1139122

research-article2022
WMR0010.1177/0734242X221139122Waste Management & ResearchAcevedo et al.

Review Article

Waste Management & Research

Sustainable and circular agro-environmental

2023, Vol. 41(5) 955­–969
© The Author(s) 2022

practices: A review of the management of Article reuse guidelines:

agricultural waste biomass in Spain and the

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DOI: 10.1177/0734242X221139122
https://doi.org/10.1177/0734242X221139122
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Czech Republic

Mónica Duque-Acevedo1,2 , Leidy Marcela Ulloa-Murillo3 ,

Luis J Belmonte-Ureña2, Francisco Camacho-Ferre1,
Filip Mercl3 and Pavel Tlustoš3

Abstract
Sustainable and circular production models, such as the circular economy and circular bioeconomy, have become key mechanisms
to leave behind the traditional linear model of food production. Under this approach and considering the waste biomass potential
available in Spain and the Czech Republic, the main objective of this study is to analyse the most relevant aspects of the generation,
use and regulation of agricultural waste biomass (AWB) in both countries. For this purpose, a scientometric analysis and systematic
review of published research in the Scopus database were carried out. A complementary analysis of AWB management policies
and regulations was also part of the methodology. The results show that Spain has published almost twice as much research as the
Czech Republic. Furthermore, 91% of the retrieved research prioritizes the characterization and estimation of the potential of more
than 15 AWB types. Among the main ones are olive residues, horticultural residues and wheat straw, which are used for producing
organic amendments, bioenergy and biofuels. The results confirm that the reduction and valorization of AWB is an issue that has
become more important in the last 13 years, mainly due to the policies and strategies for circular economy and circular bioeconomy.
With this in mind, this study provides relevant information for governments on the aspects that need to be improved to advance in
the valorization of AWB. This study also provides guidance to farmers on the reduction and/or recovery alternatives that they can
implement to move towards sustainable and circular agriculture.

Keywords
Sustainable agriculture, agricultural waste biomass, circular economy, circular bioeconomy, sustainable development, scientometric
analysis, systematic review

Received 10th December 2021, accepted 26th October 2022 by Editor in Chief Arne Ragossnig.

Introduction increasing public investment to promote the adoption of sustain-

able agricultural practices. It also incorporated key aspects to
The 1972 United Nations Conference on the Human Environment improve waste management, including the adoption of a life
marked the beginning of significant events related to global cycle approach and the management of waste as a resource to
environmental management. Since then, the protection and con- increase its recovery (United Nations, 2012). Multiple research
servation of natural resources have undoubtedly become a top studies emphasize the importance of life cycle assessment
priority (Duque-Acevedo et al., 2021). The conference report as a tool for critically assessing the environmental impacts of
included recommendations that were approved for action at the
international level. In the area of ‘Management of natural
1Department of Agronomy, Sustainable Protected Agriculture
resources and their relationship with the environment’, the rec-
Research Network, University of Almeria, Almería, Spain
ommendations included one related to the control and utilization 2Department of Economy and Business, Sustainable Protected
of agricultural wastes, mainly crop residues and animal wastes Agriculture Research Network, University of Almería, Almería, Spain
(United Nations, 1973). 3Department of Agro-Environmental Chemistry and Plant Nutrition,

In 2012, during the United Nations Conference on Faculty of Agrobiology, Food and Natural Resources, Czech
University of Life Sciences Prague, Praha, Czech Republic
Sustainable Development (Rio + 20), emphasis was placed on
the need to continue working towards achieving the Millennium Corresponding author:
Development Goals (MDGs) (2000) and moving towards more Mónica Duque-Acevedo, Department of Agronomy, Sustainable
Protected Agriculture Research Network, University of Almería, La
sustainable agriculture. The political report of the conference, Cañada S/N, Almería 04120, Spain.
entitled ‘The future we want’, highlighted the importance of Email: [email protected]
956 Waste Management & Research 41(5)

agriculture and as a strategy for choosing the suitable sustainable Materials and methods
production chain (Avadí et al., 2016; Pundlik et al., 2021;
Vlachokostas et al., 2021). Description of the main stages
In 2015, the United Nations adopted the most important and of the process
ambitious global framework for sustainability, the Agenda 2030, Scientometric analysis and systematic analysis were the two
containing 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). SDG 2 main methods employed to analyse the scientific production on
‘Zero hunger’ promotes sustainable agriculture and SDG 12 AWB in Spain and the Czech Republic. A total of 206 research
‘Responsible consumption and production’ prioritizes sustaina- papers were retrieved from the Scopus database, one of the cen-
ble consumption and production under the guidelines of the tral repositories of peer-reviewed scientific literature (Elsevier,
circular economy. The aim is to reduce waste, extend the life of 2020). This database is suitable for the evaluation process
products and materials, regenerate natural systems and reduce because of its broad content coverage in all research fields
environmental pollution (United Nations, 2022). The European (Pranckutė, 2021; Zhao et al., 2022). Scopus’ intelligent tools
Union (EU) has evolved to integrate the environmental dimen- made it possible to obtain a broad and complete summary of the
sion into sectoral policies by reforming or issuing key policy research for both countries. In addition, lists were created, and
instruments focused on sustainable and circular production models metadata was processed in Excel files from which the studies
(SCPMs), such as the circular economy and circular bioeconomy obtained for each country were reviewed one by one, 164 for
(European Environmental Agency, 2018). In the context of these Spain and 42 for the Czech Republic. The first stage consisted of
models, the main challenge for agriculture is to ensure the effi- revising the titles and abstracts of the retrieved studies, followed
cient use of natural resources and the prevention and reuse of by selecting those specifically related to the topic under study.
biomass in the value chain to reduce negative environmental The final sample included 81 studies for Spain and 9 for the
impacts (Kardung et al., 2021; Li et al., 2021). Czech Republic. Then, from the CSV files with the metadata of
Agricultural waste biomass (AWB) is one of the primary inputs the last samples obtained from Scopus, a scientometric analysis
of the circular economy and circular bioeconomy. It is a second- was carried out, one of the most widely used methods to evalu-
ary raw material with a high potential that can be converted into ate the structure and evolution of scientific production (de
bioenergy, biofuels and biofertilizers, among other bio-based Sousa, 2021; Murillo et al., 2021; Ulloa-Murillo et al., 2022).
products, through biorefinery processes (Gontard et al., 2018; Using VOSviewer, version 1.6.16, specialized software for
Rodias et al., 2020). The action plan of the bioeconomy strategy scientific mapping (Wang et al., 2021; Wong, 2018), keyword
‘Innovating for Sustainable Growth’ issued by the EU in 2012 co-occurrence network with an overlay visualization was con-
prioritized investment in research and innovation over specific structed. The third stage of the process consisted of a systematic
actions to improve knowledge on the availability and potential of review of the study as a complementary analysis. This method is
AWB for manufacturing high-value-added products (European one of the most widely used in different areas of knowledge to
Commission, 2012). The new bioeconomy strategy ‘strengthen­ examine the scientific literature’s quantitative and qualitative
ing the connection between economy, society and the environ­ aspects and obtain specific information on a particular subject
ment’ (2018) also prioritizes Research and Innovation for the (Linnenluecke et al., 2020; Ricciardi et al., 2020).
deployment of innovative solutions for the production of new and For this reason, in the databases prepared for the sciento­
sustainable bio-based products (European Commission, 2018) metric analysis, specific information was included for each
Recent research shows that an enormous amount of AWB is study on five previously defined variables of interest (Figure 1).
produced annually worldwide (~4 billion tonnes/year), represent- The abstract, methodology and conclusions of these publica-
ing a favourable outlook in terms of utilization and valorization tions were the main fields considered for the systematic review.
(Patzschke et al., 2020). Hamelin et al. (2019) quantified the waste In the case of the Czech Republic, the analysis was comple-
biomass potential in the EU-27 and found that 13 European coun- mented by reports and project reports obtained from the web-
tries have the highest amount of waste available (above 20 PJ y−1). sites of official bodies. The final phase of the study consisted of
Among these countries are the Czech Republic and Spain. Because a review and analysis of the main regulatory and management
of the above, the main objectives of this study are as follows: (1) tools on the use, recovery and exploitation of AWB. Figure 1
To analyse the evolution and main characteristics of the scientific shows the detailed list of the procedures that were part of the
production of AWB in Spain and the Czech Republic. (2) To evalu- stages described above.
ate the main types of AWB studied and the valorization alternatives
proposed for Spain and the Czech Republic. (3) To identify the
main environmental measures and/or actions established to reduce Results and discussion
and recover AWB in Spain and the Czech Republic.
Characterization and evolution of
The results of this research contribute to raising the impor-
scientific production
tance of SCPMs in agriculture. Also, on the main AWB manage-
ment practices that can be adopted by farmers. The findings Characterization of studies – Spain. From the studies analysed,
could also be an indicator of the impact of policies on waste man- 91% focus on the characterization and estimation of the potential
agement, circular economy and circular bioeconomy. of one or several types of specific AWB for obtaining different
Acevedo et al. 957

Figure 1. Main stages of the study preparation process.

kinds of products. Other studies (6%) make a more general anal- include identifying and characterizing the AWB (Álvarez et al.,
ysis of AWB, such as estimates of the potential supply or quanti- 2015) and projections for the future of this type of waste (Hame-
fication of AWB produced by different crops (Parra et al., 2001). lin et al., 2019). To a lesser extent, other research studies show
Some of these studies use other assessment methods, such as the benefits of pre-treatment of AWB to improve its characteris-
geolocalization (Cintas et al., 2018; de Wit and Faaij, 2010; tics and enhance its utilization (Colomer-Mendoza et al., 2012;
Hamelin et al., 2019; Velázquez-Martí et al., 2013). They also Gallego Fernández et al., 2019).
958 Waste Management & Research 41(5)

Figure 2. Evolution of scientific production on AWB in the Czech Republic and Spain.
AWB: agricultural waste biomass.

Characterization of studies – Czech Republic. From the there is a slight increase in publications, which remains at an
retrieved studies where the main focus was the characterization average of 5 per year until 2021. 2010 reported the highest num-
and quantification of biomass potential, it is possible to observe ber of publications (10%), followed by 2018 (9%). Thus, 77% of
the implementation of different techniques such as geographic the studies were published in the last 13 years, a similar trend
information systems (GIS) for yield assessment of other residual identified by previous studies (Duque-Acevedo et al., 2020b). As
biomass feedstock (Havlíčková et al., 2009). In addition, the highlighted in this study, the increase in publications is an indica-
biomass potential was modelled using innovative methods and tor of the vital role of policies on sustainable development,
algorithms, confirming that agricultural waste as a source of MDGs in 2000 and SDGs in 2015, especially those European
energy has good potential in the Czech Republic (Vávrová et al., strategies related to the circular bioeconomy (2012).
2014). Finally, biomass potential is determined using different The EU Framework Programme for Research and
models such as the biomass competitiveness model, which Innovation, Horizon 2020 (2014–2020) has been the main
allows, among other aspects, to predict the economic competi- funding source for EU bioeconomy strategies (2012 and 2018).
tiveness of the biomass utilization for bioenergy (Vávrová et al., Specific actions related to research and innovation on AWB
2018). Valorization of AWB plays an essential role in the proper quantification and valorization have materialized through pro-
setting of targets in waste biomass management and its prospec- jects under the ‘Societal challenges’ action line of the Horizon
tive transformation into bio-based products, which, according to 2020 programme (European Commission, 2018). This has
the retrieved information, are currently directed mainly to bio­ favoured publications on this topic. For the period 2021–2024,
energy and biogas production. the EU included the bioeconomy among the key strategic
orientations for research and innovation (Horizon Europe)
Evolution of scientific production – Spain. The first article, (European Commission, 2021a).
‘Biogas technology developed and evaluated by ENADIMSA’,
which focuses on using waste biomass as an energy source, was Evolution of scientific production – Czech Republic. Accord-
published in 1985 (Garcia et al., 1985). The latest study, ‘Role of ing to Figure 2, it is possible to observe that the interest for this
organic amendment application on soil quality, functionality and issue in the Czech Republic appeared in 2009, when the first pub-
greenhouse emission in a limestone quarry from semiarid ecosys­ lication (Scopus indexed) related to the interest subject appeared,
tem’, has as its primary objective the use of organic amendments entitled ‘Methodology of analysis of biomass potential using
for soil restoration, produced from different types of composts, GIS’. This article aimed to assess the potential use of different
among them vegetable compost from greenhouse crop residues biomass sources based on its assigned yields published in 2009
(Soria et al., 2021). (Havlíčková et al., 2009).
The trend in publications in Figure 2 shows that until 2006 an In 2014, a growing interest is clear due to an increase in
average of 2 articles were published per year. From 2007 onwards, the number of published articles with an annual average of three
Acevedo et al. 959

Figure 3. Keyword co-occurrence network map for Spain.

Figure 4. Keyword co-occurrence network map for the Czech Republic.

publications. The article ‘Biomass potential — Theory and prac­ General analysis of keywords:
tice: Case example of the Czech Republic region’ is the last reg- Scientometric analysis
istered publication (2020) and it is focused on the determination
of biomass potential for energy purposes, and it discussed the The terms used in the search equation were not included among
potential risks associated with the estimation of the biomass pro- the keywords selected to construct the co-occurrence map.
duction (Knápek et al., 2020). Figures 3 and 4 represent the keyword network using an overlay
960 Waste Management & Research 41(5)

Table 1. Main types of AWB analysed for Spain.

Pruning residues Greenhouse Wheat Grape Maize Rice husk Tomato Cotton Residues of Pepper
and/or olive crop straw crop crop and/or rice crop crop other cereal crop
pomace residue wastes wastes ash residues residues crops residues
24 (32%) 9 (12%) 9 (12%) 7 (9%) 6 (8%) 6 (8% 5 (7%) 4 (5%) 4 (5%) 3 (4%)
Fruit tree Artichoke Lentil plant Loquat Sunflower Barley crop Oat crop residues Almond shells
pruning waste crop residue seeds stalks residues
residues
3 (4%) 2 (3%) 1 (1%) 1 (1%) 1 (1%) 1 (1%) 1 (1%) 1 (1%)

AWB: agricultural waste biomass.

visualization, which reflects the average citation of the descrip- Similarly, this type of AWB is used to a lesser extent for bio­
tors selected by the authors and those indexed in the Scopus data- energy production. It is important to highlight other terms that
base. The stronger the relationship between two terms, the closer appear on the network, such as sustainable development, circular
they are positioned near one another. The terms size and colour economy, bioeconomy (with an average of 15, 20 and 16 cita-
show the keywords average citation effect within the publica- tions, respectively), which are considered strategic pillars for
tions. Some concepts were unified in the list of keywords to improving research and innovation on the valorization and
obtain the final lists with the thesaurus loaded into the VOSViewer exploitation of biomass resources (Hamelin et al., 2019). The rel-
software. The main criteria for unification were as follows: simi- evance of the policy initiatives on this issue that the EU has
larity of meaning of the words, terms in the plural and singular established makes this international body a benchmark for such
form and those with references to scientific names, which were research. This analysis follows a similar trend to the results of
already registered under common names, as in the case of plants other more general investigations (Duque-Acevedo et al., 2020b).
and tree species. The complementary analysis based on text cor-
pus data included 60% of the most relevant terms in research Keyword co-occurrence analysis for the Czech Republic. The
titles and abstracts. keyword co-occurrence network was constructed based on author
and indexed keywords; it is formed by nine items, which were
Keyword co-occurrence analysis for Spain. In all, 98 terms grouped into two clusters (Figure 4). The node with the highest
were included in the network, forming five large clusters (Figure frequency was biomass potential, which appeared in 88% of the
3). In the first cluster, the term biomass is the most relevant term publications with an average of seven citations; this term is asso-
in the whole network with an average of 38 citations. 38% of the ciated with the broad possibility for biomass valorization; the
publications prioritize this term to refer in a general way to the term biomass, with an average of eight citations, is related to the
different types of agricultural biomass residues that are the sub- different alternative agricultural residues used as feedstock
ject of analysis in the research (Antolín et al., 1996; Soltero et al., among the studies. Cluster 2 comprises three nodes with similar
2018). The term crops reported an average of 62 citations, and frequencies, conventional agriculture, pelletizing and crop (with
was included in 25% of the studies, groups together residues an average of 10, 7 and 16 citations, respectively); this term cor-
from different types of crops studied for their potential to pro- responds to different crops studied, such as cereals and rape
duce bio-based products. For example, waste from olive tree (Brassica napus).
crops is one of the most studied, which explains why the term
olive tree is relevant in the network. Another term associated with
Systematic analysis variables
this is Andalusia. This region has the largest concentration of
olive trees cultivation in Spain (García-Maraver et al., 2012), Main types of AWB – Spain. More than 15 types of AWB were
meaning that this is one of the largest generators of AWBs from studied in the research analysed (Table 1). 32% of these publica-
olive oil production (García-Jaramillo et al., 2014). tions prioritize the analysis of pruning residues and olive pomace
Other cereal crops such as wheat and rice are prioritized in the (olive pulp and pits) resulting from the olive oil extraction pro-
analysis, given the abundance and potential of the residues they cess in olive oil mills (Campos et al., 2020; García Maraver et al.,
generate, especially wheat straw and rice husk, with an average 2010; Gómez et al., 2010). The production of this type of residue
of 56 citations. Greenhouse crops are another of the main types has increased considerably in recent decades, mainly in the coun-
of waste prioritized in the research. The previously mentioned tries of the Mediterranean basin, where olive oil production has
residues have a high fibre, cellulose, lignin and hemicellulose traditionally been concentrated (Gómez et al., 2010). Spain pro-
content, which is why the term lignocellulose appeared (Jiménez duces nearly 50% of the total volume of olive oil, making it the
and González, 1991). Also, they are prioritized for the production world’s leading producer (Ministerio de Agricultura, Pesca y
of fuels or biofuels such as ethanol (Faraco and Hadar, 2011). Alimentación, 2021a; Pulido-Fernández et al., 2020). Industrial-
These by-products are also used to produce soil amendment such ization and the development of advanced technology for oil
as compost and biochar, among other fertilizers. extraction have led to increased production of AWBs in
Acevedo et al. 961

this sector (Gómez et al., 2010). The first research that analyses further development should be based on the use of agricultural
alternative uses for pruning waste and/or olive pomace dates waste (mainly straw) after the deduction of straw used in the farm
back to 1991 (Jiménez et al., 1991). The appropriate management uses (e.g. ploughed straw) and biomass from forestry (Knápek
of this type of AWB has been one of the producers’ priorities in et al., 2020; Vávrová et al., 2014). The highest demand for bio-
this sector (Gómez et al., 2010). mass production based on its use is animal feeding and human
Greenhouse crop residue is the second most studied type of consumption, for bioenergy production maize silage is mainly
AWB. Among the main crops producing this biomass are tomato, used (Pulkrábek et al., 2019). The studies which specified the
pepper, aubergine, cucumber, courgette, melon, green bean and type of residual biomass used included straw from conventional
watermelon. These crops are mainly grown in the Mediterranean agriculture crops such as cereals and rape (Havlíčková et al.,
basin. They have become more important in recent years, espe- 2009; Havlíčková et al., 2010; Vávrová et al., 2014).
cially in Spain, where the largest area of greenhouses in the world The central primary agricultural residue in the Czech Republic
is located (Valera et al., 2017). At the end of the cycles of these is cereal or rapeseed straw. The availability of these residues is
crops, a large amount of fruit and vegetable waste is produced, mainly derived from the experimentally determined residue-to-
mainly plant remains and detritus. For example, in the province product ratio. The study carried out by Zednicek (2020) reported
of Almeria, tomato and pepper crops generate more than 50% of the data obtained to estimate total residue yields depending on
the residual biomass (Duque-Acevedo et al., 2020a). This calls the crop type, representing its primary residues theoretical poten-
for proper management and improvements in its use, given its tial. In addition, this study included results of a survey carried out
significant potential as a secondary raw material for new bio- with farmers on their straw management. This found that 84% of
products (Callejón-Ferre et al., 2011; Moreno et al., 2021; Pérez them revealed to use the straw for their own purposes (ploughing
et al., 2003). The first study that analysed this type of waste was it back and animal bedding). Those respondents who sell the
published in 2001 (Parra et al., 2001). straw (only 15%) reported that the price is a decisive factor
Wheat straw was prioritized as well as greenhouse crop resi- (34%). Most of it is directed to animal bedding when the biomass
due in 12% of the studies analysed. Wheat and maize have his- is sold, followed by feed usage and in minor proportion as a feed-
torically been the cereals with the highest production worldwide stock to incineration plants (55, 21 and 16%, respectively).
and are also the main generators of AWB, which has been the In addition, the survey asked respondents how much straw
subject of studies for more than 60 years. Approximately 6 mil- they considered should stay on the field, and found that there
lion hectares of cereals are cultivated in Spain. In addition, durum was no consensus about the amount. Around 38% believed that
and soft wheat are among the main types of cereals distributed all should stay, 13% considered that 75% and the rest believed
over a large area of Spanish territory (Ministerio de Agricultura, less than 50%. According to the author, this constitutes a barrier
Pesca y Alimentación, 2021b). in sustainable farming practices, directly affecting the possibil-
Wheat straw is abundant at the end of crop cycles, and its ity of transforming the residual biomass into high-value-added
composition of mainly lignocellulosic materials makes it a valu- applications.
able by-product for the energy industry (Jiménez et al., 1991;
Sastre et al., 2015). Some studies have quantified the overall Main alternatives for the valorization of AWB – Spain. From
(theoretical) potential of AWB in Europe, highlighting wheat the selected studies, 33% prioritize organic amendments, mainly
straw as one of the main streams with the highest potential compost, biochar and, to a lesser extent, other types of organic
(Hamelin et al., 2019). To a lesser extent, other types of AWB fertilizers as an alternative for the recovery of AWB (Manyà
from cereal crops such as rice, maize and oats have been evalu- et al., 2007; Serranti et al., 2018; Soria et al., 2021). Pruning
ated in the studies as secondary feedstock (Table 1). However, waste, olive pomace, greenhouse plant waste and cereal crop
20% of the articles discuss AWB generally, without specifying residues are the main types of biomass destined for this recovery
any one type of residue. Other studies analyse more than one type alternative (Callejón et al., 2010). Most of these studies, which
of residue. Research suggests that Spain has large areas that are were carried out between 2001 and 2021, highlight that these
moderately attractive for the high potential and low cost of AWB types of amendments contribute to improving agricultural land,
(de Wit and Faaij, 2010). counteracting soil degradation processes, preventing erosion pro-
cesses and even improving crop yields (Alburquerque et al.,
Main types of AWB – Czech Republic. From the studies carried 2013; Boulal et al., 2011; López-Piñeiro et al., 2007).
out in the Czech Republic, the general category AWB was used in The production of biofuels, especially biogas, bioethanol and
55% of the retrieved studies, including different approaches, pellets, was in the same proportion as the main objective of 25
such as the connection between local agriculture and biogas of the 81 studies analysed (García Maraver et al., 2010;
plants, through the use of agricultural waste or purposely grown Koukoulas, 2007; Soltero et al., 2018) (Figure 5). Almost all the
crops as a feedstock from local farms (Chodkowska-Miszczuk types of AWB indicated in Table 1 have been considered for
et al., 2020; Kodymová, 2014). obtaining these biofuels. These include olive pruning and olive
As biomass is considered to be an essential renewable energy pomace residues, greenhouse plant residues, cereal and fruit
source, its potential determination was established by stating crop residues, and sunflower stalks, among other types of AWB
962 Waste Management & Research 41(5)

Figure 5. Main types of bio-based products for Spain and the Czech Republic.

(Armesto et al., 2002; Bonilla et al., 1990; Garcı́a-Ibañez et al., Main alternatives for the valorization of AWB – Czech Republic.
2004). These 25 studies were carried out between 1990 and The retrieved studies from the Czech Republic registered two
2021, which confirms that this type of use has been one of the different valorizations of AWB alternatives, which were the trans-
most studied and implemented as an alternative for reducing and formation for biogas and bioenergy production as an additional
recovering AWB. source of energy; it was also identified that the produced digestate
Bioenergy production is relevant for 20% of the research. A after processing the agricultural wastes has a major use as organic
wide variety of different types of AWB are also used to obtain fertilizer, this contributes to improving the organic fertilizer man-
this type of bio-based products (García-Maraver et al., 2012; agement in agriculture or in the municipal sphere (Kodymová,
Mendívil et al., 2015; Perea-Moreno et al., 2020). 8% of the stud- 2014; Pastorek et al., 2013). Although biogas production is the
ies analyse the production of chemical compounds such as bioac- main focus of 45% of the studies (Figure 5), which included the
tive compounds, polyphenols, phenols, antioxidants and enzymes use of pellets made from agricultural waste (wheat and rice straw
(peroxidase) (de Castro and Capote, 2010; Muíño et al., 2017; and hay), the syngas produced after the gasification process could
Pérez Galende et al., 2012; Romero-García et al., 2016). The be used for liquid fuel synthesis (Najser et al., 2014).
main bio-based products obtained in 5% of the research were The potential of agricultural waste for bioenergy production
materials for biofumigation, bio removal of heavy metals and was also assessed in 55% of the studies. The first publication is
nematode control. Other liquid and solid compounds with vari- from 2009, and it was focused on the analysis of biomass poten-
ous applications were also obtained (PiedraBuena et al., 2006). tial in the Czech Republic using GIS (Havlíčková et al., 2009). It
The latter studies, which represent 16% of the research, have was found that the sustainable energy potential from agricultural
been carried out between 2010 and 2020. This indicates that in biomass is firmly restricted to the energy demand. However, as
the last 10 years, other types of uses have begun to be explored the focus on the need for alternative renewable energy sources
beyond only the production of biofuels and bioenergy, which increases, it will encourage the introduction of new technologies
have historically been the two main alternatives for the valoriza- and, in turn, increase the attention to crop residues for energy
tion of AWB (Duque-Acevedo et al., 2020b). production (Simon and Wiegmann, 2008). The economic model-
In 1987 and 1988, two research studies (3%) were carried ling for the estimation of competitiveness of biomass versus coal
out on the use of rice husk and/or rice ash for the production of utilization for energy production allowed to identify the necessity
building materials such as cement ash and concrete blocks of measures aimed to decrease the costs, to guarantee the com-
(Salas et al., 1987, 1988). However, recently, some studies have petitiveness of the produced pellets against brown coal for energy
continued to analyse the potential of this type of AWB for production (Vávrová et al., 2018).
obtaining additives for cement, among other types of high- According to the Ministry of Agriculture, biogas and biomethane
added value bio-based products (Andreola et al., 2020; production should be produced from waste biomass and biode-
Tchakouté et al., 2020). In addition, artichoke crop residues gradable waste, contributing to the reduction of adverse impacts of
have been used as a secondary raw material for cheese produc- dedicated biomass cultivation on agricultural land water other
tion (Barbagallo et al., 2007). environmental components (Czech Ministry of Agriculture, 2019).
Acevedo et al. 963

Figure 6. Main regulatory and management instruments on AWB.

AWB: agricultural waste biomass.

Principal policies, strategies and Spain

action plans on AWB management In terms of waste policy, Spain is committed to waste prevention
In compliance with the provisions of Regulations (EU) No. following the provisions of the EU Waste Framework Directive.
1305/2013 and 1308/2013, the Czech Republic and Spain have Since 2013, it has had a Waste Management Plan and a Waste
included agro-environmental and climate measures in rural Prevention Programme with the main objective to decouple
development programmes at the national or regional level the increase in waste from economic growth (Ministerio de
(Ministerio de Agricultura, Pesca y Alimentación, 2019). They Agricultura Alimentación y Medio Ambiente, 2013) (Figure 6).
have also established national guidelines that include environ- On the other hand, the bioeconomy strategy promotes the
mental actions to be carried out by Fruit and Vegetable Producer recovery of biological waste and by-products as raw material for
Organizations (FVPOs) (European Commission, 2021b). These further production processes to improve resource efficiency. It
eligible actions and/or measures contribute to achieving different also stresses that the sustainable use of biomass resources pro-
environmental objectives, such as AWB’s reduction and/or val- duced in the agro-industry and food sector allows for creating
orization. Figure 6 summarizes the general framework on poli- new business areas in the rural sector. It also highlights the
cies, strategies, programmes and other instruments promoting the importance of improving technology to facilitate the recycling
reduction and/or valorization of AWB in Spain and the Czech and recovering raw materials (Ministerio de Economia y
Republic. Competitividad, 2015).
964 Waste Management & Research 41(5)

The conservation and preservation of the environment is a from the farm itself in greenhouse horticulture (Ministerio de
cross-cutting objective of rural development policy. This general Agricultura y Pesca, Alimentación y Medio Ambiente, 2017).
framework includes specific strategic lines that favour sustainable According to information from the Ministry of Agriculture,
development. For example, one of the EAFRD priorities defined in Fisheries and Food, Spain had 532 FVPOs and 9 Associations
this document is the promotion of resource efficiency, low carbon of Producer Organizations. Cooperative Society, Agricultural
and climate change resilient economy in the agricultural sector. Transformation Societies, Limited Companies and Public
This results in a series of measures based on the principles of the Limited Companies are the primary legal forms. The fruit and
circular economy and bioeconomy. These include agri-environ- vegetable area of the FVPOs is 781,199.76 ha. In all, 453 FVPOs
ment climate and organic agriculture (European Union, 2013). have operational programmes in force.
Based on these guidelines, the autonomous communities have
developed their own rural development plans and other regula-
Czech Republic
tory instruments that contain the specific operations that are part
of the agro-environment and climate and organic farming meas- The Czech Republic does not currently have a circular economy
ure. These instruments include the regulatory bases for granting or bioeconomy national policy; however, active conversations
subsidies to farmers who are not part of a producer organization around this topic have been ongoing in the country – one of the
(PO) and who implement practices related to these operations. targets is to establish the Strategy ‘Circular Czechia 2040’ and
Among the operations defined by the autonomous community the country has also committed to implementing changes towards
of Andalusia, for example, are those related to sustainable sys- this direction in existing policies, programmes and plans. The
tems for intensive horticultural crops and cut flowers in green- Czech Republic has a well-developed legal framework related to
houses, which include four specific actions. Three of them are management of waste and resources, including the Ministry of
focused on the reduction and valorization of AWB. The first is Agriculture (MZE) Strategy with a view to 2030, approved by
aimed at carrying out green manures by incorporating plant resi- Government Resolution No 392 of 2 May 2016, which seeks
dues generated on the farms. for the long-term vision of the MZE. The National Conceptual
The second action is the use of compost from plant waste, Document Strategic Framework Czech Republic 2030 was
which has been recovered in authorized treatment and/or recov- approved by the Govern­ment Resolution No 292 on 19 April
ery plants. The third related action is the use of biodegradable 2017 (INCIEN, 2019; Organisation for Economic Cooperation
raffia instead of conventional raffia as a strategy to facilitate the and Development, 2021).
treatment and subsequent composting or use as green manure of In addition, official initiatives including bioeconomy princi-
the AWB (Consejería de Agricultura, 2017). These actions are ples have been developed: the Biomass Action Plan for the
part of the sustainable and circular agricultural model. In addition Czech Republic 2012–2020, the National Energy and Climate
to contributing to AWB reduction, they promote its valorization Plan for the Czech Republic and the Food and Nutrition Security
to obtain bio-based products, which in this particular case Strategy 2014–2020, Policy of Territorial Development of the
improve soil structure and fertility. In addition, farmers who Czech Republic, Waste Management Plan of the Czech Republic
implement these measures reduce consumption of mineral ferti- for the period 2015–2024 and the Waste Prevention programme
lizers and the fees for the disposal of AWB while avoiding envi- of the Czech Republic (Czech Ministry of Agriculture, 2019).
ronmental impacts associated with production processes. The Innovation Strategy of the Czech Republic for 2019–2030 is
The National Strategy for Sustainable Operational Programmes a crucial document that includes measures to support research
to be developed by FVPOs defines a series of measures and and innovation (Hájek et al., 2021; Organisation for Economic
actions that are eligible within the framework of the Operational Cooperation and Development, 2021) (Figure 6).
Programmes presented by these organizations. One of these meas- From the previous national strategies, it can be seen that the
ures is aimed at environmental objectives. In the national guide- Czech Republic includes the economic, social and environmental
lines document concerning environmental actions, 10 groups of dimensions of the circular economy and bioeconomy principles.
actions are included, one of which has as its primary objective Therefore, in the spirit to promote the use and practice of bio­
waste reduction. Among the measures included in this group are economy principles at the enterprise and public administration
the use of biodegradable raffia on the farm, the recovery of organic level, the Platform for Bioeconomy of the Czech Republic was
waste generated in the production, processing, packaging of the created in 2018.
product for dispatch and marketing stages. The Action Plan for Biomass in the Czech Republic for the
The treatment, recovery and classification of waste and biogas period 2012–2020 defines the appropriate measures and principles
production using organic waste and by-products from the pro- for the efficient and effective use of the energy potential of bio-
duction and processing of fruit and vegetables also form part of mass. Among the energetically usable biomass from agricultural
these actions. Other related actions are part of the objective of production is residual biomass composed mainly of straw (sourced
improving or maintaining soil quality, such as incorporating from cereals and oilseed rape), targeted biomass (maize, rape) and
pruning waste into the soil or placing it on the soil to improve its permanent grass. The use of straw contributes to the energy bal-
organic matter content and combat erosion, the use of compost of ance through the production of biofuels; besides its energy poten-
vegetable origin, and carrying out green manuring using waste tial, another advantage is a low cost for residual biomass.
Acevedo et al. 965

Despite the local nature of biomass cultivation, its central and the type and quantity of AWB produced. The values of these
energy use predominates in heating plants and electricity. The indicators are much higher in the case of Spain. This is mainly
Plzeň heating plant is the largest heating plant using targeted agri- because, in the south of Spain there are two key regions the prov-
cultural and forest biomass (straw, forest waste) in the Czech ince of Jaén, one of the territories with the highest production of
Republic. Its energy production (electricity and heat) is character- AWB from the world’s largest olive oil industry (Hamelin et al.,
ized by a large current consumption of biomass (>200,000 tonnes/ 2019). Likewise, the province of Almeria has the most significant
year ) and thus there exists a relatively large dependence on its concentration of horticultural greenhouses worldwide (Duque-
permanent availability. Acevedo et al., 2020a). As a result, the main types of AWB iden-
The potential of residual biomass for direct combustion and tified (olive pruning waste, olive pomace, greenhouse crop
biogas production was calculated in the total amount of 71 PJ per waste) come from these industries.
year (including by-products of primary agricultural production: Multiple investigations have emphasized the potential of this
cereal and rape straw, livestock excrement, by-products from type of biomass for producing a wide variety of bio-based prod-
biofuel production and by-products from grain cleaning). The ucts (Duque-Acevedo et al., 2020a; García Martín et al., 2020;
most important portion corresponds to residual cereal straw with Hamelin et al., 2019). Especially for the production of biofuels
a potential of 45.3 PJ. High energy benefits and low costs associ- and bioenergy, two of the main types of bio-based products
ated with residual biomass highlight their potential contribution obtained from the analysis (García-Maraver et al., 2012; Romero-
to achieving the 2020 targets. García et al., 2016). In the case of the Czech Republic, the pro-
The Rural Development Programme for the Czech Republic duction of these bio-based products from cereal crop straw
prioritizes, among other things, the renewal, preservation and (Havlíčková et al., 2009; Havlíčková et al., 2010; Pastorek et al.,
improvement of agricultural and forestry ecosystems. It also 2013; Vávrová et al., 2014) has been studied. Other studies con-
prioritizes the effective use of resources and support for the firm that this type of AWB, due to its high concentration of ligno-
transformation towards a low-carbon economy. Following the cellulose (80%), has been the most widely used for producing
guidelines of this general framework, the National Strategy of bioenergy and biofuels (Duque-Acevedo et al., 2020b, 2021). It
the Czech Republic for Sustainable, Programmes of Producer is possible that in the case of the Czech Republic, some charac-
Organizations in the Fruit and Vegetable Sector – (FVPOs) was teristics of cereal residues limit their use for other types of utili-
created (Buchtová et al., 2021). In addition, the national frame- zation (Bernas et al., 2020). In addition, in 2017, the Czech
work containing the environmental measures for the operational Republic was one of the countries with the highest number of
programmes of the FVPOs was also created. agricultural biogas plants per million inhabitants (Komor and
Environmental measures in this national framework include Bujanowicz-Haraś, 2020). This could be one of the reasons for
actions to increase soil fertility and prevent soil erosion. Other the prioritization of bioenergy as a bio-based product. Residues
measures relate to integrated production and organic farming, from the agricultural sector, mainly from cereal crops, play a key
which promote environmentally friendly farming methods. role in the growth of bioenergy production. Between 3% and
Specific measures on the reduction and valorization of AWB are 14% of the total global energy supply could be obtained from
not included in this document (European Union, 2021). AWB (World Bioenergy Association, 2019).
According to the Ministry of Agriculture information, there In the case of Spain, it is evident that the use of AWB for man-
are other subsidy mechanisms other than those under Regulation ufacturing other types of bio-based products, such as organic
(EU) No 1308/2013, which promote the implementation of meas- amendments, compost and biochar, has diversified. This may be
ures to reduce and improve AWB by farmers. because olive and greenhouse fruit and vegetable crop residues
Currently, there are 21 FVPOs identified and/or registered in have a more significant potential for manufacturing this bio-based
the MZE, including one transnational FVPO. These organiza- product (Duque-Acevedo et al., 2020a; Galic and Bogunovic,
tions exist mainly in two legal forms: cooperatives and compa- 2018; López-Piñeiro et al., 2007). In addition, the regulations
nies (Limited companies and self-regulatory organization), and governing the operational programmes of POs in the fruit and
all of them count with an operational program. The FVPO had in vegetable sector in Spain include specific actions for the recovery
2019 a cultivated area of 10,507 ha. of AWB, such as the incorporation of plant residues into the soil,
green manure with residues from the farm itself and the use of
Discussion of the main results. All the variables analysed compost of plant origin, among others (Ministerio de Agricultura,
yielded relevant results, although with notable disparities Pesca y Alimentación, 2018; Ministerio de Agricultura y Pesca,
between the two countries, mainly concerning the number of Alimentación y Medio Ambiente, 2017). These specific regula-
publications and the evolution of scientific production. Spain, tory instruments deriving from higher standards and strategies
with almost 90% of the publications in the sample, has been focused on sustainable and circular development encourage
studying AWB since 1985. On the other hand, the Czech Repub- research on the characterization and identification of alternatives
lic began to report in scientific databases this subject 24 years for using AWB.
later. Several factors could influence this, for example the differ- Although both countries have developed a comprehensive
ence between the area devoted to agriculture, the types of crops, framework of policies, strategies and action plans on AWB
966 Waste Management & Research 41(5)

management, the specific strategies for a circular bioeconomy, that encourage research on the reduction and/or valorization of
which Spain has implemented since 2015, are likely to promote AWB. Similarly, a comparative analysis on the number of
scientific interest and support for funding of research and innova- European projects implemented by both countries that have
tion projects and programmes. A recent study showed that the EU included research on AWB reduction and/or valorization.
through the European Regional Development Fund, whose main It is possible that some research focusing on AWB in Spain
objective is to strengthen socio-economic cohesion in the EU, and the Czech Republic does not specifically include some of the
and the Horizon 2020 Framework Programme, the EU’s main terms used in the search equation of this study. Therefore, the
research and innovation programme are among the main sources selected data may not represent the totality of research on this
of funding for AWB-related research in the framework of the cir- topic, which could also be considered for future research. In addi-
cular economy and bioeconomy (Duque-Acevedo et al., 2020b). tion, including the sponsor of the funds as a variable of analysis
Concerning the focus of the research, it is evident that both could provide guidance on the relevance of government policies
Spain and the Czech Republic have prioritized the characteriza- and strategies in this area.
tion and estimation of the potential of AWB. This is considered a
key aspect in determining the feasibility of using this type of bio- Acknowledgements
mass for the production of bio-based products. The use of AWB The authors would like to thank the University of Almería for a pre-
in producing some bio-based products such as bioenergy can be doctoral contract issued by the university in 2018.
complex, which is why it is essential to analyse the energy param-
eters, among other variables associated with the process (Bernas Declaration of conflicting interests
et al., 2020; Nunes et al., 2020). Similarly, knowledge about the The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to
amount of AWB available in the regions is a crucial aspect of the the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.
supply chain for the production of bio-based products such as
Funding
biofuel (Fernández-Sarría et al., 2019).
The authors disclosed receipt of the following financial support for
the research, authorship and/or publication of this article: Czech
University of Life Sciences Prague for the financial support from the
Conclusions European Regional Development Fund (project NUTRISK no. Z.02
The reduction and valorization of AWB is an issue that has .1.01/0.0/0.0/16_019/0000845).
become increasingly important over the last 13 years. One of the
indicators of this trend is the increase in research analysing the ORCID iDs
potential of different AWB for transformation into a wide variety Mónica Duque-Acevedo https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1398-2280
of high-value-added products. However, this trend is not the Leidy Marcela Ulloa-Murillo https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7175-
same in all countries, as evident in Spain and the Czech Republic. 4251
The importance of this issue is also reflected in the wide variety Pavel Tlustoš https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1274-0658
of AWB types analysed for utilization. More than 15 types of
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