electromagnetic field generated by a vertical or
horizontal magnetic dipole when displacement currents in a conducting
medium can be neglected. First, we discuss in detail the phenomenon of the
skin effect, which forces induced currents to be concentrated near the
surface at the part of the conductor that is closest to the source. We discuss in
great detail the field of a dipole in a homogeneous conducting medium,
because this simple model reveals interesting and useful features present in
more complex models. In particular, it is shown that measuring the quad-
rature and in-phase components of the field at sufficiently low frequencies
we observe a very different depth of investigation. This part of the book
then fully treats the electromagnetic field in a horizontally layered medium.
We derive the main formulas that describe the field and study their
asymptotic behaviors in the near field and wave zones, and at early and late
times. We consider the characteristics of the electric and magnetic fields in
both frequency and time, and show their relationships to the geoelectric
parameters of the medium.
The reader who has followed the development to this point will be ready
to study the theory and interpretation of “Electromagnetic soundings”, the
fourth part of the book. This part describes the three main types of elec-
tromagnetic sounding of the Earth: magnetotelluric sounding, frequency
soundings in the far field, and transient soundings. We first present the
history of development of magnetotelluric sounding, which uses natural
electromagnetic fields in the atmosphere as the primary or source field for
probing the Earth. We discuss the concepts of the wave zone, the subsurface
behavior of the field, and the surface impedance and its relationship to the
parameters of a horizontally layered medium within different frequency
ranges. We emphasize the mathematical basis for methods of interpretation,
including concepts such as uniqueness theorems, stable and unstable
parameters, and regularization. These concepts are relevant of course to all
types of electromagnetic soundings (as well as to other methods of
geophysical remote sensing). We describe step by step how the process for
Introduction xix

interpretation of magnetotelluric soundings has been developed. Finally we

describe the theory of frequency and transient soundings with controlled
(artificial) sources, since these methods are widely used in many quite
different areas of applied geophysics. We first treat the physical and math-
ematical foundations of frequency soundings in the far field; we then
describe in detail the transition to transient soundings at an arbitrary distance
from the source.
The final part of the book deals primarily with the principles of elec-
tromagnetic methods of mining geophysics. But we also cover briefly the
influence of localized inhomogeneities in Earth properties on the inter-
pretation of magnetotelluric sounding. The combination of these two
different subjects is not accidental. Concepts such as the galvanic and the
vortex parts of the electromagnetic field were first introduced in mining
geophysics. In addition, the influence of the field of alternating charges that
arise at boundaries between homogeneous regions (and distort magneto-
telluric sounding curves) was also explored first in mining geophysics. We
begin with a thorough analysis of the frequency and transient responses of
magnetic fields generated by currents induced in finite-sized conductors
surrounded by a nonconductive medium. We emphasize the relationship
between frequency and transient fields, and study the influence of geological
noise on both fields. We describe how the parameters of the surrounding
medium influence the depth of investigation of sounding methods using the
frequency and transient fields.
This last part of the book describes the main electromagnetic methods
used to explore for highly conductive bodies (such as mineral deposits), as
well as some methods of inductive profiling used in different geological
applications. Finally, we return to magnetotelluric sounding and consider
two- and three-dimensional Earth models, in each case providing physical
explanations for the shapes of sounding curves in the presence of lateral
inhomogeneity.
In conclusion, we would like to acknowledge the many prominent
scientists, geophysicists, engineers, and practitioners who have worked to
develop electromagnetic methods of surface geophysics during its more than
100-year history. We hope the reader will recognize and appreciate the
strong influence of these personalities in this book. We would also like to
personally thank Mr Paul Prasad Chandramohan, who spent so much effort,
preparing the manuscript for the publication.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The subject of applied electromagnetism for geophysical applications is vast.

And in attempting to write comprehensively on its different topics, the
authors have benefited enormously from the generous contributions of
others, including many colleagues and friends. In particular, P. Andrieux,
A. Becker, C. Stoyer, Y. Ogawa, S. Terentyev, and V. Mogilatov have all
supplied specific information on technology and methods that rendered more
vivid and thereby greatly improved different sections of the book. More
generally, E. Fainberg helped to clarify the treatment throughout the volume
with his clear, patient discussions with the authors. Two key appendices
were kindly contributed by others: R. Smith and A. Volkovitsky wrote
Appendix 1 on airborne electromagnetic methods; E. Aleksanova and
M. Blinova provided data for Appendix 3; A. Petrov contributed Appendix 4.
Finally, M. Bosner read carefully and made essential improvements to the
sections describing the physical principles of measuring electromagnetic fields
in frequency- and time-domain methods of electromagnetic surveying. As
with all such contributions, the best parts are the fruits of the contributors,
while any errors that may have crept in are the faults of the authors.

xxi j
 CHAPTER ONE

The System of Equations of the

Constant Electric and Magnetic
Fields

INTRODUCTION
Before we begin to study the time-varying electromagnetic fields, it is
necessary to focus our attention on the constant electric and magnetic fields.
It is related to the fact that Coulomb’s and Biot–Savart laws, governing the
behavior of these fields, still play the fundamental role for understanding the
so-called quasi-stationary fields used in the most electromagnetic methods of
the surface and borehole geophysics [1–3]. First, we remind the main fea-
tures of the constant electric field, which were described in detail in Ref. [2].

1.1. EQUATIONS OF THE CONSTANT ELECTRIC FIELD

IN A CONDUCTING AND POLARIZABLE MEDIUM
As was shown in Ref. [2] for the constant electric field, we have three forms
of the system of equations at regular points:
d
curl E ¼ 0 div E ¼ (1.1)
ε0
or
curl E ¼ 0 div D ¼ d0 (1.2)
or
curl E ¼ 0 div j ¼ 0 (1.3)
Here E is the electric field; D is the vector of electric induction and j is the
current density of free charges; D ¼ εE and ε is the dielectric constant of a
medium. In accordance with Ohm’s law,
j ¼ gE; (1.4)

Methods in Geochemistry and Geophysics, Volume 45

ISSN 0076-6895,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-53829-1.00001-0
Ó 2014 Elsevier B.V.
All rights reserved. 3 j
4 Principles of Electromagnetic Methods in Surface Geophysics

where g is the conductivity and

E ¼ Ec þ Eext

Here, Ec and Eext are the Coulomb’s and extraneous (non-Coulomb)

electric fields, respectively, and j is the vector of current density character-
izing an ordered movement of free charges, that is, conduction current. The
total density d is the sum as follows:
d ¼ d0 þ db (1.5)

Here, d0 and db are the density of the free and bound charges, respectively.
Let us make the several comments:
1. Equations 1.1–1.3 are written at regular points where the field has de-
rivatives and it is related to the following. By definition, for any vector
field M, we have
H
M$dS
div M ¼ lim S ; if DV /0 (1.6)
DV
that is, the divergence of the field characterizes the flux of the field
through a closed surface, surrounding an elementary volume which tends
to zero. This equation is valid everywhere; however, it is not convenient
for calculations because it requires an integration of a surface integral.
Taking into account that the surface S is very small, it is possible to replace
integration by differentiation that is much simpler. Inasmuch as such form
of divergence contains derivatives, it is valid only at regular points.
Also, by definition, we have for curl of any field M,
H
M$dl
curl M ¼ lim L if DS/0 (1.7)
DS
Here n is the unit vector perpendicular to the elementary area DS, and L
is the closed path surrounding this area. Both vectors dl and n obey the
right-hand rule. It is essential that an area in Eq. (1.7) is oriented in such a
way that the numerator has a maximal value. Again the calculation of Eq.
(1.7) is cumbersome, but it is possible to replace integration by differ-
entiation since the contour L is very small. As before, the presence of
derivatives allows us to use this new expression for curl only at regular
points where derivatives exist.
2. At interfaces between media with different electric parameters in place of
Eqs (1.1)–(1.3), we have the surface analogy of these equations:
s
E2t  E1t ¼ 0 E2n  E1n ¼ ;
ε0
The System of Equations of the Constant Electric and Magnetic Fields 5

or
E2t  E1t ¼ 0 D2n  D1n ¼ s0 ; (1.8)

or
E2t  E1t ¼ 0 g2 E2n  g1 E1n ¼ 0;

where E1t, E1n and E2t, E2n are the tangential and normal components of
the electric field at the back and front sides of an interface, respectively,
and the normal is directed toward the front side; that is into the medium
with index “2”.
3. The conductivity of a medium can be expressed as
 
g ¼ dþ uþ þ d u :
0 0 (1.9)

Here uþ and u are the mobility of the positive and negative charges,
respectively, which are extremely small numbers. This is the reason why
the velocity of free charges, involved in an ordered motion, is usually
very small and it does not exceed 106 m/s. Note that at the same time,
these hardly moving charges may create very strong magnetic field.
4. Unlike free charge which can move at distances exceeding molecule size,
the bound charges may change their position only within a molecule.
5. As follows from Eq. (1.3), the constant electric field in a conducting and
polarizable medium is independent on dielectric constant. In other words,
distribution of bound charges does not make influence on the electric field
even though these charges are present. Such remarkable feature of the field
behavior is also observed for the so-called quasi-stationary fields which
vary with time. This means that the density of total charge coincides with
that of free charges d0 in a nonpolarizable medium where ε ¼ ε0.
6. The volume and surface density of these charges are related with the field
and conductivity of a medium as
E$grad g
dðpÞ ¼ ε0 ; sð pÞ ¼ 2ε0 K12 Enav (1.10)
g
Here,
r2  r1
K12 ¼ ;
r2 þ r1

and Enav is the mean value of the normal component of electric field at
some point p of the boundary between media with resistivity r1 and r2;
the normal n is directed from medium 1 to medium 2. Besides, it is
assumed that an extraneous force is absent in the vicinity of point p. The
physical meaning of Enav ðpÞ is very simple: this is the normal component
6 Principles of Electromagnetic Methods in Surface Geophysics

of the field caused by all charges except that in the vicinity of point p.
Note that these charges do not form the current, and they arise at places
where conductivity of a medium varies.
7. The second equation of the system for the electric field at regular points is
d
div E ¼ or div D ¼ d0
ε0
and their surface analogy remain valid for the time-varying fields and
each of them represents the third Maxwell’s equation. One can say that
taking into account effect of polarization of a medium and appearance of
bounded charges, it became possible from Coulomb’s law to obtain the
third Maxwell’s equation.
Bearing in mind that constant magnetic fields were not discussed in
Ref. [2], it is necessary to consider this subject in some detail following
[3] and, in particular, derive the system of equations of this field.
Importance of this subject is emphasized by the fact that one of these
equations is the fourth Maxwell’s equation. Moreover, as was pointed
out, relationship between the conduction currents and the quasi-
stationary magnetic field is the same as in the case of the time-
invariant field.

1.2. INTERACTION OF CURRENTS, BIOT–SAVART LAW

AND MAGNETIC FIELD
1.2.1. Ampere’s Law and Interaction of Currents
Numerous experiments performed in eighteenth century demonstrated that
currents in two circuits interact with each other; that is, mechanical forces
act at every element of a current circuit. It turns out that this force depends
on the current magnitude, the direction of charge movement, the shape and
dimension of the current circuit, as well as a distance and mutual orientation
of the circuits with respect to each other. This list of factors clearly shows
that the mathematical formulation of this phenomenon should be a much
more complicated task than that for the electric field. In spite of this fact,
Ampere was able to find very quickly an expression for the force of inter-
action of two elementary currents in a relatively simple form:
 
m0 dl1 ðpÞ  dl2 ðqÞ  Lqp
dFð pÞ ¼ I1 I2 3
(1.11)
4p Lqp
The System of Equations of the Constant Electric and Magnetic Fields 7

where I1 and I2 are the magnitudes of currents in the linear elements dl1 and
dl2, respectively, and their direction coincides with that of the current
density; Lqp is the distance between these elements and Lqp is directed from
point q to point p, which are located at the center of current elements; and
finally m0 is a constant equal to
m0 ¼ 4m$107 H=m;

and it is sometimes improperly called the magnetic permeability of free space, in

spite of the fact that the latter does not have any physical properties.
Applying Ampere’s law, it is essential to note that the distance between
current elements must be much greater than their length:
Lqp [dl1 ; Lqp [dl2
Examples, illustrating an interaction of elementary currents, are given in
Figure 1.1.
Making use of the principle of superposition, the force of interaction
between two arbitrary closed current circuits is defined as

(a) dl( p)
dl(q)
Lqp p (b)
dF( p)
q
dF( p)
dl(q) Lqp p
dl( p)
q
(c)
dF( p)
dl(q)
Lqp dl( p)
q p

L2 (d)
L1
F(p1)
I1
I2 Lqp1
q
p1
Figure 1.1 (a) Interaction of currents having the same direction. (b) Interaction of
currents having opposite direction. (c) Interaction of current elements perpendicular to
each other. (d) Interaction of two current loops.
8 Principles of Electromagnetic Methods in Surface Geophysics

I I  
m dl1  dl2  L qp
F ¼ 0 I1 I2 3
(1.12)
4p Lqp
L1 L2

where L1 and L2 are the current lines along which integration is performed
and p s q.
The resultant force F is the sum of forces acting on different elements of
the contour and due to them different types of motion may occur. It is
appropriate to notice that in SI units, F is measured in newtons.

1.2.2. Magnetic Field and Biot–Savart Law

Inasmuch as there is interaction between currents, it is natural, by analogy
with the electric field, to assume that current in a contour creates a field and
due to the existence of this field, other currents experience the action of the
force F. This field is called the magnetic field, and it is introduced from
Ampere’s law as
dFð pÞ ¼ IðpÞdlð pÞ  dBð pÞ (1.13)
Here,
m0 dlðqÞ  Lqp
dBð pÞ ¼ IðqÞ 3
(1.14)
4p Lqp
and I(q) is the current of the element dl(q). Equation 1.14 is called the
Biot–Savart law and it describes the relationship between the elementary
linear current and magnetic field dB. By definition, the magnitude of the
magnetic field caused by the elementary current is
m dl  
dBð pÞ ¼ 0 IðqÞ 2 sin Lqp ; dl (1.15)
4p Lqp
Here, (Lqp, dl) is the angle between the vectors Lqp and dl; the vector dB is
perpendicular to these vectors as is shown in Figure 1.2(a), and these three
vectors obey the right-hand rule. The unit vector b0, characterizing the
direction of the field, is defined as
dl  L qp
b0 ¼  
dl  L qp 

In SI units, the magnetic field is measured in teslas and it is related to

other units such as gauss and gamma in the following way:
1 tesla ¼ 109 nT ¼ 104 gauss ¼ 109 gamma
The System of Equations of the Constant Electric and Magnetic Fields 9

dB
(a) (b)
dB p Lqp
Id1 dS i(q)
p dh
q
q Lqp
dl

Figure 1.2 (a) Magnetic field of a current element. (b) Magnetic field of the surface
current.

Now we will generalize Eq. (1.14) assuming that along with linear
currents, there are also volume and surface currents. First let us represent the
product Idl as

Idl ¼ j dS dl ¼ j dS dl ¼ j dV ; (1.16)

where dS is the cross-section of the elementary current tube, dl is oriented

along this tube and j is the volume current density. If the current is
concentrated in a relatively thin layer with thickness dh, which is small with
respect to the distance to an observation point, it is convenient to replace this
layer by a current surface. As is seen from Figure 1.2(b), the product Idl can
be modified in the following way:
I dl ¼ j dV ¼ j dh dS ¼ i dS (1.17)
Here dS is the surface element and

i ¼ j dh

is the surface density of current. The resultant force F is the sum of forces
acting on different elements of the contour. Applying the principle of su-
perposition for all three types of currents (volume, surface, and linear) and
making use of Eqs (1.14), (1.16), and (1.17), we obtain the generalized form
of the Biot–Savart law,
2 3
Z Z X I
m0 4 j  Lqp i  L qp dl  L qp 5
Bð pÞ ¼ 3
dV þ 3
dS þ In 3
4p Lqp Lqp n Lqp
V S
(1.18)
10 Principles of Electromagnetic Methods in Surface Geophysics

Now it is appropriate to make several comments.

1. This equation allows us to calculate the magnetic field everywhere inside
and outside of volume currents.
2. In general, the currents arise due to a motion of free charges and
magnetization of a magnetic medium. Correspondingly, the current
density is the sum of the following:
j ¼ jc þ jm
where jc and jm are the volume density of the conduction and magne-
tization currents, respectively, and a magnetic field of both these currents
obey the Biot–Savart law. In most part of this monograph, it is assumed
that a magnetization is absent.
3. In accordance with Eq. (1.18), the magnetic field caused by a given
distribution of currents depends on the coordinates of the observation
point p only, and it is independent of the presence of other currents. The
right-hand side of Eq. (1.18) does not contain any terms that characterize
the physical properties of the medium, and therefore the field B at point
p, generated by a given distribution of currents, remains the same if a free
space is replaced by a nonuniform conducting and polarizable medium.
For instance, if the given current circuit is placed inside a magnetic
medium, the field B caused by this current is the same as if it were in free
space. Of course, as is well known, the presence of such a medium results
in a change of the magnetic field B, but this means that inside of a
medium along with a given current, there are other currents which also
produce the magnetic field and they are the magnetization currents. This
conclusion directly follows from Eq. (1.18) which states that any change
of the field B can happen only due to a change of the current distri-
bution. Later in one special case (quasi-stationary field of a magnetic
sphere), we will take into account the influence of currents in a magnetic
medium but it is rather exception.
4. Unlike the volume distribution of currents, linear and surface analogies
are only the mathematical models of real distribution of current, which
are usually introduced to simplify calculations of the field and study its
behavior. For this reason, the equation
Z
m0 jðqÞ  L qp
BðpÞ ¼ 3
dV (1.19)
4p Lqp
V

in essence comprises all possible cases of the current distribution.

The System of Equations of the Constant Electric and Magnetic Fields 11

5. As will be shown later, the Biot–Savart law, Eq. (1.18), is also valid for the
time-varying magnetic field when it is possible to neglect by so-called
displacement currents. This means that this law plays an important role
in the theory of the frequency and transient soundings, the surface and
airborne electromagnetic profiling, in all modifications of the induction
logging. In other words, the Biot–Savart law correctly describes the time-
varying fields when an influence of diffusion is dominant.
6. All experiments that allowed Ampere to derive Eq. (1.11) were carried
out with the closed circuits. At the same time, Eq. (1.11), as well as Eq.
(1.14), is written for the element dl, where current cannot exist if this
element does not constitute a part of the closed circuit. In other words,
Eqs (1.11) and (1.14) cannot be proved experimentally but the inter-
action between closed current circuits takes place in such manner as if the
magnetic field B, caused by the current element Idl, was described by
Eq. (1.14).
7. In accordance with the Biot–Savart law, the current is the sole generator
of the constant magnetic field, and the distribution of this generator is
characterized by the magnitude and direction of the current density
vector j. As is well known, the vector lines of j are always closed. This
means that the magnetic field is caused by generators of the vortex type,
and unlike the Coulomb’s electric field, we are dealing with a vortex
field B.

1.2.3. Lorentz Force and Electromotive Force at the

Moving Circuit
As follows from Eqs (1.13) and (1.16), the current in the elementary volume,
placed in the magnetic field B, is subjected to the action of force:
F ¼ ð j  BÞ dV (1.20)
The latter allows us to find force acting on a single electron or ion
moving with velocity v.
By definition, the current density j can be represented as
j ¼ nev
where n is the number of particles in the unit volume, and e is the charge of
electron or ion. Therefore, the force of the magnetic field B acting on all
particles is
FB ¼ neðv  BÞ dV
12 Principles of Electromagnetic Methods in Surface Geophysics

and correspondingly every moving particle, for example, electron, is sub-

jected to a force equal to
FB ¼ eðv  BÞ (1.21)
Thus, this elementary charge is subjected to the total force equal to
F ¼ Fe þ Fm ¼ eEc þ eðv  BÞ; (1.22)
and it is called the Lorentz force. Here,
Fe ¼ eEc and Fm ¼ eðv  BÞ
are the forces caused by the electric and magnetic fields, respectively. By
analogy with Coulomb’s law, let us introduce the electric field of a non-
Coulomb’s origin as
Em ¼ v  B; (1.23)
and it acts on the moving charge in the presence of the magnetic field. By
definition, this field is perpendicular to both the velocity and the magnetic
field, and it reaches a maximum when the angle between these two vectors
is equal to p2 . As in the case of Coulomb’s electric field, the voltage of this
electric field along an elementary and arbitrary path is
Z
DV ¼ Em $dl ¼ ðv  BÞ$dl V ¼ ðv  BÞ$dl (1.24)
L

In particular, the electromotive force caused by the field Em is

I
X ¼ ðv  BÞ$dl (1.25)
L

Unlike the voltage of the Coulomb’s electric field, the second part of
Eq. (1.24) is path dependent, and in general, the electromotive force of this
field does not vanish. Now we consider several examples, but before it is
proper to emphasize that the existence of this field directly follows from
Ampere’s law which was derived for constant currents.
Example 1
Suppose that the current circuit does not move and it is placed into magnetic
field B (Figure 1.3(a)). It is clear that moving electrons along the circuit are
subjected to the action of the field Em, which is usually very small, since the
electron velocity is around 106 m/s. By definition, this field is perpen-
dicular to the Coulomb’s field and may cause only insignificant shift of
The System of Equations of the Constant Electric and Magnetic Fields 13

(a) (b)
F d c
e v v v
a b
B B

(c) (d) v
d c d c

v v
v
a b a b
B B
Figure 1.3 (a) Magnetic force acting on a charge which moves with velocity v. (b)
Rectangular circuit moving with velocity v in the magnetic field. (c) Movement of one
side of the circuit with velocity v. (d) Movement and deformation of a contour in the
magnetic field.

charges toward the surface of the circuit, where the positive and negative
surface charges tend to appear, but their electric field prevents this shift. For
this reason, our attention will be paid to the cases when either whole circuit
or its part moves in the magnetic field.
Example 2
Consider the rectangular and conducting circuit abcd (Figure 1.3(b)),
which moves with the constant velocity v along the x-axis. The uniform
magnetic field B is perpendicular to the circuit. Taking into account that
direction of currents along paths ad and cb are opposite to each other, the
voltages
DVad ; DVcb
differ by sign only. The voltages along lines ab and cd are equal to zero.
Indeed, according to vector algebra for the voltage along an arbitrary
element of the circuit dl, we have
ðv  BÞ$dl ¼ ðdl  vÞ$B (1.25a)
Since in case of lines ab and cd vectors dl and v have the same or opposite
direction, we conclude that the voltage along these elements of the circuit is
zero and, therefore, the electromotive force is also zero. As is seen from
Figure 1.3(b), the flux of the magnetic field F through the area, surrounded
by the path, remains constant. Thus, we have
dF
X ¼ 0; and ¼0
dt
14 Principles of Electromagnetic Methods in Surface Geophysics

Example 3
Now suppose that only the side ad slides with the velocity v, while the other
part of the circuit is at rest (Figure 1.3(c)). Then the electromotive force
coincides with the voltage DVad:

X ¼ vx Bz ad; (1.26)

where the sign depends on the orientation of the current in this line. It is
clear that the product vxad means the rate of a change of the area, enclosed
by the circuit and, therefore Eq. (1.26) can be also written as
dF
X¼
dt
that is, the electromotive force arising in the circuit is defined by the rate of a
change of the flux of the magnetic field through the area surrounded by the
circuit. By definition, the flux is equal to
Z
F ¼ B$dS
S

If the direction along the circuit and the vector dS obey the right-hand
rule, we have
dF
X¼ (1.27)
dt

Example 4
In this case, the magnetic field is aligned in the plane of the circuit which
moves with velocity v. Then the voltage along an arbitrary element of the
circuit is equal to
ðv  BÞ$dl ¼ 0
and, therefore, the electromotive force is absent in spite of a motion of the
circuit and the presence of the magnetic field. Inasmuch as the field B is
tangential to the circuit, its flux is also equal to zero, and we can again write
dF
X¼ ¼ 0:
dt
This shows that only the normal component of the magnetic field makes
an influence on the moving charge.
The System of Equations of the Constant Electric and Magnetic Fields 15

Example 5
Suppose that an arbitrary conducting circuit is located in some plane and
each of its element moves with velocity v which may change from point to
point (Figure 1.3(d)). This means that the circuit experiences both a motion
and deformation. The component of the magnetic field normal to this plane
may also vary. Consider again the elementary voltage along the element dl
which can be written as
DV ¼ ðv  BÞ$dl ¼ ðdl  vÞ$B
The magnitude of the cross product: dl  v is equal to the area covered
by the element dl during 1 s, and correspondingly DV is equal to the rate of a
change of the elementary flux of the field B. Integrating along the circuit
and using again the right-hand rule, we obtain
dF
X¼ (1.28)
dt
Later we will describe the Faraday’s law which has exactly the same form.
However from physical point of view, it has one fundamental difference,
namely, it shows that an electromotive force may arise not only because of a
movement and deformation of the circuit but also due to a rate of a change
of the magnetic field with time when circuit does not move. Besides,
Faraday’s law is applied to any closed path which can be, for example, an
insulator.

1.3. THE VECTOR POTENTIAL OF THE MAGNETIC FIELD

1.3.1. Relation between Magnetic Field and Vector
Potential
Although calculation of the magnetic field, making use of the Biot–Savart
law is not a very complicated procedure, it is still reasonable to find a simpler
way of determining field. With this purpose in mind, by analogy with the
scalar potential of the electric field, we will introduce a new function.
Besides there is another reason to consider this function, namely, it allows
one to derive sufficiently simply the system of equations of the magnetic
field. Let us proceed from Biot–Savart law:
Z
m0 jðqÞ  Lqp
Bð pÞ ¼ 3
dV (1.29)
4p Lqp
V
16 Principles of Electromagnetic Methods in Surface Geophysics

Taking into account that

Lqp q 1 p 1
3
¼V ¼ V (1.30)
Lqp Lqp Lqp

and substituting Eq. (1.30) into Eq. (1.29), we obtain

Z Z
m0 q 1 m p 1
Bð pÞ ¼ jðqÞ  V dV ¼ 0 V  jðqÞ dV (1.31)
4p Lqp 4p Lqp
V V

Here, letters q and p indicate that derivatives are taken with respect to
coordinates of the point q and p. For instance, in the Cartesian system of
coordinates, we have
q 1 q 1 v 1 v 1 v 1
V ¼ grad ¼ 1x þ 1y þ 1z ;
Lqp Lqp vxq Lqp vyq Lqp vzq Lqp

where 1x, 1y, and 1z are the orthogonal unit vectors.

Now we will make use of the equality
p
p j p 1 Vj
V ¼V jþ ;
Lqp Lqp Lqp

which follows from the vector identity:

V  ð4aÞ ¼ V4  a þ 4V  a (1.32)

Applying Eq. (1.32), we can rewrite Eq. (1.31) as

Z Z p
m p j m Vj
Bð pÞ ¼ 0 V dV  0 dV : (1.33)
4p Lqp 4p Lqp
V V

The current density is a function of the point q and does not depend on
the location of the observation point p. Therefore, the integrand of the
second integral is zero and
Z p
m0 jðqÞ
Bð pÞ ¼ curl dV (1.34)
4p Lqp
V
The System of Equations of the Constant Electric and Magnetic Fields 17

Inasmuch as the integration and differentiation in Eq. (1.34) are carried

out with respect to different points q and p, we can interchange the order of
operations that gives
Z
p m jðqÞ
BðpÞ ¼ curl 0 dV
4p Lqp
V

or
BðpÞ ¼ curl A; (1.35)
where
Z
m jðqÞ
AðpÞ ¼ 0 dV (1.36)
4p Lqp
V

Thus, the magnetic field B caused by constant currents can be expressed

through the vector potential A defined by Eq. (1.36). Comparing Eqs (1.29)
and (1.36), we see that the function A is related to the distribution of
currents in a much simpler way than the magnetic field is and, therefore, one
reason for introducing this function is already demonstrated. In accordance
with Eq. (1.36), A is a vector, unlike the potential of an electric field, and its
magnitude and direction depend essentially on the current distribution.
Now let us derive expressions for the vector potential A, caused by surface
and linear currents. Making use of Eq. (1.17),

j dV ¼ i dS;

and from Eq. (1.36), it follows that

Z I
m0 i dS m I dl
A¼ and A¼ 0 (1.37)
4p Lqp 4p Lqp
S L

In general case, when there are volume, surface, and linear currents, we
have
2 3
Z Z X I
m j dV i dS dl 5
A¼ 04 þ þ Ii (1.38)
4p Lqp Lqp i¼1
Lqp
V S

The components of the vector potential can be derived directly from this
equation. For instance, in Cartesian coordinates, we have
18 Principles of Electromagnetic Methods in Surface Geophysics

2 3
Z Z I
m0 4 jx dV ix dS X dlx 5
Ax ¼ þ þ Ii
4p Lqp Lqp i¼1
Lqp
V S

2 3
Z Z I
m0 4 jy dV iy dS X dly 5
Ay ¼ þ þ Ii (1.39)
4p Lqp Lqp i¼1
Lqp
V S

2 3
Z Z I
m0 4 jz dV iz dS X dlz 5
Az ¼ þ þ Ii
4p Lqp Lqp i¼1
Lqp
V S

Similar expressions can be written for the vector potential components in

other systems of coordinates. As is seen from Eq. (1.38), if a current flows
along a single straight line, the vector potential has only one component,
which is parallel to this line. It is also obvious that if currents are situated in a
single plane, then the vector potential A at every point is parallel to this
plane. Later we will consider several examples illustrating the behavior of the
vector potential and magnetic field, but now let us derive two useful re-
lations for the function A, which simplify to a great extent the task of
deriving the system of magnetic field equations.

1.3.2. Divergence and Laplacian of Vector Potential A

First, we will determine the divergence of the vector potential A. As follows
from Eq. (1.36), we have
Z
p p m
0 jðqÞ
div A ¼ div dV
4p Lqp
V

Since differentiation and integration in this expression are performed

with respect to different points, we can change the order of operations and
this gives
Z p
p m0 jðqÞ
div A ¼ div dV (1.40)
4p Lqp
V

The volume over which the integration is carried out includes all cur-
rents and therefore it can be enclosed by a surface S such that outside of it
The System of Equations of the Constant Electric and Magnetic Fields 19

currents are absent. Correspondingly, the normal component of the current

density at this surface equals zero:
jn ¼ 0 (1.41)
The integrand in Eq. (1.40) can be represented as
p
p j V$j p 1 p 1
V$ ¼ þ j$V ¼ j$V ;
Lqp Lqp Lqp Lqp
because the current density does not depend on the observation point and
p
div jðqÞ ¼ 0
Then, we have
q
p 1 q 1 q j V$j
j$V ¼ j$V ¼ V$ þ
Lqp Lqp Lqp Lqp
As follows from the principle of charge conservation,
q
div j ¼ 0
and therefore
p 1 q j
j$V ¼ div
Lqp Lqp
Correspondingly, Eq. (1.40) can be written as
Z q
m0 j
div A ¼  div dV
4p Lqp
V

Unlike Eq. (1.40) on the right-hand side of this equation, both inte-
gration and differentiation are performed with respect to the same point q so
that now we can apply Gauss’ theorem:
Z I
div M dV ¼ M$dS
V S

Thus, we have
Z I I
m q j m j$dS m jn dS
div A ¼  0 div dV ¼  0 ¼ 0
4p Lqp 4p Lqp 4p Lqp
V S S
20 Principles of Electromagnetic Methods in Surface Geophysics

Taking into account the fact that the normal component of the current
density jn vanishes at the surface S which surrounds all currents (Eq. (1.41)),
we obtain

div A ¼ 0 (1.42)

This is the first relation that is useful for deriving the system of field
equations. Let us note that in accordance with Eq. (1.42), the vector lines of
the field A are always closed. Next we will obtain one more equation
describing this function. As is well known [2], the potential of the electric
field U satisfies Poisson’s equation

d
V2 U ¼  ;
ε0

and its solution is

Z
1 d dV
U¼
4pε0 Lqp
V

As follows from Eq. (1.39), every component of the vector potential has
the same form as the potential U and, therefore by analogy, it also satisfies the
Poisson’s equation; that is,
V2 Ax ¼ m0 jx ; V2 Ax ¼ m0 jy ; V2 Az ¼ m0 jz
Multiplying each of these equations by the corresponding unit vector 1x,
1y, and 1z and performing the summation, we arrive at the Poisson’s
equation for the vector potential:

V2 A ¼ m0 j (1.43)

1.4. SYSTEM OF EQUATIONS OF THE CONSTANT

MAGNETIC FIELD
Now we are ready to derive the system of equations of the constant mag-
netic field. First, making use of Eq. (1.35), we discover that divergence of the
field B vanishes. In fact, we have

div B ¼ div ðcurl AÞ: (1.44)

The System of Equations of the Constant Electric and Magnetic Fields 21

As is well known from vector Calculus, the right-hand term of Eq. (1.44)
is identically zero. Therefore,
div B ¼ 0: (1.45)
This means that the magnetic field does not have sources, like charges,
and, correspondingly, the vector lines of the magnetic field B are always
closed. Applying Gauss’ theorem, we obtain the integral form of this equation
I
B$dS ¼ 0: (1.46)
S

That is, the total flux of the field B through any closed surface is always
equal to zero. Next we will derive the surface analogy of Eq. (1.45) and with
this purpose in mind, consider the flux through an elementary cylindrical
surface (Figure 1.4(a)). It is equal to

Bð2Þ $dS2 þ Bð1Þ $dS1 þ B$dS ¼ 0 (1.47)

Here,
dS2 ¼ dSn; dS1 ¼ dSn
and dS* is the lateral surface of the cylinder. Then reducing the height of the
cylinder to zero in place of Eq. (1.47), we obtain

Bð2Þ ð1Þ
n dS  Bn dS ¼ 0 or Bð2Þ ð1Þ
n ¼ Bn (1.48)
Thus, the normal component of the magnetic field B is always a
continuous function of the spatial variables. We have three forms of the first
equation that describe the magnetic field caused by constant currents:
I
B$dS ¼ 0; div B ¼ 0; Bð2Þ ð1Þ
n  Bn ¼ 0: (1.49)
S

(a) (b) (с)

j B2
dS2 B2
n n
n j j n i
dl
dS1 B1 B L B1

Figure 1.4 (a) Surface analogy of Eq. (1.45). (b) Illustration of Eq. (1.52). (c) Surface
analogy of Eq. (1.50).
22 Principles of Electromagnetic Methods in Surface Geophysics

Each of them expresses the same fact, namely, absence of magnetic

charges. Let us make two comments.
1. Equations (1.49) have been derived assuming that the field B is caused by
conduction currents. However, they remain valid in the presence of
magnetic medium when the field is also generated by magnetization
currents.
2. These equations were obtained from Biot–Savart law for direct currents,
but actually they are still valid for time-varying magnetic fields and in
effect represent the fourth Maxwell’s equation.
Let us develop the second equation for the magnetic field. Making use of
Eq. (1.35) and the identity
curl M ¼ grad div M  V2 M
we have
curl B ¼ grad div A  V2 A:
Considering the fact that
div A ¼ 0
and taking into account Eq. (1.43), we obtain
curl B ¼ V2 A ¼ m0 j:
Thus, the second equation for the magnetic field at regular points is
curl B ¼ m0 j: (1.50)
Consequently outside of currents, we have
curl B ¼ 0: (1.51)
It is clear that Eq. (1.50) expresses the fact that currents are generators of
the vortex type and they create the magnetic field. Applying Stokes
theorem,
I Z
M$dl ¼ curl M$dS
L S

where S is the surface bounded by the contour L, we obtain the integral

form of the second equation:
I Z Z
B$dl ¼ curl B$dS ¼ m0 j$dS
L S S
The System of Equations of the Constant Electric and Magnetic Fields 23

or
I
B$dl ¼ m0 I (1.52)
L

Here, I is the current flowing through the surface S bounded by the path
L (Figure 1.4(b)). It is proper to notice that the mutual orientation of vectors
dl and dS is not arbitrary but obeys the right-hand rule. Thus, the circulation
of the magnetic field is defined by the value of current I piercing the surface
surrounded by the contour L, and it does not depend on currents located
outside the perimeter of this area. Of course, this path L can pass through the
media with different physical properties.
In order to derive the surface analogy of Eq. (1.52), consider a closed
contour surrounding an element of surface current with density i(p)
(Figure 1.4(c)). Applying Eq. (1.52) to such a path and neglecting by
contribution of elements perpendicular to the surface current, we obtain
 
ð2Þ ð1Þ
Bt  Bt ¼ m0 il or n  Bð2Þ  Bð1Þ ¼ m0 i (1.53)

where t and l represent the two mutually perpendicular directions, both

tangent to the surface.
Thus, the tangential component of the magnetic field is a discontinuous
function at the points where the density of surface current differs from zero.
We have derived three forms of the second equation of the field B:
I  
B$dl ¼ m0 I; curl B ¼ m0 j; n  Bð2Þ  Bð1Þ ¼ m0 i (1.54)
L

Here, i is the vector of density of surface currents. It is interesting to

notice that the last of these equations is valid for any time-varying magnetic
field and it is usually regarded as the surface analogy of Maxwell’s second
equation. Also, as was pointed out earlier, the first two parts of Eq. (1.54)
remain valid for quasi-stationary fields which are widely used in the most
electromagnetic methods of the surface and borehole geophysics.
Now let us summarize these results and present the system of equations
of the magnetic field, caused by conduction currents in a differential form:
1. The system, shown below, has been derived from the Biot–Savart law in
the same way that the system of equations for the electric field was
derived from Coulomb’s law.
24 Principles of Electromagnetic Methods in Surface Geophysics

2. The Biot–Savart law and Eq. (1.55) contain the same information
about the magnetic field. This field is the classical example of the vortex
field, and its generators are currents characterized by the current density
vector j.

Biot-Savart law

I curl B = μ 0 j II divB = 0
(1.55)

n × (B2 − B1 ) = μ 0 i n ⋅ ( B2 − B1 ) = 0

3. At surfaces where the current density i equals zero, both the normal
and tangential components of the magnetic field are continuous
functions.
4. The system Eq. (1.55) describes the behavior of the field in free space as
well as in any nonmagnetic conducting medium. Moreover, it turns out
that Eq. (1.55) is still valid in the presence of a medium that has influence
on the field (magnetic material), provided that the right-hand side of the
first equation
curl B ¼ m0 j
includes also the magnetization currents.
5. As will be shown later, this system correctly defines the time-varying
magnetic field if it is possible to neglect by an effect of propagation of
electromagnetic waves.

1.5. BEHAVIOR OF THE MAGNETIC FIELD

Now we consider several examples illustrating the behavior of the
magnetic field and its vector potential.

Example 1: Magnetic Field of the Current Filament

Taking into account the axial symmetry of the problem, we choose a cy-
lindrical system of coordinates r,4, and z, with its origin situated on the
The System of Equations of the Constant Electric and Magnetic Fields 25

(a) (b)
Z
Z dB p
dB
Z2
Lqp
Lqp
Idl
0
p r a
Z1

Idl
Z

(c) p
(d)
Z
BZ BR
dl(- ) B
R p 1 dl( )
M p
Z B
B Br
r x B x
a
q Idl Idl r
B

Figure 1.5 (a) Magnetic field of a current line. (b) Magnetic field at the axis of a current
loop. (c) Magnetic field of the current loop at an arbitrary point. (d) Magnetic field of
the magnetic dipole in spherical and cylindrical coordinate systems.

current-carrying line (Figure 1.5(a)). Starting from the Biot–Savart law, we

can say that the magnetic field has only the component B4, which is in-
dependent of the coordinate 4. From the principle of superposition, it
follows that the total field is the sum of fields contributed by the current
elements Idz. Then, we have

Zz2
m I dz  L qp
B4 ¼ 0 3
(1.56)
4p Lqp
z1
1 =
where Lqp ¼ ðr 2 þ z2 Þ and z is the coordinate of the element dz. The
2

coordinates of the observation point are r and z ¼ 0, and z1 and z2 are the
coordinates of terminal points of the current line. It is clear that the absolute
value of the cross-product is
   
dz  L qp  ¼ dz Lqp sin dz; Lqp ¼ dz Lqp sin b ¼ dz Lqp cos a
26 Principles of Electromagnetic Methods in Surface Geophysics

Thus,
Zz2
m I dz
B4 ¼ 0 2
cos a (1.57)
4p Lqp
z1

Inasmuch as z ¼ r tan a, we have

 
dz ¼ r sec2 a da and 2
Lqp ¼ r 2 1 þ tan2 a ¼ r 2 sec2 a

Substituting these expressions into Eq. (1.57), we obtain

Za2
m I
B4 ¼ 0 cos a da
4pr
a1

Thus, the expression for the magnetic field caused by the current flowing
along a straight line has the form
m0 I
B4 ðpÞ ¼ ðsin a2  sin a1 Þ (1.58)
4pr
Here, a2 and a1 are the angles, as is shown in Figure 1.5(a). First, suppose
that the current-carrying line is infinitely long so that the two angles a2 and
a1 have values p2 and p2 , respectively. Then
m0 I
B4 ðpÞ ¼ (1.59)
2pr
In the case of a line that is only semi-infinite, a1 ¼ 0 and a2 ¼ p2 , we
have

m0 I
B4 ðpÞ ¼ (1.60)
4pr

Now we will assume that a2 ¼ a and a1 ¼ a. Then, in accordance

with Eq. (1.58), we obtain

m0 I m I l
B4 ðpÞ ¼ sin a ¼ 0 ; (1.61)
2pr 2pr ðl 2 þ r 2 Þ 1
=
2

where 2l is the length of the current-carrying line. If l is significantly greater

than the distance r, the right-hand side of Eq. (1.61) can be expanded in a
series in terms of ðr=lÞ2 . This gives
The System of Equations of the Constant Electric and Magnetic Fields 27

12
=
m I r2 m0 I 1 r2 3 r4
B4 ¼ 0 1 þ 2 z 1 2 þ 4 /
2pr l 2pr 2l 8l

We see that if the length of the current line 2l is 4–5 times greater than
the separation r, the field is practically the same as that due to infinitely long
current-carrying line. It is necessary to make one comment: Eq. (1.58) is
used in electromagnetic methods for calculating the primary magnetic field
caused by the closed current line of an arbitrary shape.

Example 2: The Vector Potential A and the Magnetic Field B

of a Current in a Circular Loop
First assume that the observation point is situated on the axis of a loop with
radius a, as is shown in Figure 1.5(b). Then in accordance with Eq. (1.36),
I
m0 I dl
A¼
4p Lqp
L

Inasmuch as the distance Lqp is the same for all points on the loop,
we have
I
m0 I
A¼ dl
4pLqp
L

By definition, the sum of the elementary vectors dl along any closed path
is zero. Therefore, the vector potential A at the z-axis of a circular current
loop vanishes. Now we calculate the magnetic field on the z-axis. From the
Biot–Savart law (Eq. (1.14)), it can be seen that in a cylindrical system of
coordinates, each current element Idl creates two field components dBz and
dBr. However, it is always possible to find two current elements Idl that
contribute the same horizontal components at any point of the z-axis but
with opposite signs. Therefore, the magnetic field has only a vertical
component along the z-axis. According to Figure 1.5(b), we have

a m I dl a m Ia dl
dBz ¼ jdBj ¼ 0 2 ¼ 0 3
;
Lqp 4p Lqp Lqp 4p Lqp
 
since dl  L qp  ¼ Lqp dl. Having integrated along the closed path of the
loop, we obtain
28 Principles of Electromagnetic Methods in Surface Geophysics

m0 Ia2pa m0 Ia2 m0 M
Bz ¼ 3
= ¼ 3
= ¼ 3 = ; (1.62)
4pða2 þ z2 Þ 2
2ða2 þ z2 Þ 2
2pða2 þ z2 Þ2

where
M ¼ Ipa2 ¼ IS
and S being the area enclosed by the loop. When the distance z is much
greater than the radius of the loop a, we arrive at an expression for the
magnetic field, which plays a very important role in the study of the mag-
netic and electromagnetic fields applied in geophysics. Neglecting a in
comparison with z, we have
m0 M
Bz ¼ if z[a: (1.63)
2pz3
When the intensity of the field does not separately depend on the current
or the loop radius, but it is defined by the product M ¼ IS, we call this the
field of the magnetic dipole. Thus, a relatively small current loop with radius
a creates the same magnetic field as a magnetic dipole having the magnitude
of the moment equal to M ¼ pa2I. It can also be seen from Eq. (1.62) that
when the distance z is at least four times greater than the radius a, the
treatment of the loop as the magnetic dipole situated at the center of the
loop results in an error of no more than 10%. Now let us return to Eq. (1.62)
and find how the field at the loop axis depends on its radius. It is clear that
when a  z, the field Bz increases almost directly proportional toa2, then it
starts to grow slower and reaches the maximum and after it decreases as 1 a. =

The maximum takes place when

1
=
a¼2 z 2

This is a useful relation which allows one to find the radius of the loop
providing the maximal primary field at a given depth. So far we have
considered the vector potential and the magnetic field only along the z-axis.
Now we will investigate a general case, and first of all, calculate the vector
potential at any point p. Due to symmetry, the vector potential does not
depend on the coordinate 4. For simplicity, we can then choose the point p
in the x–z plane, where 4 ¼ 0. As can be seen from Figure 1.5(c), every pair
of current elements, equally distant from the point p and having coordinates
4 and 4, creates a vector potential dA perpendicular to the x–z plane,
since each element Idl creates vector potential of the same orientation as dl.
Inasmuch as the whole loop can be represented as the sum of such pairs, we
The System of Equations of the Constant Electric and Magnetic Fields 29

conclude that the vector potential A caused by the current-carrying loop has
only the component A4. Therefore, from Eq. (1.36), it follows that
I Zp
m0 I dl4 m0 I a cos 4 d4
A4 ¼ ¼ (1.64)
4p 2p 1
=
R ða2 þ r 2  2ar cos 4 þ z2 Þ 2

0
where dl4 is the component of dl along the coordinate line 4 and
  1
=
dl4 ¼ dl cos 4; and Lqp ¼ a2 þ r 2  2ar cos 4 þ z2
2

Letting 4 ¼ p þ 2a, we have

d4 ¼ 2 da; cos 4 ¼ 2 sin2 a  1
and therefore
Zp=2  
aIm0 2 sin2 a  1 da
A4 ¼   1
=
p
ða þ rÞ2 þ z2  4ar sin2 a
2

Introducing new variable,

4ar
k2 ¼
ða þ rÞ2 þ z2
and carrying out some fairly simple algebraic operations, we obtain
2
Zp=2
kIm0 a  6 2 1
=
2 da
A4 ¼ 4 2 1
2p r 1=
k ð1  k2 sin2 aÞ 0
2

3
Zp=2
2  
1 =
7 (1.65)
1  k2 sin2 a
2
 da5
k2
0

Im0 a 1
k2
=
2

¼ 1 K E
pk r 2
where K and E are the complete elliptical integrals of the first and second
kind:
Zp=2 Zp=2 pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
da
KðkÞ ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi; EðkÞ ¼ 1  k2 sin2 a da (1.66)
1  k2 sin2 a
0 0
30 Principles of Electromagnetic Methods in Surface Geophysics

These functions have been studied in detail and there are standard al-
gorithms for their calculations. Using the relationship between the vector
potential and magnetic field, as is given by Eq. (1.35), we have in a cylin-
drical coordinate system

vA4 1v 
Br ¼  ; B4 ¼ 0; Bz ¼ rA4 (1.67)
vz r vr
As is known for elliptical integrals,

dK E K dE E K
¼ 2
 ; ¼ 
dk kð1  k Þ k dk k k

and

vk zk3 vk k k3 k3
¼ ; ¼  
vz 4ar vr 2r 4r 4a
Therefore, after differentiation, we obtain
" #
m I z a2 þ r 2 þ z2
Br ¼ 0   K þ E
2p ða  rÞ2 þ z2
1
=
r ða þ rÞ2 þ z2
2

and
" #
m I 1 a2  r 2  z2
Bz ¼ 0   Kþ E (1.68)
2p ða  rÞ2 þ z2
1
=
ða þ rÞ2 þ z2
2

Thus, in general, the magnetic field caused by the current in a circular

loop can be expressed in terms of elliptical integrals.

Example 3: Magnetic Field of the Magnetic Dipole and its

Moment
Suppose that the distance from the center of the current-carrying loop to the
observation point R is considerably greater than the loop radius, that is
  1
=
R ¼ r 2 þ z2 [a
2

Then Eq. (1.64) can be simplified, so that we have

The System of Equations of the Constant Electric and Magnetic Fields 31

Zp
m Ia cos 4 d4
A4 ¼ 0
2p 1=

0
ðR2  2ar cos 4Þ 2

Zp Zp 
m Ia cos 4 d4 m0 Ia ar
¼ 0  2ar   z 2pR 1þ cos 4 cos 4 d4
2pR 1
R2
=
1  R2 cos 4
2

0 0
2 3
Zp Zp
m0 Ia 4 ar
¼ cos 4 d4 þ cos2 4 d45
2pR R2
0 0
(1.69)
where the relation
ð1 þ xÞn z 1  nx

has been used assuming that nx  1. The first integral in Eq. (1.69) vanishes,
so that we obtain
m0 Ia2 r m ISr
A4 ¼ or A ¼ A4 14 ¼ 0 3 14 ; (1.70)
4R3 4pR
where S is the area of the loop.
Now we make use of the spherical system of coordinates, R, q, and 4,
with the origin at the loop center (Figure 1.5(d)); that is, from points of this
axis as z > 0, the direction of the current is seen counterclockwise. Then Eq.
(1.70) can be written as
m0 IS
A ¼ 14 sin q (1.71)
4pR2
Next, we introduce the moment of the small loop as a vector directed
along the z-axis, whose magnitude is equal to the product of the current in
the loop and its area; that is
M ¼ IS1z ¼ M1z ; (1.72)
where M ¼ IS. It is essential to note that the moment M and the direction of
the current form the right-hand system. Thus, instead of Eq. (1.71), we can
write
m0 M  R
A¼ ; (1.73)
4pR3
since
32 Principles of Electromagnetic Methods in Surface Geophysics

M  R ¼ 14 MR sin q
Now proceeding from Eqs (1.35) and (1.73) and taking into account the
fact that
AR ¼ Aq ¼ 0
we obtain the following expressions for the magnetic field in a spherical
system of coordinates,
   
1 v sin q A4 1 v RA4
BR ¼ ; Bq ¼  ; B4 ¼ 0
R sin q vq R vR
hence,

2m0 M m0 M
BR ¼ cos q; Bq ¼ sin q; B4 ¼ 0 (1.74)
4pR3 4pR3
These equations describe the behavior of the magnetic field of a rela-
tively small current loop; that is, its radius is much smaller than the distance
from the loop center to the observation point. This is the most important
condition to apply (Eq. (1.74)) while the values of the loop radius and the
distance R are not essential. We call the magnetic field, described by Eq.
(1.74), that of a magnetic dipole with the moment M. Here, it is appropriate
to make several comments:
1. In the case of the electric field, a “dipole” means a combination of equal
charges having opposite signs, when the field is determined at distances
essentially exceeding the separation between these charges. At the same
time, the notion of a “magnetic dipole” does not imply the existence of
magnetic charges but simply describes the behavior of the magnetic field
due to the current in a relatively small loop.
2. The magnetic field of any current system, regardless of its shape and
dimensions, is equivalent to that of the magnetic dipole when the field is
defined at distances much greater than the size of this system. For
instance, a distribution of conduction currents within the upper part of
the earth’s core is very complicated and it changes with time. However,
at the earth’s surface, relatively far away from the core, the magnetic field
of these currents is very close to that of the magnetic dipole.
3. In the most electromagnetic methods, applied in the surface and borehole
geophysics, including the frequency and transient soundings, electro-
magnetic profiling and induction logging, the current source can be often
treated as the magnetic dipole. As was pointed out earlier, Eq. (1.74),
The System of Equations of the Constant Electric and Magnetic Fields 33

derived for the constant current, is also applied for the quasi-stationary
fields and this is the main reason why we consider this example in detail.
The main features of the field of the magnetic dipole directly follow
from Eq. (1.74) and they are the following:
a. At points of the dipole axis z, the field of the magnetic dipole has only
one component Bz directed along this axis and it decreases inversely
proportional toz3:
m0 M
Bz ¼ (1.75)
2pz3
It is proper to note that this component is positive at all points of this
axis.
b. At the equatorial plane q ¼ p2 , the radial component BR vanishes, and
the field has the direction opposite to that of the magnetic moment M,
m0 M
Bz ¼  (1.76)
4pr 3
Here, r is the distance from the dipole to an observation point.
c. Along any radius (q ¼ constant), both components of the fielddBR
and Bqddecrease inversely proportional to R3. At the same time, the
ratio of these components, as well as an orientation of the total vector
B with respect to the radius R, does not change. In fact, in accor-
dance to Eq. (1.74), we have
Bq 1
¼ tan q (1.77)
BR 2
Note that this fact has very important application for paleomagnetic
studies. It is also useful to consider the components of the field in the
cylindrical system. As follows from Figure 1.5(d), we have
Br ðr; zÞ ¼ BR sin q þ Bq cos q and Bz ðr; zÞ ¼ BR cos q  Bq sin q;

where
  1
=
R ¼ r 2 þ z2
2

Taking into account Eq. (1.74), we obtain

3m0 M m0 M  2 2

Br ðr; zÞ ¼ sin q cos q; Bz ðr; zÞ ¼ 2 cos q  sin q
4pR3 4pR3
34 Principles of Electromagnetic Methods in Surface Geophysics

(a) (b)
Z Z

0
0 BZ Br

Figure 1.6 Behavior of components Bz (a) and Br (b) as functions of z.

or
3m0 Mrz m0 M  2 
Br ðr; zÞ ¼ 5
= ; Bz ¼ 5
= 2z  r 2 (1.78)
4pðr 2 þ z2 Þ 2
4pðr 2 þ z2 Þ 2

If we assume that r is constant, then Eq. (1.78) allows us to study the

behavior of the field components parallel to the dipole moment as a
function of z (Figure 1.6(a,b)). First of all, it is clear that the radial
component Br is an odd function of z and it changes the sign in the
equatorial plane of the dipole. At the same time, the vertical component
is an even function of z and it changes sign at points
r
z ¼ pffiffiffi
2

Example 4: Magnetic Field due to a Current

in a Cylindrical Conductor
Consider an infinitely long and homogenous cylindrical conductor, as is
shown in Figure 1.7(a), with the radius a and current I. In this case, the
current density j is uniformly distributed over the cross-section S and
everywhere has only the z-component which is constant:
j ¼ jz ¼ constant (1.79)
In the cylindrical system of coordinates r; 4; z where the z-axis is
directed along the conductor, the magnetic field can be characterized by the
three components Br, B4, and Bz. However, it turns out that two compo-
nents are equal to zero. As follows from the Biot–Savart law, the magnetic
field caused by the current element is perpendicular to the current density j
and therefore the vertical component Bz equals zero. Next, consider
The System of Equations of the Constant Electric and Magnetic Fields 35

(a) Z (b)
dB2 dB1
q1

jZ p
q2

Z
B
a r
(d)

(c) iφ
Bφ

0 a r

Figure 1.7 (a) Cylindrical conductor with current. (b) Summation of radial components
of the magnetic field of cylindrical conductor. (c) Behavior of the magnetic field.
(d) Infinitely long solenoid.

two current elements located symmetrically with respect to the half-plane,

4 ¼ constant (Figure 1.7(b)). It is clear that the sum of radial components
of the field is equal to zero. Since the entire conductor can be represented as
a combination of such pairs of current elements, we can say that the total
magnetic field does not have the radial component, Br ¼ 0. Thus, we
demonstrated that
 
B ¼ 0; B4 ; 0

Taking into account the symmetry of the distribution of currents, we see

that the vector lines of the magnetic field are circles located in horizontal
planes and their centers are located on the z-axis. In order to determine the
component B4, we take one such line and apply the first part of Eq. (1.54) in
the integral form. This gives
I I I
B$dl ¼ B4 dl ¼ B4 dl ¼ 2prB4 ¼ m0 IS
L L L
36 Principles of Electromagnetic Methods in Surface Geophysics

Here, IS is the current passing through any area bounded by the magnetic
line. In deriving this equality, we took into account the fact that the
magnitude of the field does not vary along this circle and both vectors: B
and dl are parallel to each other. Thus, the field outside and inside of the
current is
m0 I
Be4 ¼ if ra (1.80)
2pr
and
m0 j
Bi4 ¼ r if r  a (1.81)
2
since IS ¼ pr 2 j. In accordance with Eqs (1.80) and (1.81), the magnetic field
is equal to zero at the z-axis and increases linearly inside. At the surface of the
conductor, it reaches maximum, equal to
m0 j
B4 ðaÞ ¼ a (1.82)
2
and then the field decreases inversely proportional to the distance r
(Figure 1.7(c)). In this light, let us notice the following. Considering the
magnetic field of the linear current, we found out that the field tends to
infinity when an observation point approaches the surface of the current
line. As was pointed out earlier, it is a result of replacement of real
distribution of currents by its fictitious model. As is seen from Eq. (1.82),
at the surface of a conductor, the field has a finite value which is usually
rather small.

Example 5: Magnetic Field of Infinitely Long Solenoid

Suppose that at each point of the cylindrical surface S, a distribution of
currents is characterized by the density i4, and it has everywhere the same
magnitude (Figure 1.7(d)). Inasmuch as the current has only a component in
the 4 direction, we have B4 ¼ 0. It is a simple matter to show that the
radial component also vanishes. In fact, consider two elementary current
circuits located symmetrically with respect to plane where an observation
point is located (Figure 1.8(a)). We can see that the sum of radial compo-
nents is equal to zero. Taking into account the fact that the solenoid is
infinitely long, one can always find such a pair of current loops, and
The System of Equations of the Constant Electric and Magnetic Fields 37

(a) (b)
i

p
r0
0 r
B1 B2 R0

B
Figure 1.8 (a) Summation of radial components. (b) Magnetic field of a toroid.

therefore, the resultant radial component of the field is always equal to zero.
Thus, the total field has only the z-component:
B ¼ ð0; 0; Bz Þ (1.83)
This result greatly simplifies algebra because we have to focus on one
component only. In principle, it can be evaluated by an integration of the
fields caused by elementary current circles with the same radius a, but this is
rather cumbersome. For this reason, we make use of a different approach
based on the Poisson’s equation for the vector potential:
DA ¼ m0 j (1.84)
Taking into account symmetry and the fact that the vector potential has
the same component as the current density, we have
A ¼ A4 i4 (1.85)
Outside of the currents, this function satisfies Laplace’s equation:
 
DA ¼ D A4 14 ¼ 0:

According to vector calculus, we have

Duv ¼ vDu þ uDv þ 2ðgrad u$grad vÞ;
where u and v are the arbitrary scalar functions. In our case, A4 and i4
depend only on r and 4, respectively. The latter follows from the fact that

14 ¼ 1x sin 4 þ 1y cos 4;

38 Principles of Electromagnetic Methods in Surface Geophysics

where 1x and 1y are the unit vectors in Cartesian system of coordinates, and
they are independent of the coordinates of a point. Therefore, the dot
product term vanishes because both gradients involved are orthogonal to
each other. Finally, we arrive at the equation,
 
DA ¼ D A4 14 ¼ 14 DA4 þ A4 D14 ¼ 0: (1.86)

In a cylindrical system of coordinates, the operator D is

1v v 1 v2 v2
D¼ r þ þ (1.87)
r vr vr r 2 v42 vz2
First, we will find an expression for D14. It is clear that derivatives with
respect to r and z are equal to zero and
v
14 ¼ 1x cos 4  1y sin 4
v4
Thus,
v2
14 ¼ 1x sin 4  1y cos 4 ¼ 14
v42
Substitution of the latter into Eq. (1.86) gives Laplace’s equation with
respect to a scalar component A4 that greatly simplifies a solution:
d dA4 ðrÞ A4 ðrÞ
r  ¼0 (1.88)
dr dr r
It is an ordinary differential equation of the second order and its solution is
A4 ðrÞ ¼ Cr þ Dr 1 (1.89)
Taking into account the fact that the magnetic field has to have a finite
value and tends to zero at infinity, we represent the vector potential inside
and outside of the solenoid as

A4ðiÞ ¼ Cr; AðeÞ 1

4 ¼ Dr ; (1.90)
where C and D are unknown coefficients. By definition,
The System of Equations of the Constant Electric and Magnetic Fields 39

 
 1r r14 1z 

 
 
1  v v v 
B ¼ curl A ¼  : (1.91)
r  vr v4 vz 
 
 
0 rA4 0 

whence,
1v 
Br ¼ 0; B4 ¼ 0; Bz ¼ rA4 (1.92)
r vr
ðeÞ
Substitution of A4 into Eq. (1.92) yields

BðeÞ
z ¼0 if r>a
and we have proved that the surface currents of the solenoid do not create a
magnetic field outside the solenoid. In the same manner for the field inside
of the solenoid, we obtain

BzðiÞ ¼ 2C; if ra (1.93)

that is, this magnetic field is constant. In order to determine C, we recall that
the difference of tangential components at both sides of the solenoid is

2C ¼ m0 i4 or BzðiÞ ¼ m0 i4
Thus, for the field B caused by currents in the solenoid, we have

BzðiÞ ¼ m0 i4 ; if r  a and BðeÞ

z ¼ 0; if r>a (1.94)
We may say that the magnetic field is concentrated only inside the so-
lenoid. Certainly it is a very simple behavior but such result is hardly
ðiÞ
obvious. First, it is difficult to predict that the field inside, Bz ;is uniform
over the cross-section since the field due to a single current loop varies
greatly at its vicinity. Also it is not obvious before calculations that the field
outside of the solenoid is zero; that is, the fields caused by all current loops
compensate each other. Consider a plane z ¼ constant where an observation
point is situated. Current circuits located relatively close to this plane
generate a negative component along the z-axis, while current loops situ-
ated far away give at the same point a positive contribution, r > a. Corre-
spondingly, the field outside is a result of subtraction of elementary fields,
and it turns out that in the case of infinitely long solenoid, this difference is
40 Principles of Electromagnetic Methods in Surface Geophysics

equal to zero. Note that inside the solenoid, all terms are positive. Of course,
if a solenoid has a finite extension along the z-axis, the field outside is not
zero and it is characterized everywhere by both components Br and Bz, and
the latter prevails at its central part.

Example 6: Magnetic Field of a Current Toroid

Consider a toroid with the current density i shown in Figure 1.8(b) and
introduce a cylindrical system of coordinates with the z-axis perpendicular
to the toroid. Taking into account the axial symmetry, we see that the vector
potential and magnetic field are independent of the coordinate 4. Also
imagine two current loops of the toroid located symmetrically with respect
to the vertical plane, where a point of observation is located. As can be seen,
the sum of vector potentials due to these elementary currents does not have
the 4 component. Thus, for the vector potential, we have

A ¼ ðAr ; 0; Az Þ (1.95)
Taking into account the fact that
 
 1r r14 1z 

 
 
1  v v v 
B¼ 
r  vr v4 vz 
 
 
 Ar 0 Az 

we obtain
1 vAz vAr vAz 1 vAr
Br ¼ ¼ 0; B4 ¼  ; Bz ¼  ¼0 (1.96)
r v4 vz vr r v4
Thus, the magnetic field has only one component B4 , but it cannot be
calculated from Eq. (1.96), since neither component of the vector potential
is known. However, this problem can be easily solved by using the first
equation of the field in the integral form:
I
B$dl ¼ m0 IS
L

Taking into account the axial symmetry and the fact that B and dl have
the same direction, this equality is greatly simplified and gives
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