energies

Review
The Role of Flexibility in the Integrated Operation of
Low-Carbon Gas and Electricity Systems: A Review
Mohammad Mehdi Amiri 1 , Mohammad Taghi Ameli 2 , Goran Strbac 3 , Danny Pudjianto 3, * and Hossein Ameli 3

1 Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Razi University, Kermanshah 6714414971, Iran; mehdi_hmf@yahoo.com

2 Clean Energy Systems Solution CESS GmbH, 14169 Berlin, Germany; m.ameli@cess-group.com
3 Control and Power Group, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, UK; g.strbac@imperial.ac.uk (G.S.);
h.ameli14@imperial.ac.uk (H.A.)
* Correspondence: d.pudjianto@imperial.ac.uk

Abstract: The integration of gas and electricity networks has emerged as a promising approach to en-
hance the overall flexibility of energy systems. As the transition toward sustainable and decarbonized
energy sources accelerates, the seamless coordination between electricity and gas infrastructure
becomes increasingly crucial. This paper presents a comprehensive review of the state-of-the-art
research and developments concerning the flexibility in the operation of low-carbon integrated gas
and electricity networks (IGENs) as part of the whole system approach. Methods and solutions to
provide and improve flexibility in the mentioned systems are studied and categorized. Flexibility
is the system’s ability to deal with changes and uncertainties in the network while maintaining an
acceptable level of reliability. The presented review underscores the significance of this convergence
in facilitating demand-side management, renewable energy integration, and overall system resilience.
By highlighting the technical, economic, and regulatory aspects of such integration, this paper aims
to guide researchers, policymakers, and industry stakeholders toward effective decision-making and
the formulation of comprehensive strategies that align with the decarbonization of energy systems.

Keywords: flexibility; integrated low-carbon gas and electricity network; whole energy system;
hydrogen storage; P2G; demand response program (DRP); decarbonization; linepack

Citation: Amiri, M.M.; Ameli, M.T.;

Strbac, G.; Pudjianto, D.; Ameli, H.
The Role of Flexibility in the 1. Introduction
Integrated Operation of Low-Carbon Many countries have invested considerable effort in reducing carbon dioxide emissions
Gas and Electricity Systems: A and achieving carbon neutrality. Low-carbon economies are based on the United Nations
Review. Energies 2024, 17, 2187. Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), which was adopted in Rio in
https://doi.org/10.3390/en17092187 1992. In recent years, many regions around the world have prioritized developing a
Academic Editor: Ahmed Abu-Siada sustainable low-carbon economy. The European Union (EU) has played a particularly
active role in developing strategies and plans for achieving a low-carbon energy system
Received: 7 April 2024 and economy. In 2024, the EU achieved a substantial milestone, with 44% of its electricity
Revised: 29 April 2024
being generated from renewable sources, while ambitiously aiming for nearly complete
Accepted: 30 April 2024
reliance on renewables, targeting nearly 100% by 2050, as outlined in [1]. For this reason,
Published: 2 May 2024
the EU Energy Roadmap 2050 proposes extensively deploying renewable energy sources
(RESs) (primarily wind and solar) as well as smart grids and sustainable economic activities.
Nevertheless, other regions (e.g., China, the U.S., Japan, Brazil, etc.) are also investing
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.
considerable resources in renewables and low-carbon energy technologies [2]. China, for
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. instance, has declared that it will become carbon neutral by 2060 [3,4]. Finland plans to
This article is an open access article achieve carbon neutrality by 2035 [5]. The goal of reaching carbon neutrality in several
distributed under the terms and European countries by 2050 is mentioned in [6]. It is essential to fully utilize energy
conditions of the Creative Commons conversion technologies, such as combined heat and power (CHP), power to gas (P2G),
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// and electric boilers (EBs), to achieve these targets and accommodate the growing RESs [7].
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ Over the past few years [8,9], the low-carbon integrated energy system (IES) has received
4.0/). much attention and has grown rapidly.

Energies 2024, 17, 2187. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17092187 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2024, 17, 2187 2 of 26

To achieve the target, reducing carbon emissions in the energy supply system is cru-
cial [3]. Increasing the use of RESs and improving energy efficiency are the two main
approaches to reducing carbon emissions. Its high energy efficiency and easy integration
with renewable energies has made the IES, as an energy comprehensive utilization system,
an increasingly popular option [10]. Multi-sectoral energy integration and complementa-
tion, however, make IESs more flexible [11]. IESs must adopt flexible resources to overcome
this challenge and improve their flexibility. In other words, the IES requires improvement
of its operational flexibility in order to facilitate carbon neutrality realization in order to
enhance performance and the renewable energies share [12].
Two methods are usually used to enhance flexibility: (1) optimizing the operation
while considering dynamic operating characteristics and (2) integrating flexible devices to
increase the feasible operating area [13]. A combination of the operational optimization and
dynamic features of the IES is used in the former (for example, the synergy of multiple time
scales [14], dynamic thermal characteristics of buildings [15], demand response (DR) [16,17],
and energy storage capacity of the heating supply system [18]). Reference [19] has promoted
flexibility and economy by integrating the synergy on multiple time scales among the
electricity, gas, and heat systems in the IES [19]. Another study was proposed to improve
wind power accommodation by integrating the synergy on multiple time scales [20]. There
is a significant heating pipeline in the IES, indicating a large amount of energy storage
potential [21]. According to ref. [22], the heating supply network has a considerable
capacity for storing energy. To manage the variability of wind energy, a combined heat
and power dispatch model was developed [23]. Furthermore, operating optimization
strategies frequently employ buildings’ dynamic thermal features to improve flexibility.
Reference [24] describes a novel optimal scheduling method that incorporates thermal
comfort and inertia into a chance-constrained program. Inertia decreased the wind power
penalty costs by 36.3% and daily operation costs by 6.4% [25]. Additionally, the IES also
relies on DR to adjust its output [26]. Based on the price elasticity matrix [27], a DR
model was built for electric and thermal loads. Following that, the IES operation costs
were minimized using an optimization model that considered RESs’ uncertainty [27], and
according to the results, 7.86% of the total cost was saved by DR.
Efficiencies in power generation are determined by how well they can adjust to new
demands arising from changes in the residual load on different timescales [2]. To balance
demand and supply, operators typically rely on conventional power plants (e.g., gas-
and coal-fired plants). Due to the increasing share of renewables, these plants must be
able to respond not only more flexibly but also profitably. Improvements and redesigns
can be made to conventional power plants to make them more flexible, as well as the
definition of new operational strategies and identification of new market mechanisms [28].
Due to its maturity, lower capacity, and geographic limitations compared with DR and
storage, generation flexibility will continue to be the most critical solution in the short
to medium term for delivering flexibility [2]. As a result of improving the flexibility
characteristics of gas- and coal-fired power plants, low-carbon electricity systems are
expected to become more efficient. In recent years, there have been studies that only
analyzed coal-fired plants’ flexibility [29–32], while others have examined gas-fired power
plants’ (GFPPs’) flexibility [33–35]. In some studies, the flexibility of operational processes
has been compared between the two technologies, but these studies have been limited in
scope [2,28,36–39].
Additionally, a handful of papers have explored the ability of conventional power
generation, including both gas and coal, to support the integration of increasing RESs [40–43].
The purpose of this paper is to provide a complete and comprehensive review of the
concept of flexibility in IGENs. To achieve this goal, different definitions of flexibility in
different sources, the differences compared with concepts such as resilience and reliability,
methods of increasing the flexibility in the network, and detailed examination of each one
of the methods have been analyzed and categorized.
Energies 2024, 17, 2187 3 of 26

1.1. Difference between Flexibility and Other Related Concepts

Flexibility, as defined in this paper, is the system’s ability to deal with changes and
uncertainties in the network while maintaining an acceptable level of reliability [44]. In
this context, one of the important and noteworthy issues mentioned below is the differ-
ence between flexibility and other similar and related terms, some of which are defined
as follows.

1.1.1. Accessibility
Accessibility focuses on making the energy infrastructure and services available and
usable to all stakeholders, including consumers, industries, and power producers. It ensures
that the energy systems are inclusive and provide equitable access to energy resources and
services for everyone [45]. The key aspects of accessibility in an IGEN include the following:
• Universal Access
• Energy Equity
• Infrastructure Development
• Information and Communication
• Regulatory Framework

1.1.2. Durability
Durability refers to the ability of the IGENs to withstand the test of time and continue
to function effectively and reliably over extended periods. In this context, durability focuses
on the longevity and resilience of the infrastructure and equipment used in the energy
system [46].
• Infrastructure Resilience: Design and construct energy infrastructure, such as gas
pipelines, power transmission lines, and power plants, to withstand environmental
factors, such as extreme weather events, earthquakes, and other hazards [47].
• Equipment Reliability: Using high-quality components and materials in power gener-
ation and gas-processing equipment to reduce maintenance needs and minimize the
risk of breakdowns.
• Maintenance and Upkeep: Implementing regular maintenance and inspection proto-
cols to identify and address potential issues proactively, prolonging the lifespan of
equipment and infrastructure.
• System Longevity: Planning and investing in infrastructure with a long-term perspective,
taking into account future energy needs and potential technological advancements.
• Risk Management: Assessing and mitigating risks that could impact the durability of
the IGENs, such as supply disruptions, market fluctuations, and geopolitical factors.

1.1.3. Resistance/Robustness/Hardening
A typhoon, for example, is a natural disaster that can be mitigated using the concept
of resistance/robustness/hardening [48]. Here are the concepts we will explore:
• Resistance: Resistance refers to the capacity of energy infrastructure to withstand
or resist the impact of external forces, such as natural disasters (e.g., hurricanes,
earthquakes, and floods), extreme weather events, or human-induced disturbances.
The goal of resistance is to minimize the damage and disruption caused by these
events by making the infrastructure more durable and resilient.
• Robustness: Robustness in the context of energy infrastructure relates to the ability
to maintain essential services and operations even in the face of unforeseen events
or adverse conditions. A robust energy system can adapt and continue functioning
efficiently under varying circumstances without significant disruptions. To achieve
robustness, energy infrastructure might be designed with redundant components or
alternative pathways, ensuring that the system can switch to backup mechanisms
when needed.
Energies 2024, 17, 2187 4 of 26

• Hardening: Hardening involves making energy infrastructure more physically and

operationally resilient to external threats or attacks. This concept is particularly
relevant in the context of protecting critical energy assets from intentional harm, such
as terrorist attacks or cyberattacks.

1.1.4. Maintainability and Serviceability

Maintainability and serviceability directly impact the system’s ability to recover from
disruptions and resume regular operation. These concepts focus on the ease and efficiency
of maintenance and repair activities following a disturbance or failure. The key factors
affecting maintainability include the following:
• Standardization
• Modularity
• Diagnostic Features
• Maintenance Training
A high level of maintainability means that the system can be restored to regular
operation quickly after a disruption, minimizing downtime and improving overall system
reliability [49,50].

1.1.5. Serviceability
Serviceability is closely related to maintainability and refers to the overall ability of
the IGEN to be serviced or repaired effectively. It encompasses the entire process, from
identifying the issue to completing the restoration. The key aspects of serviceability include
the following:
• Repair Time: The time it takes to diagnose the problem, obtain necessary replacement
parts, and complete the repairs.
• Response Time: The time it takes to respond to a disruption and initiate the restoration
process.
• Spare Parts Inventory: Maintaining an appropriate inventory of spare parts, reducing
the time needed to obtain replacement components.
• Skilled Workforce: Having a trained and skilled workforce capable of performing
repairs efficiently.
• Emergency Preparedness: Having well-defined emergency response plans and proto-
cols in place to handle disruptions effectively.
Higher serviceability means that the IGEN can recover from disruptions quickly,
resulting in shorter restoration times and minimizing the impact on energy supply and
consumers [51,52].

1.1.6. Survivability
When consumers lack full access to everyday electricity services during disruptive
situations, an IGEN can provide simple power services to buyers [53]. This refers to the
ability of the integrated system to continue providing essential or basic power services to
consumers even in adverse conditions or during emergencies. In essence, survivability
ensures that some level of energy supply remains available to meet critical needs during
disruptions [54]. During natural disasters, severe weather events, or other emergencies that
cause widespread power outages, survivability ensures that essential services can continue
to function, providing critical support to communities and reducing the impact on public
health, safety, and communication. In summary, the survivability in IGENs ensures that
essential power services remain available during disruptive situations, offering support
and resilience to consumers, critical facilities, and communities when the regular power
supply is compromised [53].
Energies 2024, 17, 2187 5 of 26

1.1.7. Vulnerability
In terms of a situation or a technique, vulnerability describes the results of a dangerous
event [55]. Ref. [56] discusses vulnerability based on the (1) hazard probability distribution,
(2) feasible impact of danger, and (3) IGENs’ potential.
• Hazard Probability Distribution: This aspect of vulnerability involves analyzing the
probability distribution of hazardous events that could affect the IGENs. Hazards
can include natural disasters (e.g., hurricanes, earthquakes, floods), human-induced
incidents (e.g., cyberattacks, physical sabotage), or any other disruptive events.
• Feasible Impact of Danger: The feasible impact of danger refers to the potential
consequences that could arise from the occurrence of a hazardous event. This includes
the extent of the damage to infrastructure, the disruption of energy supply, the impact
on consumers and industries, and the overall economic and social consequences.
• IGENs’ Potential: The IGENs’ potential refers to the inherent characteristics and
capabilities of the IGENs to cope with hazardous events and recover from disruptions.
It encompasses the system’s design, infrastructure, operational protocols, emergency
response plans, and the availability of backup or alternative resources [57,58].

1.2. Methodology
Our framework for presenting a comprehensive literature review of flexibility studies
included five steps: (i) searching online databases and clustering information, (ii) refining
citations and samples, (iii) refining abstracts, (iv) refining full-text reviews, and (v) final sort-
ing. Identifying the papers involved searching the Web of Science database, one of the most
comprehensive multidisciplinary content search platforms for academic researchers [59].
The main contributions of this paper are the following:
• A comprehensive overview of the available literature about flexibility in low-carbon
gas and electricity network co-operation is presented.
• A complete and comprehensive review of the flexibility concepts and flexible technolo-
gies that create this flexibility is provided.
• A study of the modeling perspectives for IGENs is proposed, including the type of
modeling for the gas flow problem (i.e., steady-state, quasi-steady-state, or dynamic
gas flow).
• A comprehensive review of the available literature is presented according to the type
of flexible technology used.
In this paper, our objective is to provide a definitive and up-to-date description of
flexibility in the co-operation of IGENs. This effort is prompted by the evolving interplay
between gas and electricity systems, a dynamic largely influenced by the increasing signifi-
cance of hydrogen and low-carbon gas-fired plants in the decarbonization of the energy
sector. The remainder of this paper is organized as follows. After Section 1, which has the
definitions of flexibility and inflexibility and a review of the literature on the subject, the
general structure of an IGEN, its coordination methods, and how flexibility is provided
by IGENs are provided in Section 2. A complete review of the flexible technologies, the
classification and analysis of the findings, and flexibility evaluation methods is included
in Section 3. Finally, the paper’s general conclusion is provided in Section 4. The logical
organization of this paper is shown in Figure 1.
 Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 2
Energies 2024, 17, 2187 6 of 26

Figure 1. The logical

Figureorganization inorganization
1. The logical this paper. in this paper.

2. Integrated Low-Carbon
2. Integrated Gas and Electricity
Low-Carbon Gas andNetworks
Electricity Networks
In recent years,Inextensive
recent years,research has been
extensive conducted
research has been into the flexibility
conducted into theprovided by provided
flexibility
IGENs. The concept
by IGENs of flexibility
. The concept is defined hereisas
of flexibility the capacity
defined of the
here as the integrated
capacity system system
of the integrated
to adjust its allocation
to adjustof itsresources
allocation directly or indirectly
of resources directly ortoindirectly
compensate for deviations
to compensate in
for deviations in
the net electricity
theload [60]. A growing
net electricity load [60].number
A growing of stochastic
number ofproduction facilities are
stochastic production being are being
facilities
added to electric energy
added systems,
to electric suchsystems,
energy as solar-such andaswind-based units, whose
solar- and wind-based electricity
units, whose electricity
generation depends on the
generation availability
depends on theofavailability
primary energy of primarysources.
energyThese fluctuating
sources. and
These fluctuating and
unpredictable energy sourcesenergy
unpredictable presentsources
challenges
presentto controlling,
challenges to operating,
controlling,andoperating,
planning and the planning
grid due to thethedifficulty
grid due of to
balancing generation
the difficulty and demand
of balancing generation[61].and
This problem
demand is This
[61]. beingproblem i
being addressed
addressed by integrating by integrating
different different(e.g.,
energy systems energy systems (e.g.,
electricity, gas,electricity, gas, district heat
district heating,
and transport)ing,[62].and
In transport)
fact, a system[62]. In
can fact,
be amade
system can flexible
more be madeand more flexible andfor
compensate compensate
an fo
an RES’s uncertain output by exploiting the interdependencies
RES’s uncertain output by exploiting the interdependencies and synergies among different and synergies among dif
energy carriers.ferent energy carriers.
A way to use Aexisting
way to use existing infrastructure
infrastructure more effectively
more effectively is to consider
is to consider IGENs IGENs
when when plan
ning and operating power plants in times of increasing
planning and operating power plants in times of increasing energy demand and outdated energy demand and outdated in
frastructure. Well-integrated infrastructure allows energy
infrastructure. Well-integrated infrastructure allows energy to be exchanged and exploited to be exchanged and exploited
efficiently.
efficiently. Various Variousontools
tools based the based
concept on oftheIGENs
concept of IGENs
have have been developed
been developed to analyzeto analyz
low-carbon energy systems, which usually have multiple
low-carbon energy systems, which usually have multiple energy carriers. Figure 2 shows energy carriers. Figure 2 show
the general schematic of an IGEN.
the general schematic of an IGEN.
To study the reliable operation of IGENs, it has been important to consider coordi
To study the reliable operation of IGENs, it has been important to consider coordi-
nated power and gas systems [63–65]. For instance, unreliable dispatch results resulting
nated power and gas systems [63–65]. For instance, unreliable dispatch results result-
from wind power are determined using a distributionally robust chance-constrained
ing from wind power are determined using a distributionally robust chance-constrained
model [63]. To ensure the reliable operation of IGENs, a reliability-constrained optima
model [63]. To ensure the reliable operation of IGENs, a reliability-constrained optimal
reserve scheduling model is proposed in [64]. To mitigate wind power variations caused
reserve scheduling
usingmodel
an IGEN, is proposed
[65] proposes in [64]. To mitigate
a two-stage robustwind power variations
scheduling model for the caused
reserve capac
using an IGEN,ity[65] proposes aoftwo-stage
configuration robust
power plants. scheduling
To deal with newlymodel for theuncertainties
observed reserve capac- in RESs’ out
ity configurationput,of power
[66] plants.
develops To deal risk-averse
a multi-stage with newly observed
operation uncertainties
model. The aim ofin RESs’
[67] is to integrat
output, [66] develops a multi-stage
the operation model of the risk-averse
local energy operation
hub (LEH) model. Thestochastic
into the aim of [67] is to of powe
dispatch
integrate the operation model of the local energy hub (LEH) into the stochastic
systems, taking into account the price and RESs’ uncertainty. Ref. [68] proposes dispatch of a mixed
power systems,integer
takinglinear
into account the price and RESs’ uncertainty. Ref.
programming model for simultaneously determining LEH dispatch [68] proposes a plan
mixed-integer andlinear programming model for simultaneously determining
IGEN scheduling results. System operators may encounter difficulty obtaining de LEH dispatch
plans and IGEN scheduling
tailed parameters results. Systemdevices
of different operators and may encounter
directly difficulty
controlling LEHs inobtaining
practice due to th
detailed parameters
privacyofconcerns
differentofdevices and directly
multi-energy consumers controlling
[69]. LEHs in practice due to
the privacy concerns of multi-energy consumers [69].
Energies 2024,17,
Energies2024, 17,2187
x FOR PEER REVIEW 77 of
of 26
27

Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 2

Power Network
Power Flow
Regulations
Power Network
Power Flow
Regulations

Electricity Network
Uncertainties Electricity Network
Uncertainties

Integrated
P2G G2P
P2G G2P
Operation Integrated
Constraints Operation
Constraints

Gas Network
Gas Network

Gas Network
Gas Network
Gas Flow Gas Flow
Regulations Regulations

Figure2.2.The
Figure Thegeneral
general schematic
Figureschematic ofan
of anschematic
2. The general IGEN. of an IGEN.
IGEN.

2.1.
2.1. The
The Role
Role of
of IGENs
IGENs in Cost Reduction and Decarbonization
2.1. The in Cost
Role Reduction
of IGENs andReduction
in Cost Decarbonization
and Decarbonization
Coordinating between
Coordinating Coordinating the electricity
between the electricity
between the and
and gas
gas networks
and gascan
networks
electricity can lead
lead to
networks several
tocan lead benefits,
several benefits,
to several benefit
including reduced
including reduced operating
operating
including costs
reducedcostsand emissions.
and emissions.
operating This
costs andThis coordination
coordination
emissions. involves
involves integrating
This coordination integrating
involves integratin
the
theplanning,
planning,management, and
andoperation
the planning, management,
management, operation of
ofboth
and bothnetworks
operation to
of both
networks optimize
tonetworks
optimizeto their interactions
optimize
their their interaction
interactions
and efficiency. Here
and are some
efficiency. ways
Here in
arewhich
some this
ways coordination
in which thiscan achieve
coordination
and efficiency. Here are some ways in which this coordination can achieve cost savings cost
cansavings
achieveand
cost saving
pollution reduction
and (Figure
pollution 3) [66–69]:
reduction
and pollution reduction (Figure 3) [66–69]: (Figure 3) [66–69]:

DR and Load DR and Load

Balancing
Balancing

Energy Storage and

Infrastructure Sharing
Infrastructure Sharing Ways IGEN can impact Energy Storage and
Conversion
Ways IGEN can impact
on flexibility, cost Conversion
on flexibility, costreduction and
reduction and decarbonization
decarbonization

Carbon Capture and

Transition Pathway
Storage
Carbon Capture and (CCS) for GFPP
Transition Pathway
Storage (CCS) for GFPP
Figure 3. ImpactFigure 3. Impact
of IGENs of IGENscost
on flexibility, on flexibility,
savings and cost savings and
pollution pollution reduction.
reduction.
Figure 3. Impact of IGENs on flexibility, cost savings and pollution reduction.
• DR and Load • DR and Load
Balancing: Balancing: Coordinating
Coordinating the electricity theand
electricity and gas allows
gas networks networksforallows fo
• better
DR and DRLoad better DR
capabilities.
Balancing: capabilities.
During During
peak electricity
Coordinating peak electricity
demand
the electricity and demand
periods, periods,
gas-based
gas networks gas-based
power
allows for powe
generation generation
can be utilized can be utilized
as a backup as a backup or
or supplement, supplement, reducing the strain
theon the elec
better DR capabilities. During peak electricity demandreducing
periods, the strain on
gas-based power
electricity tricity grid and avoiding the need to run expensive and polluting peaking plant
generationgrid
canand avoiding
be utilized as the need to
a backup orrun expensivereducing
supplement, and polluting peaking
the strain on theplants.
elec-
Similarly, Similarly,
surplus surplus
electricity electricity can be used to power gas compressors or to produc
tricity grid and avoiding thecanneedbe to
used
runtoexpensive
power gas and compressors or to produce
polluting peaking plants.
hydrogen hydrogen
through throughstoring
electrolysis, electrolysis,
energy storing
for energy
later use. for later use.
Similarly, surplus electricity can be used to power gas compressors or to produce
• Energy
hydrogenStorage and electrolysis,
through Conversion: storing
Gas infrastructure can act
energy for later useas. a form of energy storage.
Excess electricity generated during off-peak periods can be used to produce hydrogen
Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 27

Energies 2024, 17, 2187 8 of 26

• Energy Storage and Conversion: Gas infrastructure can act as a form of energy stor-
age. Excess electricity generated during off-peak periods can be used to produce hy-
drogen or or synthetic
synthetic natural
natural gasgas (SNG),
(SNG), whichwhich
can can be stored
be stored in existing
in existing gas infrastructure. Later,
gas infrastruc-
ture. Later,this
thisstored
storedenergy can be
energy can beconverted
convertedback back into
into electricity
electricity or used
or used for other purposes,
for other
purposes, providing flexibilitytotothe
providing flexibility theoverall
overallenergy
energy system.
system .
• • Infrastructure
Infrastructure Sharing: Coordinating
Sharing: Coordinating the planningthe andplanning
deployment andofdeployment
electricity and of electricity and
gas infrastructure
gas infrastructure can lead
can lead to shared to certain
use of sharedcomponents,
use of certain components,
reducing reducing overall
overall cap-
capital
ital costs. For costs. corridors
example, For example, corridors
for gas pipelinesforand
gas electricity
pipelines and electricitylines
transmission transmission lines
can be
can be shared, shared, minimizing
minimizing the landand
the land disruption disruption impact.
and environmental
environmental impact.
• Carbon• Capture
Carbon and Storage and
Capture (CCS) for GFPP:
Storage Integrated
(CCS) networks
for GFPP: providenetworks
Integrated an oppor-provide an op-
tunity to implement
portunity CCS technologies
to implement CCS in technologies
gas power plants.in gasCCS captures
power carbon
plants. CCSdi- captures carbon
oxide emissions
dioxide from power generation
emissions from power andgeneration
industrial facilities and stores
and industrial them un-
facilities and stores them
derground, preventing them
underground, from entering
preventing themthe atmosphere.
from entering By theintegrating
atmosphere. CCSBy with
integrating CCS
gas powerwithplants,
gasemissions can beemissions
power plants, significantly canreduced, making GFPP
be significantly a more
reduced, car- GFPP a more
making
bon-neutral option.
carbon-neutral option.
• Transition
• Transition Pathway: The low-carbon
Pathway: The integrated gas and electricity
integrated low-carbon gas andnetwork can act
electricity as
network can act as a
a transition pathway to decarbonization. As the share of renewable electricity
transition pathway to decarbonization. As the share of renewable electricity increases, in-
creases, gas-fired
gas-firedpower
powerplants can provide
plants flexibility
can provide and stability
flexibility to the grid
and stability toduring
the grid during the
the transition phase, allowing for a smoother integration of intermittent renewable
transition phase, allowing for a smoother integration of intermittent renewable sources.
sources.
In summary, it can be said that the IGEN can enhance the resilience and flexibility
In summary, it can be said that the IGEN can enhance the resilience and flexibility of
of the energy system, resulting in cost savings, reduced emissions, and a cleaner, more
the energy system, resulting in cost savings, reduced emissions, and a cleaner, more sus-
sustainable
tainable energy energy
landscape. landscape.
However, However,
achieving suchachieving suchrequires
coordination coordination requires collaboration
collaboration
between energy stakeholders, policy support, and investments in smart
between energy stakeholders, policy support, and investments in smart infrastructure andinfrastructure and
technologytechnology
[62]. [62].

2.2. Coordination
2.2. Coordination Strategies
Strategies for ImprovingforFlexibility
Improving Flexibility
As the interdependence
As the interdependence between thebetween the
electricity electricity
grid gridnetwork
and the gas and theincreases,
gas network increases,
modeling and optimizing the two energy systems separately
modeling and optimizing the two energy systems separately may not be practical or phys- may not be practical or
physically feasible. The literature about the optimal operation of IGENs
ically feasible. The literature about the optimal operation of IGENs features different gas features different
gas flow
flow models, models, strategies,
optimization optimizationandstrategies,
approaches andto approaches
dealing withtouncertainties.
dealing with Asuncertainties. As
shown in shown in IGEN
Figure 4, Figuremodeling
4, IGEN modeling can be according
can be classified classified according to twoperspec-
to two different different perspectives:
tives: IGENIGEN dynamic
dynamic characteristics
characteristics and optimization
and optimization strategy.
strategy.

Steady-state
model

IGEN dynamic Quasi-steady-state

characteristics model

Dynamic model
IGEN
Sequential
optimization

Optimization Simultaneous
strategy optimization

Bi- level and Tri-

level optimization

Figure 4. Classification of IGEN modeling.

Figure 4. Classification of IGEN modeling.

2.2.1. First2.2.1. First IGEN

Category: Category: IGEN
Dynamic Dynamic Characteristics
Characteristics
• Steady-state models: The steady-state model typically involves formulating math-
ematical equations that represent the power flow in the electrical system and the
gas flow in the natural gas network [70–73]. The model considers the electricity and
natural gas supply and demand, network topology, transmission capacities, generator
characteristics, and gas pipeline constraints. In the power system context, the steady-
state model usually relies on power flow equations, such as the DC or AC power
Energies 2024, 17, 2187 9 of 26

flow models [63,70,71]. For the gas system, the steady-state model includes equations
that describe the gas flow through pipelines, considering factors like the gas supply,
pressure, and constraints on compressors and other facilities. The integration of the
steady-state models for both the electrical and gas systems allows for the analysis of
the energy exchange and optimization of their joint operation [72–74].
• Quasi-steady-state model: This model for an IGEN is an intermediate approach that
strikes a balance between accuracy and computational efficiency [75]. This modeling
technique is used to analyze the behavior and optimal operation of the combined
energy networks, taking into account certain dynamic aspects while simplifying others.
In a quasi-steady-state model, some components of the system, such as electricity
transmission lines, are assumed to respond rapidly and are represented as steady-
state elements [76]. At the same time, other components with slower response times,
such as gas pipelines, are modeled with more dynamic characteristics. This enables
a more realistic representation of the interactions between the electricity and gas
systems, including the effects of gas flow constraints, while avoiding the computational
complexity associated with fully dynamic models [77,78].
• Dynamic model: This model is a comprehensive approach that considers the time-
varying behavior and interactions between the electricity and gas networks [79,80].
Unlike steady-state or quasi-steady-state models, dynamic models capture the tran-
sient responses and time delays inherent in both systems, providing a more accurate
representation of their real-world dynamics. In a dynamic model, the gas flow in
pipelines and the electricity flow in transmission lines are modeled with differential
equations that account for various time-dependent factors, such as the inertia, time
delays, and control dynamics [81,82]. This level of detail allows for a more realistic
assessment of the system stability, operational constraints, and response to rapid
changes in demand or supply [70,83].

2.2.2. Second Category: Optimization Strategy

• Sequential optimization strategy [81–84]: The sequential approach involves formulat-
ing two separate optimization problems for the power system and the gas system. The
electricity production and transmission are optimized first, followed by determining
the gas demand generated by gas-fired power plants. If P2G processes are considered,
the P2G unit schedule is also determined. Subsequently, the low-carbon gas system is
optimized. This sequential approach mimics current operating practices, where the
two systems are optimized separately. However, it can lead to sub-optimal solutions
and requires an iterative procedure to ensure consistency between the two systems.
• Simultaneous optimization strategy [75,82,85]: In contrast, simultaneous (or fully
integrated) approaches aim to minimize the total cost associated with both systems
using a single objective function. This means jointly optimizing the operation of the
integrated system to achieve the most cost-effective and flexible solution. Simulta-
neous optimization provides a holistic view of the entire IGEN, allowing for better
coordination between the gas and power systems [86,87].
• Bi-level and tri-level programming: Some authors have proposed bi-level program-
ming or tri-level programming, where upper-level problems optimize the power
system while lower-level problems represent the optimal gas scheduling. Within
tri-level optimization, a middle tier addresses a distinct optimization challenge, in-
fluenced by the upper level and, reciprocally, impacting the lower level [88]. These
formulations consider the physical and economic couplings between the two systems
and are used to address specific coordination aspects of IGENs [89].

3. Flexibility in IGEN Co-Operation

3.1. Analysis of Flexibility Definitions
Flexibility in the context of an IGEN refers to the ability of the IES to adapt and
respond effectively to variations in the energy supply and demand, as well as to changing
 enced by the upper level and, reciprocally, impacting the lower level [88]. These for-
mulations consider the physical and economic couplings between the two systems
and are used to address specific coordination aspects of IGENs [89].

3. Flexibility in IGEN Co-Operation

Energies 2024, 17, 2187 10 of 26
3.1. Analysis of Flexibility Definitions
Flexibility in the context of an IGEN refers to the ability of the IES to adapt and re-
spond effectively
operational to variations
conditions. in the
It involves energy supply
optimizing and demand,
the interaction as well
between theasgas
to and
changing
electricity
operational conditions. It involves optimizing the interaction between the gas
infrastructures to enhance system resilience, reliability, and efficiency. As shown and
inelec-
Figure 5,
tricity infrastructures to enhance system resilience, reliability, and efficiency. As shown
in an IGEN, flexibility encompasses several key aspects:
in Figure 5, in an IGEN, flexibility encompasses several key aspects:

Figure 5. Key aspects of flexibility.

Figure 5. Key aspects of flexibility.

I.I. Demand-Side
Demand-Side Flexibility: The capability
Flexibility: of adjusting
The capability electricity
of adjusting and gasand
electricity consumption
gas consump-
patterns
tion patterns in response to changes in energy prices, availability ofenergy,
in response to changes in energy prices, availability of renewable renewable
and system needs. With demand-side management techniques, such as DR, consum-
energy, and system needs. With demand-side management techniques, such as DR,
ers can reduce consumption during high-demand periods or shift usage to off-peak
consumers can reduce consumption during high-demand periods or shift usage to
hours.
off-peak hours.
II. Supply-Side Flexibility: The ability to vary energy production levels from different
II. Supply-Side Flexibility: The ability to vary energy production levels from different
sources, including GFPPs, RESs, and ESSs. Flexible power generation and dispatch
sources, including GFPPs, RESs, and ESSs. Flexible power generation and dispatch
strategies enable the grid to dynamically balance supply and demand.
strategies enable the grid to dynamically balance supply and demand.
III. Cross-Sectoral Interaction: The coordination between gas and electricity networks,
Cross-Sectoral
III. allowing Interaction:
them to support eachThe coordination
other during peakbetween
periods gas
andand electricityFor
fluctuations. networks,
in-
stance, P2G technologies enable excess electricity to be converted into hydrogen or For
allowing them to support each other during peak periods and fluctuations.
instance,
synthetic gas,P2G technologies
which enable
can be stored andexcess electricity
later used to begeneration
for power converted or into hydrogen
injected
or synthetic
into the gas grid. gas, which can be stored and later used for power generation or
injected into the gas grid.
IV. Energy Storage and Grid Services: Utilizing various energy storage technologies,
IV. such Energy Storagepumped
as hydrogen, and Grid Services:
hydro, Utilizing various
and compressed energy
air energy storage,storage technologies,
to store excess
such as hydrogen, pumped hydro, and compressed air energy
energy and release it when needed. These storage systems provide grid stability and storage, to store
excessload
support energy and .release it when needed. These storage systems provide grid
balancing
stability
V. Market and and supportFrameworks:
Regulatory load balancing.Establishing flexible market mechanisms and
V. Market policies
regulatory and Regulatory Frameworks:
that encourage Establishing
the integration of gas flexible marketnetworks.
and electricity mechanisms
This includes
and facilitating
regulatory energy
policies thattrading,
encourage promoting fair competition,
the integration of gas and incentiviz-
electricity net-
ingworks.
investments in flexiblefacilitating
This includes technologies .
energy trading, promoting fair competition, and
incentivizing investments in flexible technologies.
In general, flexibility is crucial to effectively addressing demand imbalances while si-
multaneously ensuring a secure and sustainable energy transition. By integrating advanced
technologies and smart grid solutions, IGEN systems can efficiently adapt to varying
energy demands, optimize energy distribution, and seamlessly incorporate RESs, thus
promoting a reliable and environmentally friendly energy landscape for the future. By
embracing flexibility, gas and power systems can meet the challenges of a rapidly changing
energy landscape and enhance their ability to provide consumers with a sustainable and
uninterrupted electricity supply. The definition of flexibility should be based on the fact that
flexibility is system-specific. Generally, systems using a variety of fuel sources (e.g., natural
gas, wind, DR, and pumped storage) will be more flexible than those that exclusively use
coal or nuclear power. Regulations and market rules also play an integral role in shaping
Energies 2024, 17, 2187 11 of 26

the flexibility of an IGEN [44]. In summary, it can be stated that flexibility is a critical
aspect of gas and power systems that allows them to adapt to changing conditions and
maintain stability. Some key points about flexibility in gas and power systems are taken
from [30–33,39,42,44] as follows:
1. Inherent Feature: Flexibility is a fundamental characteristic intentionally incorporated
into the design and operation of gas and power systems. It recognizes the dynamic
nature of electricity generation, consumption, and supply.
2. Spatial and Temporal Balancing: Gas and power systems aim to achieve a balance
between electricity generation and consumption on both the spatial (geographical)
and temporal (time) scales. This ensures that electricity is delivered efficiently and
reliably to consumers across different locations and times.
3. Adapting to Changes: Flexibility allows the gas and power systems to respond
promptly to fluctuations in the electricity demand and supply. This adaptability
ensures that the system can handle variations in consumption and generation without
compromising stability.
4. System Stability: Maintaining stability is crucial to avoid disruptions and blackouts in
the electricity supply. Flexibility allows the system to manage sudden and substantial
changes in supply or demand, ensuring continuous service without compromising
reliability.
5. Cost-Effectiveness: Flexibility is not only about maintaining stability but also about
doing so in a cost-effective manner. It involves optimizing the allocation of resources
and ensuring that adjustments in generation and consumption are efficient and eco-
nomically viable.

3.2. Signs of Inflexibility

Inflexibility can sometimes be more easily documented than flexibility [44]. In IGENs,
signs of inflexibility can manifest in various ways, indicating challenges in adapting to
changing energy demands and market conditions. Some common signs of inflexibility
include the following:
I. Lack of Response to Demand Fluctuations: An inflexible system may struggle to
adjust electricity production or gas supply to meet varying levels of demand. This
could lead to either excess generation that goes to waste or insufficient supply,
resulting in potential blackouts or energy shortages.
II. Difficulty in Integrating RESs: RES generation, such as solar and wind, is inherently
variable. An inflexible system may face difficulties in smoothly integrating these
intermittent energy sources, leading to grid instability and curtailment of renewable
power when it cannot be effectively utilized.
III. Inability to Ramp Up or Down Quickly: Gas-fired power plants, often relied
upon for flexibility, may face challenges in quickly ramping up or down their
electricity production in response to sudden changes in demand or RES availability.
This lack of responsiveness can strain the balance between electricity generation
and consumption.
IV. Limited Energy Storage Capacity: Energy storage systems, crucial for managing
fluctuations in RES generation, may be inadequate or not optimized in an inflexible
system. This results in the inability to store excess energy during low-demand
periods and discharge it during high-demand periods.
V. High Curtailment Rates: Curtailment refers to the intentional reduction or elimina-
tion of electricity generation from certain power plants, typically renewable sources,
due to oversupply or grid constraints. An inflexible system may experience high
curtailment rates, wasting valuable clean energy resources.
VI. Rigidity in Gas Network Management: In an integrated system, gas-fired power
plants’ operations are closely linked to the gas supply and demand. An inflexible
gas network management could lead to gas shortages or congestion in pipelines,
limiting the output of gas-fired power plants and impacting grid stability.
Energies 2024, 17, 2187 12 of 26

VII. Struggles with Demand-Response Implementation: Inflexible systems may find it

challenging to implement effective demand-response programs, where consumers
adjust their energy consumption based on real-time pricing or grid conditions.
Limited demand-response participation can hinder load-balancing efforts.
VIII. Inefficient Use of Existing Infrastructure: An inflexible system may underutilize
existing infrastructure, such as pipelines and power transmission lines, leading to
inefficiencies and increased operating costs.
Addressing these signs of inflexibility requires a holistic approach, including invest-
ments in energy storage technologies, demand-response programs, improved grid manage-
ment, and a diversified energy mix that incorporates a greater share of RESs. Additionally,
adopting advanced technologies and fostering co-operation between the gas and power
sectors can enhance the overall flexibility of IGENs. In short, the most important signs of
inflexibility can be summarized in the following cases:
• Inability to balance demand and supply, which may result in load drops or frequency
excursions.
• Significant curtailments in RES generation, primarily due to excess supply and trans-
mission constraints when generation is not needed regularly or for long periods (e.g.,
nights, seasons) [57].
• An area balance violation, which occurs when the area power balance schedule is
deviated from.
Moreover, in terms of wholesale power markets, the following can be stated:
• Negative market prices: Several types of inflexibility can be signaled by negative mar-
ket prices, including conventional plants that are unable to reduce production, loads
that cannot absorb excess supplies, RESs’ surpluses, and limited transmission capacity
to balance supply and demand over a larger area. As RESs’ penetration increases,
negative prices may become more prevalent in systems without renewable energy.
• Price volatility: There are several causes of price volatility, including limited transmis-
sion capacity, limited ramping, fast response, peaking supplies, and limited ability for
loads to reduce demand [58].

3.3. Flexible Technologies

In addition to system operations and markets, demand-side resources and storage,
generation, and transmission networks, all the elements of the integrated network can be
expanded for greater flexibility. For a power system to be flexible, long- and short-term
planning is required to optimize investments. Various technologies and approaches can
be employed to provide flexibility in IGENs. These technologies enable the system to
adapt electricity generation and consumption as needed to maintain stability and optimize
overall performance. In this section, we try to review and categorize all the resources and
flexible technologies that have been used in the literature and increase flexibility in the
co-operation of electricity and gas networks. The classification and summary of studies
based on the type of flexible technology used and year of publication in the last five years
is shown in Table 1.
Energies 2024, 17, 2187 13 of 26

Table 1. Type of employed flexible technology and publication year.

Flexible Technology
Year
GFPP P2G DRP HS VPP Linepack
-Shahbazbegian, V et al., 2023 [90]
-Ademollo, A et al., 2023 [10] -Wang, S et al., 2023 [100] -Moran, C et al., 2023 [108]
-Shahbazbegian, V et al., 2023 [90] -Shi, M et al., 2023 [101] -Walter, V et al., 2023 [109]
-Shahbazbegian, V et al., 2023 [90] -Wu, C et al., 2024 [110]
-Mizobe, K et al., 2023 [95] -Rahimi, M et al., 2023 [102] -Wang, S et al., 2023 [100]
-Wang, B et al., 2023 [91] - Nasiri, N et al., 2024 [103] -Schmugge, J et al., 2023 [111]
2023, 2024 -Rinaldi, A., 2023 [92] -Yanan, B., and Zhang, P. 2023 [96] -Rahimi, M et al., 2023 [102] -Shi, M et al., 2023 [101]
-Wang, L et al., 2023 [104] -Zhang, Z et al., 2023 [112]
-Ramadhon, N. M et al., 2023 [93] -Qin, L et al., 2023 [97] -Wu, C et al., 2024 [110]
-Xiong, J et al., 2023 [98] -Li, L et al., 2023 [105] -Niu, Y et al., 2023 [113]
-Cai, X., et al., 2023 [94] -Duan, J et al., 2024 [106] -Khaligh, V et al., 2023 [114]
-Gao, H et al., 2023 [99] -Men, J., 2023 [107] -Xu, J et al., 2023 [115]
-Nasiri, N et al., 2023 [116]
-Zhou, Y., 2022 [118] -Oladimeji, O et al., 2022 [122]
-Zhou, Y., 2022 [118] -Vahedipour-Dahraie, M et al., -Yang, H et al., 2022 [121] -Wang, S et al., 2022 [123]
2022 -Zhou, J et al., 2022 [117] -De Corato, A et al., 2022 [119] -
-Zhou, J et al., 2022 [117] 2022 [120] -De Corato, A et al., 2022 [119] -Vahedipour-Dahraie, M et al.,
-Zhou, J et al., 2022 [117] 2022 [120]
-Y. Cheng et al., 2021 [126] -Chen, J et al., 2021 [128]
-Mansouri, S et al., 2021 [130] -Jin, C et al., 2021 [129] -Iraklis, C et al., 2021 [135]
-Li, X., and Mulder, M., 2021 [124] -Y. Tao, J et al., 2021 [127] -Li, X., and Mulder, M., 2021 [124]
2021 -Chen, J et al., 2021 [128] -Gjorgievski, V et al., 2021 [131] -Ullah, Z., and Mirjat, N. H., -
-Ge, S et al., 2021 [125] -Rabiee, A et al., 2021 [133]
-Jin, C et al., 2021 [129] -Ge, S et al., 2021 [125] -Sheha, M., 2021 [134] 2021 [136]
-Li, X., and Mulder, M., 2021 [124] -O’Connell, S et al., 2021 [132]
-Ameli, H et al., 2020 [138]
-Kryzia, D et al., 2020 [137] -Heydarian-Forushani, E., and
2020 -Ameli, H et al., 2020 [138] -Ge, P et al., 2020 [139] -Yi, Z et al., 2020 [143] -Ameli, H et al., 2020 [138]
-Ameli, H et al., 2020 [138] -Ge, P et al., 2020 [139] Golshan, M. E. H., 2020 [140]
-Dadkhah, A et al., 2020 [141]
-Mohandes, B et al., 2020 [142]
-Schwele A et al., 2019 [75] -Glensk, B., and Madlener, R.,
2019 -Glensk, B., Madlener, R., 2019 [144] 2019 [144] - -Teng, Y et al., 2019 [146] - -Schwele, A et al., 2019 [75]
-Liu, J et al., 2019 [145] -Liu, J et al., 2019 [145]
-Gonzalez-Salazar, M. A et al.,
2018 [147] -Gonzalez-Salazar, M. A et al., -Lorestani, A., and Ardehali, M.
2018 2018 [147] -Y. Li, et al., 2018 [148] M., 2018 [150] - -Tran, T. H et al., 2018 [151]
-Y. Li, et al., 2018 [148] -J.C. Liu et al., 2018 [149] -J.C. Liu et al., 2018 [149]
-J.C. Liu et al., 2018 [149]
Energies 2024, 17, 2187 14 of 26

3.3.1. GFPP
There is a great deal of flexibility in the way GFPPs operate. In response to changes in
demand or fluctuations in RES generation, they can quickly ramp up or down their elec-
tricity production. Combined Cycle Gas Turbines (CCGTs) and Open Cycle Gas Turbines
(OCGTs) are widely used in integrated systems for fast and responsive power generation.
GFPPs are particularly suitable for integrating intermittent RESs into a grid and supporting
further penetration of clean energy due to their ability to respond quickly to changes in
demand and supply. In this way, RESs’ variability affects the gas demand and impacts
network management. GFPPSs’ power output could be limited by gas supply shortages
or congestion at their nodes, and their gas consumption can vary rapidly at their nodes,
affecting the security and operating costs of the two systems [147].
Furthermore, the reliance on gas-fired power plants as a flexible backup for RESs
raises concerns about long-term sustainability and carbon emissions. While natural gas
is considered a cleaner alternative to coal and oil in terms of greenhouse gas emissions,
it still releases carbon dioxide when burned. In the context of efforts to combat climate
change and transition to a low-carbon economy, the continuous operation of GFPPs may
hinder the achievement of ambitious emission reduction targets [144]. To address this
challenge, it becomes imperative to implement CCS technologies in conjunction with gas-
fired power plants. CCS allows for the capture of carbon dioxide emissions from GFPPs
and their subsequent storage underground, effectively preventing them from entering
the atmosphere. By integrating CCS with gas-fired power generation, it is possible to
significantly reduce the carbon footprint of these plants and align their operations with
climate goals [137].
In addition to the technical challenges associated with gas-fired power plants, there
are also economic and geopolitical considerations to be mindful of. The price volatility of
natural gas can impact the cost-effectiveness of operating GFPPs, as fluctuations in fuel
prices directly influence electricity production costs. Relying heavily on imported gas can
also make a nation vulnerable to supply disruptions or price manipulations by external
suppliers, leading to energy security concerns. Hence, a diversified energy mix and a
comprehensive energy policy that promotes the integration of various renewables, energy
storage systems, and demand-response strategies are essential for building a resilient and
sustainable power system. By carefully balancing the deployment of gas-fired power plants
with other RESs and incorporating innovative technologies, countries can transition toward
a more secure, affordable, and environmentally friendly energy landscape [138].

3.3.2. P2G
P2G technologies convert surplus electricity into hydrogen or synthetic natural gas.
This allows for the storage of excess RESs in the gas grid, which can later be used in
gas-fired power plants or as a clean fuel for other applications, thereby integrating the
IGENs. P2G will increase the flexibility of IGENs by reducing renewable curtailment and
providing additional gas supply for the gas network [81,90,145].
As gas pipelines have storage characteristics, P2G increases the flexibility and security
of IGENs, as well as improving energy efficiency, and enables environmental benefits [152].
Due to these reasons, P2G technology plays a very important role in ensuring a full-
cycle power supply and converting surplus electric energy into natural gas. Enhanced
flexibility of a system can be achieved by fast energy conversion and transmission of
P2G [81]. An analysis of the feasibility of P2G wind power accommodation is presented
in [126]. The P2G process converts excessive wind power into hydrogen and then absorbs
CO2 to produce CH4 for IGENs’ development and wind power accommodation [127,148].
Also, [128] analyses the best micro-gas turbine and P2G corporation strategy. In the
references, GFPP [63,70–89,153,154] and P2G [81,90,126–128,145,148,152] are the linking
components of two electricity and gas networks. In some studies, both types of linker and
interface between the two networks have been used [76,81,82,89,153].
Energies 2024, 17, 2187 15 of 26

3.3.3. DRP
Demand-side management and DR enable consumers to participate in load control
based on price signals. The DR mechanism includes real-time pricing, smart metering,
automated load control, and time-of-use tariffs [130,131,140]. Despite its relative afford-
ability, DR requires strict regulations regarding response times, minimum magnitudes,
and the reliability of demand-side resources. DR contributes to load balancing and system
flexibility by incentivizing consumers to reduce or shift their electricity usage during peak
hours [100,101].
In IGENs’ scheduling, DRP has attracted much attention because it smooths the
fluctuation of load curves, reduces peak–valley differences, and improves the utility of
both supply and demand. A further benefit of DR in IGENs is that it can reduce the net
load fluctuation. Customer participation in DR is divided into two options. During peak
periods when electricity prices are high, customers can reduce their electricity consumption,
while they do not change their consumption patterns during other times. Another option
is for customers to shift their loads from peak to off-peak periods based on the price
information [131].

3.3.4. Storage Systems (Including Heat and Hydrogen Energy Storage (HES))
VRE energy produced during excess periods of VRE generation is stored by HES and
discharged when required. The cost of storage is generally higher than that of DR and
other flexible options [155]. They store excess electricity during low-demand periods or
high renewable generation and release it during peak demand or low renewable output,
effectively balancing supply and demand in the system.
• Heat storage: Wind power accommodation can be enhanced by using heat storage
to decouple the electric-heat characteristics of CHP units [156]. As described in [150],
heat storage, electrical energy storage, and electric heaters are used in conjunction
to increase the flexibility of CHP units to accommodate wind power. However, the
network of heaters responds slowly to the CHP units.
• Hydrogen energy storage: Electrolysis converts excess RESs power into hydrogen,
which is stored in the HES system. A hydrogen-based gas turbine converts the stored
energy into electricity during periods of high electricity demand and low wind power
production [108,124,129,139,146]. Compared to other similar storage systems, the
HES stores hydrogen that is either used in hydrogen-dependent industries or injected
into the gas network to serve gas consumers [109,118,121,133]. A hybrid natural
gas/hydrogen energy storage system (HGESS), an environmental protection energy
supply system with a similar energy flow to the power grid, can store and transport
energy efficiently while, on the other hand, taking full advantage of IGENs emis-
sions [134,149]. Hydrogen storage allows for the capture and utilization of surplus
energy generated from renewable sources during periods of high production and
its release as needed to meet the energy demand during periods of low RES genera-
tion [117,119].

3.3.5. Virtual Power Plants (VPPs)

VPPs are software-based systems that aggregate and manage the output of multiple
distributed energy resources, such as solar panels, batteries, and electric vehicles. VPPs
provide a coordinated response to grid needs and can act as a flexible and decentralized
resource [122,135,143]. In other words, VPPs act as intelligent energy management systems
that leverage advanced algorithms and data analytics to optimize the operation of dis-
tributed energy resources and enable seamless coordination between the gas and electricity
networks. By providing enhanced flexibility, VPPs contribute to the integration of renew-
able energy, support grid stability, and facilitate the transition toward a more sustainable
and flexible IES [102,120,123,136].
Energies 2024, 17, 2187 16 of 26

3.3.6. Linepack
Another flexible feature of the gas network is the linepack that shows the amount of
gas stored in gas transmission pipes, which plays a vital role in maintaining the minimum
consumption pressure, stability of gas flow indicators, and management of changes in gas
demand. In particular, the capabilities of the linepack increase the flexibility and reliability
of the low-carbon gas system to supply gas-fired power plants and gas consumers. It has
also been shown that when interruptions and random exits occur in the gas network, the
linepack can be an effective tool for supplying gas loads [110]. The linepack contributes
to the stability of gas flow indicators in the transmission pipelines. It acts as a buffer
to balance gas supply and demand fluctuations, preventing sudden pressure drops or
surges that could impact the integrity and performance of the gas network. In [75], the
maximum potential of the linepack is used as a source of flexibility for power systems. The
second-order complex integer formulation with McCormick release has been used to model
bidirectional gas diffusion for the linepack. Reference [151] presents various models for
optimal planning of the linepack by considering uncertainties such as demand fluctuations,
gas shortages, and compressor failures.
Other technologies in the literature can be mentioned in relation to the following two
issues:
• System operations and markets: There is a significant possibility of unlocking flexibility
through system operation practices and market changes. These changes can often be
achieved at lower costs than options requiring modifications to the physical power
system [125]. A change in day-ahead generation scheduling practices that allows
changes to be made in closer to real time allows dispatch decisions based on more
accurate forecasts of both the output and demand for VREs. As a result, more precise
and efficient market operations can be carried out, which reduces the need for costly
reserves [91].
• Flexible transmission networks: To provide greater access to balancing resources,
the power system can expand the transmission lines and interconnect them with
neighboring transmission lines to have a more flexible transmission system. It has
been shown that aggregating generation assets through interconnection improves
flexibility and reduces net variability across the grid. Several flexible technologies and
advanced management practices can be used to minimize bottlenecks in the network
and optimize the utilization of transmission bandwidths, in addition to intelligent
network technologies [157].

3.4. Flexibility Evaluation

The ability of an IGEN to respond and adapt to changes in demand, supply, and
operating conditions is evaluated to determine the degree of flexibility of the system. The
flexibility of these systems can be quantified and analyzed through various methods and
metrics. A study measured power system flexibility in long-term planning by analyzing the
insufficient ramping resource expectation metric reported in [158]. This study proposed a
probabilistic metric that takes into account the key technical characteristics of the generation
units and the current operational state of the generation units and aggregates those data
to assess the system as a whole. As a result of the definition of flexibility and the physical
mechanism of power systems, [159] proposed a flexibility metric for power systems. Based
on their findings, the researchers developed a three-stage methodology to quantify the
maximum flexibility of a district heating sector for the power grid [160]. A spatiotemporal
flexibility management scheme was designed to reduce energy consumption in low-carbon
power systems [161]. There have been studies to measure the flexibility in power systems,
and methods to provide flexibility in those systems have been evaluated in [162].
Many studies have demonstrated that IGENs with renewable generation [163–167]
and P2G can provide affordable low-carbon power and greatly increase the flexibility of
planning [89,90,145,153,168–172]. Specifically, the P2G conversion process allows RESs to
be converted into gas to increase the gas availability for gas turbines and the gas network.
 spatiotemporal flexibility management scheme was designed to reduce energy consump
tion in low-carbon power systems [161]. There have been studies to measure the flexibilit
in power systems, and methods to provide flexibility in those systems have been evalu
Energies 2024, 17, 2187 ated in [162]. 17 of 26
Many studies have demonstrated that IGENs with renewable generation [163–167
and P2G can provide affordable low-carbon power and greatly increase the flexibility o
planning [89,90,145,153,168–172]. Specifically, the P2G conversion process allows RESs t
This means that both the power systems and the gas network will be more flexible, as
be converted into gas to increase the gas availability for gas turbines and the gas networ
power systems are being converted to gas to increase the gas supply and gas networks
This means that both the power systems and the gas network will be more flexible, a
to replenish the pipelines. A growing body of research emphasizes the importance of the
power systems are being converted to gas to increase the gas supply and gas networks t
flexibility of gasreplenish
networkthe infrastructure
pipelines. Atogrowing
effectivelybodyaccommodate the anticipated
of research emphasizes expan-
the importance of th
sion of intermittent RESs in future power grids. Furthermore, a fully integrated
flexibility of gas network infrastructure to effectively accommodate the anticipated expan approach
to operating gas and
sion of electricity
intermittentnetworks was analyzed
RESs in future power grids.using flexible multi-directional
Furthermore, a fully integrated approac
compressor stations [87]. Using
to operating an integrated
gas and electricity electricity/gas transmission
networks was analyzed usingnetwork
flexible model,
multi-direction
researchers quantified
compressor thestations
gas network flexibility
[87]. Using and discussed
an integrated how transmission
electricity/gas gas networknetwork con- mode
straints affect electricity
researchers system operation
quantified [84,173,174].
the gas A comprehensive
network flexibility and discussed overview
how gas of the
network con
technical flexibility assessment
straints of multi-energy
affect electricity and distributed
system operation multi-energy
[84,173,174]. systemsoverview
A comprehensive was of th
presented in [175], focusing
technical on their
flexibility potentialoftomulti-energy
assessment support low-carbon grids. multi-energy systems wa
and distributed
As a resultpresented
of these studies, we are now
in [175], focusing ablepotential
on their to understand
to support thelow-carbon
flexibility of power
grids.
systems, gas networks, As aand resultmulti-energy systems,
of these studies, we areandnow weable
cantoprovide
understandnew the insights for of powe
flexibility
systems, gas networks, and multi-energy systems, and
future research on assessing the flexibility of multi-energy systems. An integrated power– we can provide new insights fo
natural gas-heating energy system with P2G and gas storage was described in [176], and power
future research on assessing the flexibility of multi-energy systems. An integrated
a framework for natural gas-heating
evaluating energy system
the flexibility of thewith P2G and gas gas-heating
power–natural storage was described
energy sys- in [176], an
tem using a multi-objective economic and environmental optimal operation strategy was system
a framework for evaluating the flexibility of the power–natural gas-heating energy
presented. Theusing a multi-objective
linepacks of pipelines economic
and gasand environmental
storage volumes are optimal
modeledoperation strategy was pr
as sources
sented. The linepacks of pipelines and gas storage volumes
of flexibility for a system, and their capability is evaluated in terms of the flexibility they are modeled as sources o
provide. In [177],flexibility
the authors for apropose
system, aand their capability
composite is evaluated
metric that aggregates in several
terms ofvariables
the flexibility the
provide. In
related to the flexibility of[177], the authors
generation unitspropose
through a composite
the use ofmetric that aggregates
normalization, several variable
weighting,
and correlation analyses. There are some interdependent metrics defined in [178] thatweightin
related to the flexibility of generation units through the use of normalization,
can be used to and correlation analyses. There are some interdependent metrics defined in [178] that ca
evaluate the level of flexibility available by each generation unit in real
be used to evaluate the level of flexibility available by each generation unit in real tim
time, while in [179], a metric is proposed that also takes into account the effects of the
while in [179], a metric is proposed that also takes into account the effects of the transmi
transmission network on the level of flexibility.
sion network on the level of flexibility.
In summary, by checking references [84,158,162–172], the flexibility assessment meth-
In summary, by checking references [84,158,162–172], the flexibility assessmen
ods can be divided as follows. Figure 6 shows the flexibility assessment methods.
methods can be divided as follows. Figure 6 shows the flexibility assessment methods.

Figure
Figure 6. Types of 6. Types
flexibility of flexibility
assessment assessment methods.
methods.

(1) Simulation(1)andSimulation and Optimization

Optimization Models: These Models:
models These models
consider consider
factors suchfactors
as thesuch
gas as the ga
flow, electricity generation, demand, storage, and interconnections.
flow, electricity generation, demand, storage, and interconnections. Optimization Optimizatio
techniques are applied to find the system’s most efficient and flexible
techniques are applied to find the system’s most efficient and flexible operation, operation, con
sidering various constraints and
considering various constraints and objectives. objectives.
(2) Flexibility Indices: Flexibility indices are quantitative metrics used to measure the
system’s ability to adjust to changes in demand and supply. These indices can be
based on factors such as the ramp rates of power plants, response times of gas-fired
generators, load-shifting capabilities, and storage capacities. Higher flexibility indices
indicate a more responsive and adaptable system.
(3) Resilience Analysis: Resilience analysis assesses the system’s ability to recover and
continue operating after facing disruptions or disturbances. It evaluates how quickly
the system can return to a stable state and continue supplying energy to consumers,
even during unexpected events or failures.
Energies 2024, 17, 2187 18 of 26

(4) Scenario Analysis: Scenario analysis involves exploring different potential future
scenarios, such as changes in demand patterns, variations in RES generation, or
disruptions in the gas supply. The system’s flexibility in handling different situations
can be evaluated by analyzing these scenarios.
(5) Real-Time Monitoring and Data Analytics: Real-time monitoring of gas and electricity
flows, demand, and supply allows for continuous system flexibility assessment. Data
analytics techniques can be applied to analyze historical data and identify flexibility-
related patterns and trends.
(6) Economic Evaluation: Flexibility improvements in IGENs can have economic im-
plications. An economic evaluation can include a cost–benefit analysis, considering
the costs of implementing flexible technologies and the benefits of improved system
performance, reliability, and reduced operational expenses.

4. Conclusions
Flexibility in IGENs is a key concept in realizing the decarbonization goals and dealing
with climate change. Flexible systems with the ability to adapt to fluctuations in energy
demand and supply, while improving the efficiency and stability of the network, reduce
the need for energy production during peak consumption times. Furthermore, flexibility
enables the optimal use of renewable energy sources and, as a result, helps to reduce
greenhouse gas emissions. It is well-recognized among researchers and practitioners that
the concept of flexibility is of significant importance and has been widely discussed in
the past decade. This paper has attempted to summarize the most recent updates on the
subject of flexibility, providing all the information necessary about IGENs’ flexibility and
its relevance across various service categories.
To achieve this goal, a comprehensive and complete review of the definitions and con-
cepts of flexibility was performed from the perspective of different authorities. In contrast
to the concept of flexibility, inflexibility was also discussed. A review of the structure of
IGENs and various methods of coordinating the two electricity and gas networks to achieve
greater flexibility was presented. Finally, the assessment and measurement methods of
flexibility in the literature were reviewed, and the technologies that provide and improve
the flexibility of the network were introduced and categorized. This paper has also identi-
fied several methods and solutions for delivering and improving flexibility in integrated
networks, including the use of flexible technologies and the development of new modeling
perspectives. For this purpose, a complete classification and review of these technologies
was conducted based on previous studies. Additionally, the importance of examining
and evaluating flexibility and its relationship with network resilience and reliability has
been highlighted, as well as the need to examine the topic of network flexibility from a
time point of view. In contrast to the concept of flexibility, the concept of inflexibility was
also introduced in this paper. Inflexibility refers to the inability or unwillingness to adapt,
change, or compromise in response to different circumstances, situations, or demands. Lack
of response to demand fluctuations, difficulty in integrating RESs, inability to ramp up
or down quickly, limited energy storage capacity, high curtailment rates, rigidity in gas
network management, struggles with demand-response implementation, and inefficient
use of existing infrastructure were introduced as the signs of inflexibility. This extensive re-
view has also demonstrated that the IGEN approach significantly contributes to improving
the flexibility of energy systems. This is particularly crucial given the growing importance
of low/net-zero carbon gas and gas-fired plants in the future of energy systems. These
technologies are essential in mitigating the intermittency challenges posed by RES and play
a vital role in the decarbonization of the energy system. The seamless coordination between
electricity and gas infrastructure is increasingly crucial as the transition toward sustainable
and decarbonized energy sources accelerates. Overall, this review provides a valuable
resource for researchers, policymakers, and industry professionals working toward a more
flexible, secure, and sustainable energy future.
Energies 2024, 17, 2187 19 of 26

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, M.M.A. and M.T.A.; methodology, M.M.A. and H.A.;
software, M.M.A.; validation, H.A., D.P. and M.T.A.; formal analysis, M.M.A.; investigation, H.A.;
resources, M.T.A.; data curation, M.M.A.; writing—original draft preparation, M.M.A.; writing—
review and editing, H.A. and D.P.; visualization, M.M.A.; supervision, M.T.A. and G.S.; project
administration, M.T.A.; funding acquisition, G.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Funding: High efficiency reversible solid oxide cells for the integration of offshore renewable energy
using hydrogen, grant number EP/W003597/1. Zero-Carbon Emission Integrated Cooling, Heating
and Power (ICHP) Networks, under award number EP/T022949/1, and Hydrogen Integration for
Accelerated Energy Transitions Hub (HI-ACT), under award number EP/X038823/1.
Data Availability Statement: The data that support the findings of this study are available from the
corresponding author upon reasonable request.
Acknowledgments: The Imperial College team (G.S., D.P., and H.A.) gratefully acknowledges the
EPSRC-funded programs “High efficiency reversible solid oxide cells for the integration of offshore
renewable energy using hydrogen” under grant number EP/W003597/1, the “Zero-Carbon Emission
Integrated Cooling, Heating and Power (ICHP) Networks” under award number EP/T022949/1,
and “Hydrogen Integration for Accelerated Energy Transitions Hub (HI-ACT)” under award number
EP/X038823/1.
Conflicts of Interest: Author Mohammad Taghi Ameli was employed by the company Clean Energy
Systems Solution CESS GmbH. The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the
absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict
of interest.

Abbreviations

IGEN Integrated Gas and Electricity Network

UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
EU European Union
RESs Renewable Energy Sources
CHP Combined Heat and Power
P2G Power to Gas
EB Electric Boiler
LEH Local Energy Hub
IES Integrated Energy System
DR Demand Response
DRP Demand-Response Program
GFPPs Gas-Fired Power Plants
CCS Carbon Capture and Storage
SNG Synthetic Natural Gas
CCGTs Combined Cycle Gas Turbines
OCGT Open Cycle Gas Turbine
HES Hydrogen Energy Storage
HGESS Hybrid Gas Energy Storage System
VPPs Virtual Power Plants

References
1. European Electricity Review. 2024. Available online: https://ember-climate.org/insights/research/european-electricity-review-
2024/#supporting-material (accessed on 8 January 2024).
2. IEA. Energy Technology Perspectives (ETP). Harnessing Electricity’s Potential; International Energy Agency (IEA): Paris, France, 2015.
3. Morales-España, G.; Hernández-Serna, R.; Tejada-Arango, D.A.; Weeda, M. Impact of large-scale hydrogen electrification and
retrofitting of natural gas infrastructure on the European power system. Int. J. Electr. Power Energy Syst. 2024, 155, 109686.
[CrossRef]
4. Zhang, R.; Hanaoka, T. Deployment of electric vehicles in China to meet the carbon neutral target by 2060: Provincial disparities
in energy systems, CO2 emissions, and cost effectiveness. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 2021, 170, 105622. [CrossRef]
Energies 2024, 17, 2187 20 of 26

5. Sihvonen, V.; Honkapuro, S.; Laaksonen, P.; Partanen, J. Flexibility demand and resources in a low-carbon energy system.
In Proceedings of the 2020 17th International Conference on the European Energy Market (EEM), Stockholm, Sweden, 16–18
September 2020; pp. 1–6.
6. Shirizadeh, B. Solving the energy transition riddle: Renewable gas for transport and renewable electricity for heating. In
Proceedings of the 2020 17th International Conference on the European Energy Market (EEM), Stockholm, Sweden, 16–18
September 2020; pp. 1–6.
7. Azad, S.; Amiri, M.M.; Ameli, M.T. Optimal Placement of Combined Heat and Power (CHP) Systems Considering the Cost
of Environmental Pollutants. In Whole Energy Systems: Bridging the Gap via Vector-Coupling Technologies; Springer International
Publishing: Cham, Switzerland, 2022; pp. 153–168.
8. Zhu, C.; Bao, G.; Xu, R.; Song, Z.; Liu, Y. Low-carbon economic analysis of a virtual power plant with wind and solar power
considering the integrated flexible operation mode of a carbon capture thermoelectric unit. Int. J. Greenh. Gas Control 2023, 130,
104011. [CrossRef]
9. Wang, Y.L.; Wang, Y.J.; Huang, Y.; Li, F.; Zeng, M.; Li, J.; Wang, X.; Zhang, F. Planning and operation method of the regional
integrated energy system considering economy and environment. Energy 2019, 171, 731–750. [CrossRef]
10. Ademollo, A.; Carcasci, C.; Ilo, A. Power to Gas at Customer Plant Level to Increase Rooftop Pv Share While Increasing Flexibility
and Security of Supply. Available online: http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4637883 (accessed on 8 January 2024).
11. Jiang, Y.; Ren, Z.; Dong, Z.Y.; Sun, Z.; Terzija, V. An Optimal Dispatch Method of Integrated Electricity and Gas Systems
Incorporating Hydrogen Injection Flexibility. Int. J. Electr. Power Energy Syst. 2024, 155, 109662. [CrossRef]
12. Zhang, X.; Ameli, H.; Dong, Z.; Vecchi, A.; Gallego-Schmid, A.; Strbac, G.; Sciacovelli, A. Values of latent heat and thermochemical
energy storage technologies in low-carbon energy systems: Whole system approach. J. Energy Storage 2022, 50, 104126. [CrossRef]
13. Yan, R.; Wang, J.; Huo, S.; Qin, Y.; Zhang, J.; Tang, S.; Wang, Y.; Liu, Y.; Zhou, L. Flexibility improvement and stochastic
multi-scenario hybrid optimization for an integrated energy system with high-proportion renewable energy. Energy 2023, 263,
125779. [CrossRef]
14. Sun, F.; Li, R.; Han, Y.; Liu, S.; Liu, F.; Liu, H. The IES dynamic time-scale scheduling strategy based on multiple load forecasting
errors. Glob. Energy Interconnect. 2021, 4, 58–68. [CrossRef]
15. Bishara, N.; Pernigotto, G.; Prada, A.; Baratieri, M.; Gasparella, A. Experimental determination of the building envelope’s
dynamic thermal characteristics in consideration of hygrothermal modelling—Assessment of methods and sources of uncertainty.
Energy Build. 2021, 236, 110798. [CrossRef]
16. Davari, M.M.; Ameli, H.; Ameli, M.T.; Strbac, G. Impact of Local Emergency Demand Response Programs on the Operation of
Electricity and Gas Systems. Energies 2022, 15, 2144. [CrossRef]
17. Li, Y.; Wang, C.; Li, G.; Chen, C. Optimal scheduling of integrated demand responseenabled integrated energy systems with
uncertain renewable generations: A Stackelberg game approach. Energy Convers. Manag. 2021, 235, 113996. [CrossRef]
18. Dehghan, S.; Aunedi, M.; Ameli, H.; Strbac, G. Whole-system value of electrified district heating networks in decarbonising heat
sector in the UK. In Proceedings of the 13th Mediterranean Conference on Power Generation, Transmission, Distribution and
Energy Conversion (MEDPOWER 2022), Valletta, Malta, 7–9 November 2022; Volume 2022, pp. 362–367.
19. Pudjianto, D.; Strbac, G. Operational strategies for maximising the value of customer flexibility. In Proceedings of the 27th
International Conference on Electricity Distribution (CIRED 2023), Rome, Italy, 12–15 June 2023; IET: Stevenage, UK, 2023.
[CrossRef]
20. Zhong, J.; Li, Y.; Cao, Y.; Tan, Y.; Peng, Y.; Zeng, Z.; Cao, L. Stochastic optimization of integrated energy system considering
network dynamic characteristics and psychological preference. J. Clean. Prod. 2020, 275, 122992. [CrossRef]
21. Shahbazbegian, V.; Dehghani, F.; Shafiyi, M.A.; Shafie-khah, M.; Laaksonen, H.; Ameli, H. Techno-economic assessment of energy
storage systems in multi-energy microgrids utilizing decomposition methodology. Energy 2023, 283, 128430. [CrossRef]
22. Deng, T.; Tian, L.; Hu, B.; Liu, X.; Liu, J.; Zhou, G.; Zhao, Y. Dynamic availability of energy storage in district heating networks for
automatic generation control of a CHP plant. Appl. Therm. Eng. 2021, 183, 116198. [CrossRef]
23. Li, Z.; Wu, W.; Shahidehpour, M.; Wang, J.; Zhang, B. Combined heat and power dispatch considering pipeline energy storage of
district heating network. IEEE Trans. Sustain. Energy 2016, 7, 12–22. [CrossRef]
24. Li, Y.; Wang, C.; Li, G.; Wang, J.; Zhao, D.; Chen, C. Improving operational flexibility of integrated energy system with uncertain
renewable generations considering thermal inertia of buildings. Energy Convers. Manag. 2020, 207, 112526. [CrossRef]
25. Wang, D.; Zhi, Y.; Jia, H.; Hou, K.; Zhang, S.; Du, W.; Wang, X.; Fan, M. Optimal scheduling strategy of district integrated heat and
power system with wind power and multiple energy stations considering thermal inertia of buildings under different heating
regulation modes. Appl. Energy 2019, 240, 341–358. [CrossRef]
26. Xi, Y.; Fang, J.; Chen, Z.; Zeng, Q.; Lund, H. Optimal coordination of flexible resources in the gas-heat-electricity integrated
energy system. Energy 2021, 223, 119729. [CrossRef]
27. Jiang, P.; Dong, J.; Huang, H. Optimal integrated demand response scheduling in regional integrated energy system with
concentrating solar power. Appl. Therm. Eng. 2020, 166, 114754. [CrossRef]
28. Glensk, B.; Rosen, C.; Bachmann Schiavo, R.; Rabiee, S.; Madlener, R.; De Doncker, R. Economic and Technical Evaluation of
Enhancing the Flexibility of Conventional Power Plants; E.ON energy research center series; E.ON Energy Research Center: Aachen,
Germany, 2015; Volume 7.
29. Henderson, C. Increasing the Flexibility of Coal-Fired Power Plants; IEA Clean Coal Centre: London, UK, 2014.
Energies 2024, 17, 2187 21 of 26

30. Helbig, K.; Banaszkiewicz, M.; Mohr, W. Advanced Lifetime Assessment and Stress Control of Steam Turbines; Power-Gen Europe:
Milan, Italy, 2016.
31. Miller, B. Clean Coal Engineering Technology; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2011. Available online: http://app.knovel.
com/hotlink/toc/id:kpCCET000B/clean-coal-engineering/clean-coal-engineering (accessed on 2 March 2024).
32. Burnard, K.; Bhattacharya, S. Power Generation from Coal. Ongoing Developments and Outlook. Paris: Information Paper.
International Energy Agency (IEA). 2011. Available online: https://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/
Power_Generation_from_Coal2011.pdf (accessed on 8 December 2023).
33. Shabazbegian, V.; Ameli, H.; Ameli, M.T.; Strbac, G.; Qadrdan, M. Co-optimization of resilient gas and electricity networks; a
novel possibilistic chance-constrained programming approach. Appl. Energy 2021, 284, 116284. [CrossRef]
34. Rostami, A.M.; Ameli, H.; Ameli, M.T.; Strbac, G. Secure operation of integrated natural gas and electricity transmission networks.
Energies 2020, 13, 4954. [CrossRef]
35. Strbac, G.; Pudjianto, D.; Aunedi, M.; Djapic, P.; Teng, F.; Zhang, X.; Ameli, H.; Moreira, R.; Brandon, N. Role and value of
flexibility in facilitating cost-effective energy system decarbonisation. Prog. Energy 2020, 2, 042001. [CrossRef]
36. NETL. Impact of Load Following on Power Plant Cost and Performance: Literature Review and Industry Interviews; National Energy
Technology Laboratory (NETL): Golden, CO, USA; U.S. Department of Energy: Washington, DC, USA, 2012.
37. Brinkman, G.; Kumar, N.; Besuner, P.; Agan, D.; Lefton, S. Impacts of Wind and Solar on Fossil-Fueled Generators; National Renewable
Energy Laboratory (NREL): Oak Ridge, TN, USA, 2012.
38. Hentschel, J.; Babic, U.; Spliethoff, H. A parametric approach for the valuation of power plant flexibility options. Energy Rep. 2016,
2, 40–47. [CrossRef]
39. Schröder, A.; Kunz, F.; Meiss, J.; Mendelevitch, R.; von Hirschhausen, C. Current and Prospective Costs of Electricity Generation until
2050; Deutsches Institut für Wirtschaftsforschung (DIW): Berlin, Germany, 2013.
40. Sanchez Fernandez, E.; Sanchez del Rio, M.; Chalmers, H.; Khakharia, P.; Goetheer, E.; Gibbins, J.; Lucquiaud, M. Operational
flexibility options in power plants with integrated postcombustion capture. Int. J. Greenh. Gas Control 2016, 48, 275–289. [CrossRef]
41. Brouwer, A.; van den Broek, M.; Seebregts, A.; Faaij, A. Operational flexibility and economics of power plants in future low-carbon
power systems. Appl. Energy 2015, 156, 107–128. [CrossRef]
42. Kondziella, H.; Bruckner, T. Flexibility requirements of renewable energy based electricity systems—A review of research results
and methodologies. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2016, 53, 10–22. [CrossRef]
43. Lund, P.; Lindgren, J.; Mikkola, J.; Salpakari, J. Review of energy system flexibility measures to enable high levels of variable
renewable electricity. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2015, 45, 785–807. [CrossRef]
44. Amiri, M.M.; Ameli, H.; Ameli, M.T.; Strbac, G. Investigating the effective methods in improving the resilience of electricity and
gas systems. In Whole Energy Systems: Bridging the Gap via Vector-Coupling Technologies; Springer International Publishing: Cham,
Switzerland, 2022; pp. 137–152.
45. Panteli, M.; Mancarella, P. Influence of extreme weather and climate change on the resilience of power systems: Impacts and
possible mitigation strategies. Electr. Power Syst. Res. 2015, 127, 259–270. [CrossRef]
46. Ameli, M.T.; Jalilpoor, K.; Amiri, M.M.; Azad, S. Reliability analysis and role of energy storage in resiliency of energy systems. In
Energy Storage in Energy Markets; Academic Press: Cambridge, MA, USA, 2021; pp. 399–416.
47. Sharifpour, M.; Ameli, M.T.; Ameli, H.; Strbac, G. A Resilience-Oriented Approach for Microgrid Energy Management with
Hydrogen Integration during Extreme Events. Energies 2023, 16, 8099. [CrossRef]
48. Ameli, M.T.; Ameli, H.; Strbac, G.; Shahbazbegian, V. Reliability and resiliency assessment in integrated gas and electricity
systems in the presence of energy storage systems. In Energy Storage in Energy Markets; Academic Press: Cambridge, MA, USA,
2021; pp. 369–397.
49. Peterson, K.D.; Rwabukamba, A.G.; Turner, A.A. Testing Mechanism for a Proximity Fail Probability of Defects across Integrated
Chips. US10114071B2, 26 April 2016.
50. Spencer, R.H.; Floyd, R.E. Perspectives on Engineering; AuthorHouse: Bloomington, IN, USA, 2011.
51. Grid Resiliency. 2015. Available online: http://www.epri.com/Pages/Grid-Resiliency.aspx (accessed on 15 December 2023).
52. Kundur, P.; Paserba, J.; Ajjarapu, V.; Andersson, G.; Bose, A.; Canizares, C.; Hatziargyriou, N.; Hill, D.; Stankovic, A.; Taylor, C.;
et al. Definition and classification of power system stability IEEE/CIGRE joint task force on stability terms and definitions. IEEE
Trans. Power Syst. 2004, 19, 1387–1401.
53. EPRI. Electric Power System Resiliency Challenges and Opportunities; EPRI: Palo Alto, CA, USA, 2016.
54. Panteli, M.; Mancarella, P. The grid: Stronger, bigger, smarter? Presenting a conceptual framework of power system resilience.
IEEE Power Energy Mag. 2015, 13, 58–66. [CrossRef]
55. Borg, R.P.; Indirli, M.; Romagnoli, F.; Rochas, C.; Kuznecova, T. The ANDROID case study; Venice and its territory: Vulnerability
and resilience in multi-hazard scenarios. Procedia Econ. Financ. 2014, 18, 825–836. [CrossRef]
56. Birkmann, J. Measuring vulnerability to promote disaster-resilient societies: Conceptual frameworks and definitions. In Measuring
Vulnerability to Natural Hazards: Towards Disaster Resilient Societies; TERI Press: New Delhi, India, 2006; Volume 1, pp. 9–54.
57. Bird, L.; Cochran, J.; Wang, X. Wind and Solar Energy Curtailment: Experience and Practices in the United States; NREL Report No.
TP-6A20-60983; NREL: Golden, CO, USA, 2014.
58. Cochran, J.; Miller, M.; Milligan, M.; Ela, E.; Arent, D.; Bloom, A. Market Evolution: Wholesale Electricity Market Design for 21st
Century Power Systems; NREL TP-6A20-57477; NREL: Golden, CO, USA, 2013.
Energies 2024, 17, 2187 22 of 26

59. Available online: http://thomsonreuters.com/thomson-reuters-web-of-science/ (accessed on 25 December 2023).

60. Zhao, Y.; Xu, X.; Qadrdan, M.; Wu, J. Optimal operation of compressor units in gas networks to provide flexibility to power
systems. Appl. Energy 2021, 290, 116740. [CrossRef]
61. Lever, A.; Evans, H.; Ravishankar, M.; Romanidis, N.; Richards, O.; Buchanan, F.; Pudjianto, D.; Strbac, G. Flexibility in Great
Britain; Carbon Trust: London, UK, 2021.
62. Zeng, Q.; Fang, J.; Zhang, B.; Chen, Z. The coordinated operation of electricity, gas and district heating systems. Energy Procedia
2018, 145, 307–312. [CrossRef]
63. Fang, X.; Cui, H.; Yuan, H.; Tan, J.; Jiang, T. Distributionally-robust chance constrained and interval optimization for integrated
electricity and natural gas systems optimal power flow with wind uncertainties. Appl. Energy 2019, 252, 113420. [CrossRef]
64. Hui, H.; Bao, M.; Ding, Y.; Yang, Y.; Xue, Y. Optimal Energy Reserve Scheduling in Integrated Electricity and Gas Systems
Considering Reliability Requirements. J. Mod. Power Syst. Clean Energy 2022, 10, 1494–1506. [CrossRef]
65. Zhang, Y.; Le, J.; Zheng, F.; Zhang, Y.; Liu, K. Two-stage distributionally robust coordinated scheduling for gas-electricity
integrated energy system considering wind power uncertainty and reserve capacity configuration. Renew Energy 2019, 135,
122–135. [CrossRef]
66. Sun, G.; Sun, J.; Chen, S.; Wei, Z. Multi-stage risk-averse operation of integrated electric power and natural gas systems. Int. J.
Electr. Power Energy Syst. 2021, 126, 106614. [CrossRef]
67. Majidi, M.; Zare, K. Integration of smart energy hubs in distribution networks under uncertainties and demand response concept.
IEEE Trans. Power Syst. 2018, 34, 566–574. [CrossRef]
68. Shao, C.; Wang, X.; Shahidehpour, M.; Wang, X.; Wang, B. An MILP-based optimal power flow in multicarrier energy systems.
IEEE Trans. Sustain. Energy 2016, 8, 239–248. [CrossRef]
69. Zhao, Y.; Yu, J.; Ban, M.; Liu, Y.; Li, Z. Privacy-preserving economic dispatch for an active distribution network with multiple
networked microgrids. IEEE Access 2018, 6, 38802–38819. [CrossRef]
70. Tovar-Ramírez, C.A.; Fuerte-Esquivel, C.R.; Martínez Mares, A.; Sanchez-Garduño, J.L. A generalized short-term unit commitment
approach for analyzing electric power and natural gas integrated systems. Electr. Power Syst. Res. 2019, 172, 63–76. [CrossRef]
71. Yang, Z.; Gao, C.; Zhang, J. The interaction of gas and electricity hybrid energy internet. In Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE
Conference on Energy Internet and Energy System Integration, EI2, Beijing, China, 26–28 November 2017; pp. 1–6. [CrossRef]
72. He, C.; Zhang, X.; Liu, T.; Wu, L. Distributionally robust scheduling of integrated gaselectricity systems with demand response.
IEEE Trans. Power Syst. 2019, 34, 3791–3803. [CrossRef]
73. Zeng, Q.; Fang, J.; Li, J.; Chen, Z. Steady-state analysis of the integrated natural gas and electric power system with bi-directional
energy conversion. Appl. Energy 2016, 184, 1483–1492. [CrossRef]
74. Sirvent, M.; Kanelakis, N.; Geißler, B.; Biskas, P. Linearized model for optimization of coupled electricity and natural gas systems.
J. Mod. Power Syst. Clean Energy 2017, 5, 364–374. [CrossRef]
75. Schwele, A.; Ordoudis, C.; Kazempour, J.; Pinson, P. Coordination of power and natural gas systems: Convexification approaches
for linepack modeling. In Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE Milan Powertech, Milan, Italy, 23–27 June 2019; IEEE: Piscataway, NJ,
USA, 2019; pp. 1–6.
76. He, C.; Wu, L.; Liu, T.; Shahidehpour, M. Robust Co-optimization scheduling of electricity and natural gas systems via ADMM.
IEEE Trans. Sustain. Energy 2017, 8, 658–670. [CrossRef]
77. Zeng, Q.; Zhang, B.; Fang, J.; Chen, Z. A bi-level programming for multistage coexpansion planning of the integrated gas and
electricity system. Appl. Energy 2017, 200, 192–203. [CrossRef]
78. Ordoudis, C.; Pinson, P.; Morales, J.M. An integrated market for electricity and natural gas systems with stochastic power
producers. Eur. J. Oper. Res. 2019, 272, 642–654. [CrossRef]
79. Chen, S.; Wei, Z.; Sun, G.; Wang, D.; Zang, H. Steady state and transient simulation for electricity-gas integrated energy systems
by using convex optimisation. IET Gener. Transm. Distrib. 2018, 12, 2199–2206. [CrossRef]
80. Yan, M.; Zhang, N.; Ai, X.; Shahidehpour, M.; Kang, C.; Wen, J. Robust two-stage regional-district scheduling of multi-carrier
energy systems with a large penetration of wind power. IEEE Trans. Sustain. Energy 2019, 10, 1227–1239. [CrossRef]
81. Clegg, S.; Mancarella, P. Integrated modeling and assessment of the operational impact of power-to-gas (P2G) on electrical and
gas transmission networks. IEEE Trans. Sustain. Energy 2015, 6, 1234–1244. [CrossRef]
82. Fang, J.; Zeng, Q.; Ai, X.; Chen, Z.; Wen, J. Dynamic optimal energy flow in the integrated natural gas and electrical power
systems. IEEE Trans. Sustain. Energy 2018, 9, 188–198. [CrossRef]
83. Pambour, K.A.; Cakir Erdener, B.; Bolado-Lavin, R.; Dijkema, G.P.J. SAInt—A novel quasi-dynamic model for assessing security
of supply in coupled gas and electricity transmission networks. Appl. Energy 2017, 203, 829–857. [CrossRef]
84. Clegg, S.; Mancarella, P. Integrated electrical and gas network flexibility assessment in low-carbon multi-energy systems. IEEE
Trans. Sustain. Energy 2016, 7, 718–731. [CrossRef]
85. Wu, L.; Shahidehpour, M. Security-constrained unit commitment with natural gas transmission constraints. In Power Grid
Operation in a Market Environment; Wiley: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2016; Volume 24, pp. 115–168. [CrossRef]
86. Zlotnik, A.; Roald, L.; Backhaus, S.; Chertkov, M.; Andersson, G. Coordinated scheduling for interdependent electric power and
natural gas infrastructures. IEEE Trans. Power Syst. 2017, 32, 600–610. [CrossRef]
87. Ameli, H.; Qadrdan, M.; Strbac, G. Value of gas network infrastructure flexibility in supporting cost effective operation of power
systems. Appl. Energy 2017, 202, 571–580. [CrossRef]
Energies 2024, 17, 2187 23 of 26

88. Wei, X.; Zhang, X.; Sun, Y.; Qiu, J. Carbon emission flow oriented tri-level planning of integrated electricity–hydrogen–gas system
with hydrogen vehicles. IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl. 2021, 58, 2607–2618. [CrossRef]
89. Li, G.; Zhang, R.; Jiang, T.; Chen, H.; Bai, L.; Li, X. Security-constrained bi-level economic dispatch model for integrated natural
gas and electricity systems considering wind power and power-to-gas process. Appl. Energy 2017, 194, 696–704. [CrossRef]
90. Shahbazbegian, V.; Shafie-khah, M.; Laaksonen, H.; Strbac, G.; Ameli, H. Resilience-oriented operation of microgrids in the
presence of power-to-hydrogen systems. Appl. Energy 2023, 348, 121429. [CrossRef]
91. Wang, B.; Zhao, N.; Li, F. Constraint-based interactive approach for equilibrium of interdependent gas and electricity markets.
Appl. Energy 2023, 335, 120704. [CrossRef]
92. Rinaldi, A. The Role of Energy Storage, Flexibility Options and Sector Coupling in the Context of the Swiss Energy Transition by
2050. Available online: https://agenda.unige.ch/events/view/36844 (accessed on 25 December 2023).
93. Ramadhon, N.M.; Yuliandaru, I.; Mulyadi, M.; Rifaldi, M. Carbon Reduction and Utilization for Levelized Electricity Generating
Cost Optimization Through LNG Cold Utilization. In Proceedings of the 2023 International Conference on Technology and Policy
in Energy and Electric Power (ICT-PEP), Jakarta, Indonesia, 2–3 October 2023; IEEE: Piscataway, NJ, USA, 2023; pp. 213–218.
94. Cai, X.; Wang, H.; Dong, J.; Lu, X.; Yang, Z.; Cheng, S.; Ma, Y.; Yang, J.; Chen, Z. Optimal Scheduling Framework of Integrated
Energy System Based on Carbon Emission in Electricity Spot Market. J. Circuits Syst. Comput. 2023, 33, 2450096. [CrossRef]
95. Mizobe, K.; Chairunnisa, C.; Thu, K.; Miyazaki, T. Potential Evaluation of Power-to-Gas system by using Wind Turbine and PEM.
In E3S Web of Conferences; EDP Sciences: Les Ulis, France, 2023; Volume 465, p. 01011.
96. Yanan, B.; Zhang, P. Low-carbon optimal dispatching of electric-heat-gas coupled integrated energy system based on improved
MVO algorithm. Res. Sq. 2023. preprint. [CrossRef]
97. Qin, L.; Ma, H.; Huang, C.; Li, H.; Shidong, W.; Wang, G. Low-carbon operation optimization of integrated energy system
considering CCS-P2G and multi-market interaction. Front. Energy Res. 2024, 11, 1337164. [CrossRef]
98. Xiong, J.; Li, H.; Wang, T. Low-Carbon Economic Dispatch of an Integrated Electricity–Gas–Heat Energy System with Carbon
Capture System and Organic Rankine Cycle. Energies 2023, 16, 7996. [CrossRef]
99. Gao, H.; Li, Z.; Wang, C.; Chen, S.; Fan, M.; Sun, H. Rolling dispatch framework of integrated electricity-gas system considering
power-to-gas facilities and natural gas network dynamics: Modelling and case studies. Int. J. Electr. Power Energy Syst. 2023, 152,
109259. [CrossRef]
100. Wang, S.; Hui, H.; Ding, Y.; Zhai, J. Decentralized Demand Response for Energy Hubs in Integrated Electricity and Gas Systems
Considering Linepack Flexibility. IEEE Internet Things J. 2023. [CrossRef]
101. Shi, M.; Vasquez, J.C.; Guerrero, J.M.; Huang, Y. Smart communities-Design of integrated energy packages considering incentive
integrated demand response and optimization of coupled electricity-gas-cooling-heat and hydrogen systems. Int. J. Hydrogen
Energy 2023, 48, 31063–31077. [CrossRef]
102. Rahimi, M.; Ardakani, F.J.; Olatujoye, O. Improving flexible optimal scheduling of virtual power plants considering dynamic line
rating and flexible supply and demand. Int. J. Electr. Power Energy Syst. 2023, 150, 109099. [CrossRef]
103. Nasiri, N.; Zeynali, S.; Ravadanegh, S.N.; Kubler, S.; Le Traon, Y. A convex multi-objective distributionally robust optimization
for embedded electricity and natural gas distribution networks under smart electric vehicle fleets. J. Clean. Prod. 2024, 434, 139843.
[CrossRef]
104. Wang, L.; Liu, X.; Li, Y.; Chang, D.; Ren, X. Low-carbon optimal dispatch of integrated energy system considering demand
response under the tiered carbon trading mechanism. arXiv 2023, arXiv:2310.03056.
105. Li, L.; Li, M.; Li, Z.; Li, S. Operational optimisation of integrated campus energy systems considering integrated demand response.
J. Phys. Conf. Ser. 2023, 2584, 012029. [CrossRef]
106. Duan, J.; Xia, Y.; Cheng, R.; Gao, Q.; Liu, F. Low-carbon and Economic Optimal Operation of Electricity-Gas Integrated Energy
System Considering Demand Response. Sustain. Energy Grids Netw. 2024, 38, 101290. [CrossRef]
107. Men, J. Bi-Level Optimal Scheduling Strategy of Integrated Energy System Considering Adiabatic Compressed Air Energy
Storage and Integrated Demand Response. J. Electr. Eng. Technol. 2023, 19, 97–111. [CrossRef]
108. Moran, C.; Deane, P.; Yousefian, S.; Monaghan, R.F. The hydrogen storage challenge: Does storage method and size affect the cost
and operational flexibility of hydrogen supply chains? Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 2024, 52, 1090–1100. [CrossRef]
109. Walter, V.; Göransson, L.; Taljegard, M.; Öberg, S.; Odenberger, M. Low-cost hydrogen in the future European electricity
system–Enabled by flexibility in time and space. Appl. Energy 2023, 330, 120315. [CrossRef]
110. Wu, C.; Li, W.; Qian, T.; Xie, X.; Wang, J.; Tang, W.; Gong, X. Optimal scheduling of hydrogen blended integrated electricity–gas
system considering gas linepack via a sequential second-order cone programming methodology. J. Energy Storage 2024, 76, 109718.
[CrossRef]
111. Schmugge, J.; Gardian, H.; Gils, H.C. Optimising a Fully Renewable European Energy System Seizing the Flexibility of Gas and Heat
Storage Systems; DLR: Cologne, Germany, 2023.
112. Zhang, Z.; Fang, X.; Fan, Y. Optimization Strategies for Hydrogen Mixing Scheduling in Natural Gas Networks in Integrated
Energy Systems. In Proceedings of the 2023 8th International Conference on Power and Renewable Energy (ICPRE), Shanghai,
China, 22–25 September 2023; IEEE: Piscataway, NJ, USA, 2023; pp. 1928–1933.
113. Niu, Y.; Chen, Q.; Zhang, Z.; Qian, B.; Li, Z.; Xu, X. Low-Carbon Oriented Optimization of Integrated Energy System Considering
Complex Coupling of Carbon and Hydrogen. In Proceedings of the 2023 8th International Conference on Power and Renewable
Energy (ICPRE), Shanghai, China, 22–25 September 2023; IEEE: Piscataway, NJ, USA, 2023; pp. 1896–1901.
Energies 2024, 17, 2187 24 of 26

114. Khaligh, V.; Ghezelbash, A.; Akhtar, M.S.; Zarei, M.; Liu, J.; Won, W. Optimal integration of a low-carbon energy system–A
circular hydrogen economy perspective. Energy Convers. Manag. 2023, 292, 117354. [CrossRef]
115. Xu, J.; Gao, C.; Yan, Z.; Li, T.; Ma, G. Low-carbon optimal operation of integrated energy systems considering air pollution
emissions. Energy Rep. 2023, 9, 1597–1606. [CrossRef]
116. Nasiri, N.; Saatloo, A.M.; Mirzaei, M.A.; Ravadanegh, S.N.; Zare, K.; Mohammadi-ivatloo, B.; Marzband, M. A robust bi-level
optimization framework for participation of multi-energy service providers in integrated power and natural gas markets. Appl.
Energy 2023, 340, 121047. [CrossRef]
117. Zhou, J.; Li, S.; Zhou, X.; Li, C.; Xiong, Z.; Zhao, Y.; Liang, G. Operation optimization for gas-electric integrated energy system
with hydrogen storage module. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 2022, 47, 36622–36639. [CrossRef]
118. Zhou, Y. Low-carbon transition in smart city with sustainable airport energy ecosystems and hydrogen-based renewable-grid-
storage-flexibility. Energy Rev. 2022, 1, 100001. [CrossRef]
119. De Corato, A.; Saedi, I.; Riaz, S.; Mancarella, P. Aggregated flexibility from multiple power-to-gas units in integrated electricity-
gas-hydrogen distribution systems. Electr. Power Syst. Res. 2022, 212, 108409. [CrossRef]
120. Vahedipour-Dahraie, M.; Rashidizadeh-Kermani, H.; Parente, M.; Shafie-Khah, M.; Siano, P. Investigating the Impact of External
Demand Response Flexibility on the Market Power of Strategic Virtual Power Plant. IEEE Access 2022, 10, 84960–84969. [CrossRef]
121. Yang, H.; Zhou, M.; Wu, Z.; Zhang, M.; Liu, S.; Guo, Z.; Du, E. Exploiting the operational flexibility of a concentrated solar power
plant with hydrogen production. Sol. Energy 2022, 247, 158–170. [CrossRef]
122. Oladimeji, O.; Ortega, A.; Sigrist, L.; Sánchez-Martín, P.; Lobato, E.; Rouco, L. Modeling Demand Flexibility of RES-based Virtual
Power Plants. In Proceedings of the 2022 IEEE Power & Energy Society General Meeting (PESGM), Denver, CO, USA, 17–21 July
2022; IEEE: Piscataway, NJ, USA, 2022; pp. 1–5.
123. Wang, S.; Wu, W.; Chen, Q.; Yu, J.; Wang, P. Stochastic flexibility evaluation for virtual power plant by aggregating distributed
energy resources. CSEE J. Power Energy Syst. 2022. [CrossRef]
124. Li, X.; Mulder, M. Value of power-to-gas as a flexibility option in integrated electricity and hydrogen markets. Appl. Energy 2021,
304, 117863. [CrossRef]
125. Ge, S.; Li, J.; He, X.; Liu, H. Joint energy market design for local integrated energy system service procurement considering
demand flexibility. Appl. Energy 2021, 297, 117060. [CrossRef]
126. Cheng, Y.; Liu, M.; Chen, H.; Yang, Z. Optimization of multi-carrier energy system based on new operation mechanism modelling
of power-to-gas integrated with CO2 -based electrothermal energy storage. Energy 2021, 216, 119269. [CrossRef]
127. Tao, Y.; Qiu, J.; Lai, S.; Zhao, J.; Xue, Y. Carbon-oriented electricity network planning and transformation. IEEE Trans. Power Syst.
2021, 36, 1034–1048. [CrossRef]
128. Chen, J.J.; Qi, B.X.; Rong, Z.K.; Peng, K.; Zhao, Y.L.; Zhang, X.H. Multi-energy coordinated microgrid scheduling with integrated
demand response for flexibility improvement. Energy 2021, 217, 119387. [CrossRef]
129. Jin, C.; Xiao, J.; Hou, J.; Wu, X.; Zhang, J.; Du, E. Flexibility improvement evaluation of hydrogen storage based on electricity–
hydrogen coupled energy model. Glob. Energy Interconnect. 2021, 4, 371–383. [CrossRef]
130. Mansouri, S.A.; Ahmarinejad, A.; Javadi, M.S.; Nezhad, A.E.; Shafie-Khah, M.; Catalão, J.P. Demand response role for enhancing
the flexibility of local energy systems. In Distributed Energy Resources in Local Integrated Energy Systems; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The
Netherlands, 2021; pp. 279–313.
131. Gjorgievski, V.Z.; Markovska, N.; Abazi, A.; Duić, N. The potential of power-to-heat demand response to improve the flexibility
of the energy system: An empirical review. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2021, 138, 110489. [CrossRef]
132. O’Connell, S.; Reynders, G.; Keane, M.M. Impact of source variability on flexibility for demand response. Energy 2021, 237, 121612.
[CrossRef]
133. Rabiee, A.; Keane, A.; Soroudi, A. Green hydrogen: A new flexibility source for security constrained scheduling of power systems
with renewable energies. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 2021, 46, 19270–19284. [CrossRef]
134. Sheha, M.; Mohammadi, K.; Powell, K. Techno-economic analysis of the impact of dynamic electricity prices on solar penetration
in a smart grid environment with distributed energy storage. Appl. Energy 2021, 282, 116168. [CrossRef]
135. Iraklis, C.; Smend, J.; Almarzooqi, A.; Mnatsakanyan, A. Flexibility forecast and resource composition methodology for virtual
power plants. In Proceedings of the 2021 International Conference on Electrical, Computer and Energy Technologies (ICECET),
Cape Town, South Africa, 9–10 December 2021; IEEE: Piscataway, NJ, USA, 2021; pp. 1–7.
136. Ullah, Z.; Mirjat, N.H. Virtual power plant: State of the art providing energy flexibility to local distribution grids. In E3S Web of
Conferences; EDP Sciences: Les Ulis, France, 2021; Volume 231, p. 01002.
137. Kryzia, D.; Kopacz, M.; Kryzia, K. The valuation of the operational flexibility of the energy investment project based on a gas-fired
power plant. Energies 2020, 13, 1567. [CrossRef]
138. Ameli, H.; Qadrdan, M.; Strbac, G. Coordinated operation of gas and electricity systems for flexibility study. Front. Energy Res.
2020, 8, 120. [CrossRef]
139. Ge, P.; Hu, Q.; Wu, Q.; Dou, X.; Wu, Z.; Ding, Y. Increasing operational flexibility of integrated energy systems by introducing
power to hydrogen. IET Renew. Power Gener. 2020, 14, 372–380. [CrossRef]
140. Heydarian-Forushani, E.; Golshan, M.E.H. Quantitative flexibility assessment of a comprehensive set of demand response
programs. Int. J. Electr. Power Energy Syst. 2020, 116, 105562. [CrossRef]
Energies 2024, 17, 2187 25 of 26

141. Dadkhah, A.; Vahidi, B.; Shafie-khah, M.; Catalão, J.P. Power system flexibility improvement with a focus on demand response
and wind power variability. IET Renew. Power Gener. 2020, 14, 1095–1103. [CrossRef]
142. Mohandes, B.; El Moursi, M.S.; Hatziargyriou, N.D.; El Khatib, S. Incentive based demand response program for power system
flexibility enhancement. IEEE Trans. Smart Grid 2020, 12, 2212–2223. [CrossRef]
143. Yi, Z.; Xu, Y.; Zhou, J.; Wu, W.; Sun, H. Bi-level programming for optimal operation of an active distribution network with
multiple virtual power plants. IEEE Trans. Sustain. Energy 2020, 11, 2855–2869. [CrossRef]
144. Glensk, B.; Madlener, R. The value of enhanced flexibility of gas-fired power plants: A real options analysis. Appl. Energy 2019,
251, 113125. [CrossRef]
145. Liu, J.; Sun, W.; Harrison, G.P. Optimal Low-Carbon Economic Environmental Dispatch of Hybrid Electricity-Natural Gas Energy
Systems Considering P2G. Energies 2019, 12, 1355. [CrossRef]
146. Teng, Y.; Wang, Z.; Li, Y.; Ma, Q.; Hui, Q.; Li, S. Multi-energy storage system model based on electricity heat and hydrogen
coordinated optimization for power grid flexibility. CSEE J. Power Energy Syst. 2019, 5, 266–274.
147. Gonzalez-Salazar, M.A.; Kirsten, T.; Prchlik, L. Review of the operational flexibility and emissions of gas-and coal-fired power
plants in a future with growing renewables. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2018, 82, 1497–1513. [CrossRef]
148. Li, Y.; Liu, W.; Shahidehpour, M.; Wen, F.; Wang, K.; Huang, Y. Optimal operation strategy for integrated natural gas generating
unit and power-to-gas conversion facilities. IEEE Trans. Sustain. Energy 2018, 9, 1870–1879. [CrossRef]
149. Liu, J.C.; Zhou, C.Y.; Gao, H.J.; Guo, Y.; Zhu, Y. Day-ahead economic dispatch optimization of electricity-gas integrated energy
microgrid considering hydrogen-natural gas hybrid energy storage. Power Syst. Technol. 2018, 42, 170–179.
150. Lorestani, A.; Ardehali, M.M. Optimization of autonomous combined heat and power system including PVT, WT, storages, and
electric heat utilizing novel evolutionary particle swarm optimization algorithm. Renew Energy 2018, 119, 490–503. [CrossRef]
151. Tran, T.H.; French, S.; Ashman, R.; Kent, E. Linepack planning models for gas transmission network under uncertainty. Eur. J.
Oper. Res. 2018, 268, 688–702. [CrossRef]
152. Khani, H.H.; Farag, H.E.Z. Optimal day-ahead scheduling of power-to-gas energy storage and gas load management in wholesale
electricity and gas markets. IEEE Trans. Sustain. Energy 2017, 9, 940–951. [CrossRef]
153. He, C.; Liu, T.; Wu, L.; Shahidehpour, M. Robust coordination of interdependent electricity and natural gas systems in day-ahead
scheduling for facilitating volatile renewable generations via power-to-gas technology. J. Mod. Power Syst. Clean Energy 2017, 5,
375–388. [CrossRef]
154. Turk, A.; Zeng, Q.; Wu, Q.; Hejde, A. Optimal operation of integrated electrical, district heating and natural gas system in wind
dominated power system. Int. J. Smart Grid Clean Energy 2018, 9, 237–246. [CrossRef]
155. Department of Energy. The Importance of Flexible Electricity Supply: Solar Integration Series. 1 of 3; DOE/GO-102011-3201;
Department of Energy: Washington, DC, USA, 2011.
156. Fang, T.; Lahdelma, R. Optimization of combined heat and power production with heat storage based on sliding time window
method. Appl. Energy 2016, 162, 723–732. [CrossRef]
157. Miller, M.; Bird, L.; Cochran, J.; Milligan, M.; Bazilian, M. RES-E-NEXT: Next Generation of RESE Policy Instruments; International
Energy Agency-Renewable Energy Technology Deployment: Paris, France, 2013.
158. Lannoye, E.; Flynn, D.; O’Malley, M. Evaluation of power system flexibility. IEEE Trans. Power Syst. 2012, 27, 922–931. [CrossRef]
159. Guo, Z.Y.; Zheng, Y.N.; Li, G.Y. Power system flexibility quantitative evaluation based on improved universal generating function
method: A case study of Zhangjiakou. Energy 2020, 205, 117963. [CrossRef]
160. Xu, X.D.; Lyu, Q.; Qadrdan, M.; Wu, J.Z. Quantification of Flexibility of a District Heating System for the Power Grid. IEEE Trans.
Sustain. Energy 2020, 11, 2617–2630. [CrossRef]
161. Huo, Y.C.; Bouffard, F.; Joos, G. Spatio-Temporal Flexibility Management in Low-Carbon Power Systems. IEEE Trans. Sustain.
Energy 2020, 11, 2593–2605. [CrossRef]
162. Impram, S.; Nese, S.V.; Oral, B. Challenges of renewable energy penetration on power system flexibility: A survey. Energy Strategy
Rev. 2020, 31, 100539. [CrossRef]
163. Correa-Posada, C.M.; Sánchez-Martín, P. Integrated power and natural gas model for energy adequacy in short-term operation.
IEEE Trans. Power Syst. 2015, 30, 3347–3355. [CrossRef]
164. Schiebahn, S.; Grube, T.; Robinius, M.; Tietze, V.; Kumar, B.; Stolten, D. Power to gas: Technological overview, systems analysis
and economic assessment for a case study in Germany. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 2015, 40, 4285–4294. [CrossRef]
165. Gotz, M.; Lefebvre, J.; Mors, F.; Koch, A.M.; Graf, F.; Bajohr, S.; Reimert, R.; Kolb, T. Renewable power-to-gas: A technological and
economic review. Renew. Energy 2016, 85, 1371–1390. [CrossRef]
166. Maroufmashat, A.; Fowler, M. Transition of future energy system infrastructure: Through power-to-gas pathways. Energies 2017,
10, 1089. [CrossRef]
167. Mukherjee, U.; Maroufmashat, A.; Narayan, A.; Elkamel, A.; Fowler, M. A stochastic programming approach for the planning
and operation of a power to gas energy hub with multiple energy recovery pathways. Energies 2017, 10, 868. [CrossRef]
168. Hassan, A.; Patel, M.K.; Parra, D. An assessment of the impacts of renewable and conventional electricity supply on the cost and
value of power-to-gas. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 2019, 44, 9577–9593. [CrossRef]
169. Li, Y.; Liu, W.J.; Zhao, J.H.; Wen, F.S.; Dong, C.Y.; Zheng, Y.; Zhang, R. Optimal dispatch of combined electricity-gas-heat energy
systems with power-to-gas devices and benefit analysis of wind power accommodation. Power Syst. Technol. 2016, 40, 3680–3688.
Energies 2024, 17, 2187 26 of 26

170. Ye, J.; Yuan, R.X. Integrated natural gas, heat, and power dispatch considering wind power and power-to-gas. Sustainability 2017,
9, 602. [CrossRef]
171. Chen, Z.Y.; Wang, D.; Jia, H.J.; Wang, W.L.; Guo, B.Q.; Qu, B.; Fan, M.H. Research on optimal day-ahead economic dispatching
strategy for microgrid considering P2G and multi-source energy storage system. Proc. CSEE 2017, 37, 3067–3077.
172. Wei, Z.N.; Zhang, S.D.; Sun, G.Q.; Zang, H.Y.; Chen, S.; Chen, S. Power-to-gas considered peak load shifting research for
integrated electricity and natural-gas energy systems. Proc. CSEE 2017, 37, 4601–4609.
173. Clegg, S.; Mancarella, P. Integrated electricity-heat-gas modelling and assessment, with applications to the Great Britain system.
Part II: Transmission network analysis and low-carbon technology and resilience case studies. Energy 2019, 184, 191–203.
[CrossRef]
174. Clegg, S.; Mancarella, P. Integrated electricity-heat-gas modelling and assessment, with applications to the Great Britain system.
Part I: High-resolution spatial and temporal heat demand modelling. Energy 2019, 184, 180–190. [CrossRef]
175. Chicco, G.; Riaz, S.; Mazza, A. Flexibility from distributed multienergy systems. Proc. IEEE 2020, 108, 1496–1517. [CrossRef]
176. Liu, J.; Sun, W.; Yan, J. Effect of P2G on flexibility in integrated power-natural gas-heating energy systems with gas storage.
Energies 2021, 14, 196. [CrossRef]
177. Oree, V.; Sayed, H.S.Z. A composite metric for assessing flexibility available in conventional generators of power systems. Appl.
Energy 2016, 177, 683–691. [CrossRef]
178. Andreas, U.; Göran, A. Analyzing operational flexibility of electric power systems. Int. J. Electr. Power Energy Syst. 2015, 72,
155–164.
179. Zhao, J.; Zheng, T.; Litvinov, E. A unified framework for defining and measuring flexibility in power system. IEEE Trans. Power
Syst. 2016, 31, 339–347. [CrossRef]

Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual
author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to
people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.