Physical Layer

CS44 Data Communications and Networking

Manjula L
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
RIT, Bangalore
Syllabus
Local Area Network: Ethernet: Standard Ethernet, WIFI, IEEE
802.11 project- architecture, MAC sub layer, addressing
mechanism.
Physical layer: Signals - Analog signals, Digital signals. Signal
Impairment -Attenuation and Amplification, Distortion, Data
Rate Limits, Performance.
Digital Transmission - Digital-to-Digital Conversion, Analog-to-
Digital Conversion. Analog Transmission- Digital-to-Analog
Conversion,
Analog-to-Analog Conversion. Multiplexing: Frequency-Division
Multiplexing, Time-Division Multiplexing.

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Local Area Network: Ethernet:
Standard Ethernet
• The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
has subdivided the data-link layer into two sublayers:
logical link control (LLC) and media access control (MAC)

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Ethernet Evolution

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Standard Ethernet (10 Mbps)
• Ethernet technology with the data rate of 10 Mbps is
referred as Standard Ethernet.
• Connectionless and Unreliable Service
• Frame Format
• Frame Length
• Addressing
• Transmission of Address Bits
• Implementation

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Connectionless and Unreliable Service
• Ethernet provides a connectionless service, which means each
frame sent is independent of the previous or next frame.
• Ethernet has no connection establishment or connection
termination phases. The sender sends a frame whenever it has
it; the receiver may or may not be ready for it.
• The sender may overwhelm the receiver with frames, which
may result in dropped frames. If a frame drops, the sender
data-link layer will not know about it unless an upper layer
protocol takes care of it.
• Ethernet is also unreliable. If a frame is corrupted during
transmission and the receiver finds out about the corruption,
the receiver drops the frame silently. It is the duty of high-level
protocols to find out about it

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Frame Format

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• Preamble: This field contains 7 bytes (56 bits) of
alternating 0s and 1s
◦ alert the receiving system to the coming frame
◦ enable it to synchronize its clock if it’s out of synchronization
◦ The pattern provides only an alert and a timing pulse
◦ The 56-bit pattern allows the stations to miss some bits at the
beginning of the frame
◦ actually added at the physical layer and is not (formally) part of the
frame

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Ethernet frame
• Start frame delimiter (SFD)
◦ 1 byte: 10101011) signals the beginning of the frame as the size of
Ethernet frame is variable size
◦ The SFD warns the station or stations that this is the last chance for
synchronization
◦ The last 2 bits are (11)2 and alert the receiver that the next field is
the destination address
◦ The SFD field is also added at the physical layer

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Ethernet frame
• Destination address (DA)
◦ Six bytes (48 bits)
◦ contains the linklayer address of the destination station or stations
to receive the packet
◦ When the receiver sees its own link-layer address, or a multicast
address for a group that the receiver is a member of, or a
broadcast address, it decapsulates the data from the frame and
passes the data to the upperlayer protocol defined by the value of
the type field
• Source address (SA)
◦ Six bytes and contains the link-layer address of the sender of the
packet

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Ethernet frame
• Type
◦ Defines the upper-layer protocol whose packet is encapsulated in
the frame
◦ This protocol can be IP, ARP, OSPF, and so on
◦ It is used for multiplexing and demultiplexing.

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Ethernet frame
• Data
◦ encapsulated from the upper-layer protocols
◦ minimum of 46 and a maximum of 1500 bytes
◦ If the data coming from the upper layer is more than 1500 bytes, it should be
fragmented and encapsulated in more than one frame
◦ If it is less than 46 bytes, it needs to be padded with extra 0s
◦ A padded data frame is delivered to the upper-layer protocol as it is (without
removing the padding)
◦ means that it is the responsibility of the upper layer to remove or, in the case of
the sender, to add the padding
◦ The upper-layer protocol needs to know the length of its data. For example, a
datagram has a field that defines the length of the data

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Ethernet frame
• CRC
◦ contains error detection information, in this case a CRC-32
◦ The CRC is calculated over the addresses, types, and data field
◦ If the receiver calculates the CRC and finds that it is not zero
(corruption in transmission), it discards the frame.

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Frame Length
• Ethernet has imposed restrictions on both the minimum and
maximum lengths of a frame
• The minimum length restriction is required for the correct
operation of CSMA/CD
◦ An Ethernet frame - a minimum length of 512 bits or 64 bytes
• Part of the length is the header and the trailer
◦ If 18 bytes of header and trailer (6 bytes of source address, 6 bytes of
destination address, 2 bytes of length or type, and 4 bytes of CRC), then
the minimum length of data from the upper layer is 64 − 18 = 46 bytes
◦ If the upper-layer packet is less than 46 bytes, padding is added to make up the difference

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Frame Length
• The standard defines the maximum length of a frame
(without preamble and SFD field) as 1518 bytes
• If we subtract the 18 bytes of header and trailer, the
maximum length of the payload is 1500 bytes
• The maximum length restriction has two historical reasons
◦ First, memory was very expensive when Ethernet was designed; a
maximum length restriction helped to reduce the size of the buffer
◦ Second, the maximum length restriction prevents one station from
monopolizing the shared medium, blocking other stations that
have data to send frame length in bytes data length in bytes
Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum
64 1518 46 1500

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Standard Ethernet - Addressing
• Each station on an Ethernet network (such as a PC,
workstation, or printer) has its own network interface card
(NIC)
• The NIC fits inside the station and provides the station with
a link-layer address
• The Ethernet address is 6 bytes (48 bits), normally written
in hexadecimal notation, with a colon between the bytes

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Transmission of Address Bits
The way the addresses are sent out online is different from
the way they are written in hexadecimal notation.
The transmission is left to right, byte by byte; however, for
each byte, the least significant bit is sent first and the most
significant bit is sent last.

This means that the bit that defines an address as unicast

or multicast arrives first at the receiver. This helps the
receiver to immediately know if the packet is unicast or
multicast.

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18
19
Unicast, Multicast, and Broadcast
Addresses
• A source address is always a unicast address—the frame
comes from only one station.
• The destination address, however, can be unicast,
multicast, or broadcast.
• Figure 4.4 shows how to distinguish a unicast address from
a multicast address. If the least significant bit of the first
byte in a destination address is 0, the address is unicast;
otherwise, it is multicast.
• Note that with the way the bits are transmitted, the
unicast/multicast bit is the first bit that is transmitted or
received. The broadcast address is a special case of the
multicast address: The recipients are all the stations on the
LAN. A broadcast destination address is forty-eight 1s.
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21
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23
WIFI, IEEE 802.11 PROJECT
• Architecture
• MAC
• Addressing Set

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Architecture
The IEEE standard defines two kinds of services: the basic
service set (BSS) and the extended service set (ESS).
Basic Service Set: IEEE 802.11 defines the basic service set
(BSS) as the building blocks of a wireless LAN.
A basic service set is made up of stationary or mobile
wireless stations and an optional central base station,
known as the access point (AP).

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The BSS without an AP is a stand-alone network and cannot
send data to other BSSs. It is called an ad hoc architecture.
In this architecture, stations can form a network without the
need of an AP; they can locate one another and agree to be
part of a BSS.
A BSS with an AP is sometimes referred to as an
infrastructure BSS

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Extended Service Set

An extended service set (ESS) is made up of two or more BSSs with APs. In
this case, the BSSs are connected through a distribution system, which is a wired
or a wireless network.
The distribution system connects the APs in the BSSs.
IEEE 802.11 does not restrict the distribution system; it can be any IEEE LAN
such as an Ethernet

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MAC Sublayer

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Distributed Coordination Function (DCF)
• DCF uses CSMA/CA as the access method
Sender • Frame Exchange Time Line: exchange of
data and control frames in time

Receiver
distributed interframe space (DIFS)

request to send (RTS) Receive RTS

Wait SIFS short interframe space (SIFS)

clear to send (CTS) indicates
Sends CTS that the destination station is
ready to receive data

Receive frame

Wait SIFS
Acknowledgment to show that
Sends ACK the frame has been received
Acknowledgment is needed because the station does not have any
means to check for the successful arrival of its data at the destination
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Distributed Coordination Function
Network Allocation Vector:

When a station sends an RTS frame, it includes the duration of time that it needs to occupy
the channel. The stations that are affected by this transmission create a timer called a
network allocation vector (NAV) that shows how much time must pass before these stations
are allowed to check the channel for idleness

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Point Coordination Function (PCF)
• The point coordination function (PCF) is an optional access
method that can be implemented in an infrastructure network
(not in an ad hoc network).

• It is implemented on top of the DCF and is used mostly for

time-sensitive transmission

• PCF has a centralized, contention-free polling access method.

The access point performs polling for stations that are capable
of being polled. The stations are polled one after another,
sending any data they have to the access point.

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Point Coordination Function (PCF)
• To give priority to PCF over DCF, another interframe space, has
been defined: point coordination function interframe space
[PCF IFS (PIFS)].
• At the same time, a station wants to use only DCF and an
access point wants to use PCF, the access point has priority.
• Because of the priority of PCF over DCF, stations that only use
DCF may not gain access to the medium. To prevent this, a
repetition interval has been designed to cover both contention-
free PCF and contention-based DCF traffic.
• The repetition interval, which is repeated continuously, starts
with a special control frame, called a beacon frame. When the
stations hear the beacon frame, they start their NAV for the
duration of the contention-free period of the repetition
interval. Figure 4.11 shows an example of a repetition interval.

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Point Coordination Function (PCF)

During the repetition interval, the point controller (PC) can send a poll frame, receive data,
send an ACK, receive an ACK, or do any combination of these (802.11 uses piggybacking). At
the end of the contention-free (CF) period, the PC sends a CF end frame to allow the
contention-based stations to use the medium

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Frame Format

• Frame control (FC). The FC field is 2 bytes long and defines

the type of frame and some control information. Table 4.5
describes the subfields. We will discuss each frame type
next.

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35
• D. This field defines the duration of the transmission that is
used to set the value of NAV. In one control frame, it
defines the ID of the frame.
• ❏ Addresses. There are four address fields, each 6 bytes
long. The meaning of each address field depends on the
value of the To DS and From DS subfields.
• ❏ Sequence control. This field, often called the SC field,
defines a 16-bit value. The first 4 bits define the fragment
number; the last 12 bits define the sequence number,
which is the same in all fragments.
• ❏ Frame body. This field, which can be between 0 and
2312 bytes, contains information based on the type and
the subtype defined in the FC field
• . ❏ FCS. The FCS field is 4 bytes long and contains a CRC-32
error-detection sequence.

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Frame Types
• A wireless LAN defined by IEEE 802.11 has three categories
of frames: management frames, control frames, and data
frames.
• Management Frames : Management frames are used for
the initial communication between stations and access
points.
• Control Frames: Control frames are used for accessing the
channel and acknowledging frames. Figure 4.13 shows the
format.

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38
Data Frames
• Data frames are used for carrying data and control
information.

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Addressing Mechanism

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Addressing Mechanism
• Note that address 1 is always the address of the next
device that the frame will visit.
• Address 2 is always the address of the previous device that
the frame has left.
• Address 3 is the address of the final destination station if it
is not defined by address 1 or the original source station if
is not defined by address 2.
• Address 4 is the original source when the distribution
system is also wireless.

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Addressing mechanisms
• Case 1:00. In this case, To DS = 0 and From DS = 0. This
means that the frame is not going to a distribution system
(To DS = 0) and is not coming from a distribution system
(From DS = 0). The frame is going from one station in a BSS
to another without passing through the distribution
system. The addresses are shown in Figure 4.14.

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Addressing mechanisms
• Case 2:01. In this case, To DS = 0 and From DS = 1. This
means that the frame is coming from a distribution system
(From DS = 1). The frame is coming from an AP and going
to a station. The addresses are as shown in Figure 4.14.
Note that address 3 contains the original sender of the
frame (in another BSS).

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Addressing mechanisms
• Case 3:10. In this case, To DS = 1 and From DS = 0. This
means that the frame is going to a distribution system (To
DS = 1). The frame is going from a station to an AP. The ACK
is sent to the original station. The addresses are as shown
in Figure 4.14. Note that address 3 contains the final
destination of the frame in the distribution system

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Addressing mechanisms
• Case 4:11. In this case, To DS = 1 and From DS = 1. This is
the case in which the distribution system is also wireless.
The frame is going from one AP to another AP in a wireless
distribution system. Here, we need four addresses to
define the original sender, the final destination, and two
intermediate APs. Figure 4.14 shows the situation.

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Exposed Station problem

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https://chatgpt.com/share/61adf8b3-c4b6-4df0-b728-99c6a0ee887f -----very very important link

Exposed Station problem

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Exposed Station problem
• In this problem a station refrains from using a channel when it
is, in fact, available. In Figure 4.15, station A is transmitting to
station B. Station C has some data to send to station D, which
can be sent without interfering with the transmission from A to
B.
• However, station C is exposed to transmission from A; it hears
what A is sending and thus refrains from sending. In other
words, C is too conservative and wastes the capacity of the
channel.
• The handshaking messages RTS and CTS cannot help in this
case. Station C hears the RTS from A and refrains from sending,
even though the communication between C and D cannot
cause a collision in the zone between A and C; station C cannot
know that station A’s transmission does not affect the zone
between C and D.

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Physical Layer -Signals
• The signals can be analog or digital. An analog signal takes
many values; a digital signal takes a limited number of
values as shown in Figure 2.2.

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Analog Signals
• An analog signal can take one of two forms: periodic or
aperiodic (nonperiodic). In data communications, we
commonly use periodic analog signals. They can be
classified as simple or composite. A simple periodic analog
signal, a sine wave, cannot be decomposed into simpler
signals.

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Analog Signals
• Peak Amplitude: The peak amplitude of a signal is the
absolute value of its highest intensity. For electrical signals,
peak amplitude is normally measured in volts. The period
(T) refers to the amount of time, in seconds, a signal needs
to complete one cycle.

• The frequency (f), measured in hertz (Hz), refers to the

number of periods in 1 s. Note that period and frequency
are just one characteristic defined in two ways. Period and
frequency are inverses of each other, in other words (f = 1/
T).

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• Phase: The term phase describes the position of the
waveform relative to time 0. If we think of the wave as
something that can be shifted backward or forward along
the time axis, phase describes the amount of that shift. It
indicates the status of the first cycle. Phase is measured in
degrees or radians (360° is 2π rad).
• Wavelength: The wavelength is the distance a simple
signal can travel in one period. The wavelength binds the
period or the frequency of a simple sine wave to the
propagation speed in the medium.
• While the frequency of a signal is independent of the
medium, the wavelength depends on both the frequency
and the medium. The wavelength can be calculated if one
is given the propagation speed of the medium and the
frequency of the signal. If we represent wavelength by λ,
propagation speed by c, and frequency by f, we get
• λ=c/f=c×T
T=1/f

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Bandwidth :
The range of frequencies contained in a composite
signal is its bandwidth. The bandwidth is the
difference between the lowest and highest
frequencies in the signal. For example, if a
composite signal contains frequencies between
1000 and 5000, its bandwidth is 5000 – 1000, or
4000.

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Digital Signals
• Bit Rate: The bit rate is the number of bits sent in 1 s,
expressed in bits per second (bps). The bit rate can be
represented as kbps (kilo bits per second, where kilo
means one thousand) or Mbps (mega bits per second,
where mega means one million)

• Assume we need to download text documents at the rate

of 100 pages per minute. What is the required bit rate of
the channel?

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Bit rate

divide by ten power six to get in mega bits

it should be 25600 bits per second

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• The bit length is the distance 1 bit occupies on the
transmission medium. Bit length = 1 / (bit rate)

• Find the length of bit for previous example:

• 1/1,536,000 = 0.000000651 s = 0.651 μs

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Transmission of Digital Signals
• A digital signal is a composite analog signal with frequencies
between zero and infinity
• how can we send a digital signal from point A to point B?
• We can transmit a digital signal by using one of two different
approaches:
◦ Baseband transmission means sending a digital signal over a
channel without changing it to an analog signal
◦ Broadband transmission or modulation means changing the digital
signal to an analog signal for transmission

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Analog Vs Digital
Analog Signal Digital Signal
a continuous wave that changes over a a discrete wave that carries information in
time period. binary form.
represented by a sine wave. represented by square waves.
described by the amplitude, period or described by bit rate and bit intervals.
frequency, and phase.
has no fixed range. has a finite range i.e. between 0 and 1.
more prone to distortion. less prone to distortion.
transmit data in the form of a wave. carries data in the binary form i.e. 0 and 1.
The human voice is the best example of an Signals used for transmission in a computer are
analog signal. the digital signal.
analog transmission is the only choice if while digital transmission is very desirable, a
we have a bandpass channel. low-pass channel is needed.
Converting a low-pass analog signal to a Converting digital data to a bandpass analog
bandpass analog signal is traditionally signal is traditionally called digital-to-analog
called analog-to-analog conversion. conversion.
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SIGNAL IMPAIRMENT imp----SEE

• Signals travel through transmission media, which are not

perfect. The imperfection causes signal impairment.
• This means that the signal at the beginning of the medium
is not the same as the signal at the end of the medium.
What is sent is not what is received.
• Three causes of impairment are
◦ Attenuation
◦ Distortion and
◦ noise.

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Attenuation and Amplification
• Attenuation means a loss of energy. When a signal, simple
or composite, travels through a medium, it loses some of
its energy in overcoming the resistance of the medium. To
compensate for this loss, we need amplification.

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Decibel
• To show that a signal has lost or gained strength, engineers
use the unit of the decibel. The decibel (dB) measures the
relative strengths of two signals or one signal at two
different points. Note that the decibel is negative if a signal
is attenuated and positive if a signal is amplified. Variables
P1 and P2 are the powers of a signal at points 1 and 2,
respectively.

•dB = 10 log10 (P2 /P1)

• Suppose a signal travels through a transmission medium and its
power is reduced to one-half. This means that P2 = 0.5P1 . In this
case, the attenuation (loss of power) can be calculated as

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62
Attenuation Example 3
• One reason that engineers use the decibel to measure the
changes in the strength of a signal → decibel numbers can be
added (or subtracted) when we are measuring several points
(cascading) instead of just two
• A signal travels from point 1 to point 4

◦ The signal is attenuated by the time it reaches point 2

◦ Between points 2 and 3, the signal is amplified
◦ Again, between points 3 and 4, the signal is attenuated
• In this case, the decibel value can be calculated as
The signal has gained in power.

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Distortion
• Distortion means that the signal changes its form or shape.
Distortion can occur in a composite signal made up of
different frequencies.
• Each signal component has its own propagation speed
through a medium and, therefore, its own delay in arriving
at the final destination. Differences in delay may create a
difference in phase if the delay is not exactly the same as
the period duration.

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Distortion …
• If the delay is not exactly the same as the period duration, it may create a
difference in phase
◦ Signal components at the receiver have phases different from what they had at the sender
◦ The shape of the composite signal is therefore not the same

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Noise
• Noise  Undesirable signals added between the transmitter and the receiver
◦ may corrupt the signal

Types of noise Description

thermal noise • random motion of electrons in a wire
◦ creates an extra signal not originally sent by the transmitter
induced noise • comes from sources such as motors and appliances
◦ Devices act as a sending antenna
◦ Transmission medium acts as the receiving antenna
crosstalk • effect of one wire on the other
◦ One wire acts as a sending antenna Wire 1
◦ Other wire as the receiving antenna Wire 2
impulse noise a spike (a signal with high energy in a very short time) that comes from power lines,
lightning, and so on

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Noise : Signal-to-Noise Ratio
• SNR is the ratio of what is wanted (signal) to what is not
wanted (noise).
◦ A measurement of signal reception's quality
◦ often described in decibel units, SNRdB

SNRdB = 10 log10 SNR

• high SNR means the signal is less corrupted by noise.
• Low SNR means the signal is more corrupted by noise

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Noise : Signal-to-Noise Ratio

• The power of a signal is 10 mW and the power of the noise

is 1 μW; what are the values of SNR and SNRdB ?
10000 w
SNR = = 10000 w = 10 log 10000 = 10 log = 40
4
SNR 10
1w
dB 10 10

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Data Rate Limits
• Data rate: How fast we can send data in bits per second,
over a channel?
• Data rate depends on three factors:
1. The bandwidth available
2. The level of the signals we use
3. The quality of the channel (the level of noise)
• Two theoretical formulas were developed to calculate the
data rate:
◦ Nyquist for a noiseless channel
◦ Shannon for a noisy channel.

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Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Bit Rate
• Nyquist bit rate formula defines the theoretical
maximum bit rate
Bit Rate = 2 × Bandwidth × log2L
◦ Bandwidth is the bandwidth of the channel Harry Nyquist
◦ L is the number of signal levels used to represent data (1889-1976)
◦ BitRate is the bit rate in bits per second.
• theoretically , given a specific bandwidth, any bit rate can be
calculated by increasing the number of signal levels
• Practically there is a limit
◦ Increase in the number of signal levels, a burden on the receiver is imposed
◦ If the number of levels in a signal is just 2, the receiver can easily distinguish between a 0 and a 1
◦ If the level of a signal is 64, the receiver must be very sophisticated to distinguish between 64 different
levels.
◦ increasing the levels of a signal reduces the reliability of the system.

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Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Bit Rate
• Does the Nyquist theorem bit rate agree with the intuitive
bit rate described in baseband transmission?
◦ They match when we have only two levels.
◦ In baseband transmission, the bit rate is 2 times the bandwidth if
we use only the first harmonic in the worst case
◦ However, the Nyquist formula is more general and can be applied
to baseband transmission and modulation
◦ It can be applied when we have two or more levels of signals.

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Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Bit Rate
• Consider a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of 3000 Hz
transmitting a signal with two signal levels.
◦ The maximum bit rate can be calculated as
remember the unit bps

• Consider the same noiseless channel transmitting a signal

with four signal levels (for each level, we send 2 bits).
◦ The maximum bit rate can be calculated as

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Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Bit Rate
• We need to send 265 kbps over a noiseless channel with a
bandwidth of 20 kHz. How many signal levels do we need?
◦ use the Nyquist formula as shown:

◦ Since this result (L) is not a power of 2, we need to either increase

the number of levels or reduce the bit rate
◦ If we have 128 levels, the bit rate is 280 kbps
◦ If we have 64 levels, the bit rate is 240 kbps

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 Noisy Channel: Shannon's Capacity
• In reality, the channel is always noisy.
• Claude Shannon introduced a formula
◦ determine the theoretical highest data rate for a
noisy channel: Shannon's Capacity
Capacity = Bandwidth × log2(1+SNR)

◦ bandwidth is the bandwidth of the channel (Hz) Claude Elwood Shannon

◦ SNR is the signal-to-noise ratio (1916-2001)
◦ capacity is the capacity of the channel in bits per second
• No indication of the signal level - means that no matter how many
levels we have, we cannot achieve a data rate higher than the capacity
of the channel
• It is a characteristic of the channel, not the method of transmission
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 REMEMBER EXTREMLY NOISY MEANS SNR=0

Example 1 – Shannon's Capacity

• Consider an extremely noisy channel in which the value of
the signal-to-noise ratio is almost zero.
◦ the noise is so strong that the signal is faint.
• For this channel the capacity C is calculated as

• This means that the capacity of this channel is zero

regardless of the bandwidth
◦ We cannot receive any data through this channel

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Example 2 – Shannon's Capacity
• We can calculate the theoretical highest bit rate of a regular
telephone line. A telephone line normally has a bandwidth of
3000. The signal-to-noise ratio is usually 3162. For this channel
the capacity is calculated as

• This means that the highest bit rate for a telephone line is
34.860 kbps
• If we want to send data faster than this, we can either increase
the bandwidth of the line or improve the signal-to-noise ratio.

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Example 3 – Shannon's Capacity
• The signal-to-noise ratio is often given in decibels. Assume
that SNRdB = 36 and the channel bandwidth is 2 MHz. The
theoretical channel capacity can be calculated as

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Example 1: We have a channel with a 1-MHz bandwidth.
The SNR for this channel is 63. What are the appropriate bit
rate and signal level?

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 Using Both Limits
• In practice, both methods used to find the limits and signal levels
• Example 1: We have a channel with a 1-MHz bandwidth. The SNR
for this channel is 63. What are the appropriate bit rate and
signal level?
◦ Use the Shannon formula to find the upper limit.

◦ The Shannon formula gives us 6 Mbps, the upper limit

◦ For better performance we choose something lower, 4 Mbps, for example.
◦ Use the Nyquist formula to find the number of signal levels

The Shannon capacity gives us the upper limit; the Nyquist formula tells us
how many signal levels we need.

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Network Performance
• important issue in networking → performance of the
network
• Performance parameters:
◦ Bandwidth
◦ Analog – Hertz
◦ Digital – Bits per second (bps)
◦ Throughput
◦ Actual data rate
◦ Latency (delay)
◦ Time it takes for an entire message to completely arrive at the destination

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Bandwidth
• used in two different contexts with two different measuring values:
• bandwidth in hertz
◦ range of frequencies contained in a composite signal or the range of frequencies
a channel can pass
◦ Ex. bandwidth of a subscriber telephone line is 4 kHz

• bandwidth in bits per second

◦ number of bits per second that a channel, a link, or even a network can transmit
◦ Ex. bandwidth of a Fast Ethernet network (or the links in this network) is a maximum of 100 Mbps -
means that this network can send 100 Mbps.

• relationship between the bandwidth in hertz and bandwidth in bits

per second
◦ increase in bandwidth in hertz means an increase in bandwidth in bits per
second
◦ depends on whether we have baseband transmission or transmission with modulation

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Bandwidth – examples
• The bandwidth of a subscriber line is 4 kHz for voice or
data.
• The bandwidth of this line for data transmission can be up
to 56,000 bps using a sophisticated modem to change the
digital signal to analog.
• If the telephone company improves the quality of the line
and increases the bandwidth to 8 kHz, we can send
112,000 bps.

82
Throughput
• Measure of how fast we can actually send data through a
network
• Bandwidth in bits per second and throughput are different
◦ A link may have a bandwidth of B bps, but we can only send T bps
through this link with T always less than B.
◦ Bandwidth is a potential measurement of a link; the throughput is an
actual measurement of how fast we can send data.
◦ For example, we may have a link with a bandwidth of 1 Mbps, but the
devices connected to the end of the link may handle only 200 kbps
◦ cannot send more than 200 kbps through this link.
◦ Imagine a highway designed to transmit 1000 cars per minute from one
point to another.
◦ Due to congestion on the road, 100 cars per minute are transmitted
◦ The bandwidth is 1000 cars per minute; the throughput is 100 cars per minute.

83
Throughput - Example
• A network with bandwidth of 10 Mbps can pass only an
average of 12,000 frames per minute with each frame
carrying an average of 10,000 bits. What is the throughput
of this network?

84
Throughput - Example
• A network with bandwidth of 10 Mbps can pass only an
average of 12,000 frames per minute with each frame
carrying an average of 10,000 bits. What is the throughput
of this network? (frames * bits)/seconds in a minute

• The throughput is almost one-fifth of the bandwidth in this

case.

85
Latency
• Defines how long it takes for an entire message to completely
arrive at the destination from the time the first bit is sent out
from the source
• Composed of
◦ Propagation time Latency = propagation time
◦ Transmission time + transmission time
◦ Queuing time + queuing time
◦ Processing time + processing delay

Entire message

Propagation time

Transmission time

86
Latency - Propagation time
• time required for a bit to travel from the source to the
destination.
• Propagation time = Distance / (Propagation Speed)
• The propagation speed of electromagnetic signals depends
on the medium and on the frequency of the signal
◦ For example, in a vacuum, light is propagated with a speed of 3 ×
108 m/s. It is lower in air; it is much lower in cable.

87
Example Latency - Propagation time
• What is the propagation time if the distance between the
two points is 12,000 km? Assume the propagation speed to
be 2.4 × 108 m/s in cable.

• The example shows that a bit can go over the Atlantic

Ocean in only 50 ms if there is a direct cable between the
source and the destination.

88
Latency - Transmission time
• In data communications , message is sent not just 1 bit
◦ The first and last bit may take a time equal to the propagation time
to reach its destination
◦ The first bit leaves earlier and arrives earlier; the last bit leaves later and arrives later.

• Transmission time → time between the first bit leaving the

sender and the last bit arriving at the receiver
• The transmission time of a message depends on the size
of the message and the bandwidth of the channel
Transmission time = (Message size) / Bandwidth

89
Latency - Transmission time
Sender Receiver

First bit leaves

Propagation time
First bit arrives

Data bits
Last bit leaves Transmission time

Last bit arrives

Time Time

90
Example 1 - Transmission time
• What are the propagation time and the transmission time
for a 2.5-kbyte message (an e-mail) if the bandwidth of the
network is 1 Gbps? Assume that the distance between the
sender and the receiver is 12,000 km and that light travels
at 2.4 × 108 m/s.

remember we multiplied with

8 because its mentioned as
byte

Note : Message is short and the bandwidth is high so the dominant factor is the propagation
time, not the transmission time. The transmission time can be ignored.

91
Example 2 - Transmission time
• What are the propagation time and the transmission time
for a 5-Mbyte message (an image) if the bandwidth of the
network is 1 Mbps? Assume that the distance between the
sender and the receiver is 12,000 km and that light travels
at 2.4 × 108 m/s.

Note: Message is very long and the bandwidth is not very high so the dominant factor is the
transmission time, not the propagation time. The propagation time can be ignored.

92
Latency – Queuing time
• time needed for each intermediate or end device to hold
the message before it can be processed.
◦ not a fixed factor - changes with the load imposed on the network.
◦ When there is heavy traffic on the network, the queuing time increases
◦ An intermediate device, such as a router, queues the arrived
messages and processes them one by one
◦ If there are many messages, each message will have to wait

93
Bandwidth-Delay Product
• The product of bandwidth and delay is the number of bits
that can fill the link

• two hypothetical cases as examples

◦ Filling the links with bits
◦ Filling the pipe with bits
•Two cases show that product of bandwidth and
delay is the number of bits that can fill the link

94
Bandwidth-Delay Product
• Filling the links with bits
◦ assuming that we have a link with a bandwidth of 1 bps (unrealistic).
◦ We also assume that the delay of the link is 5 s (also unrealistic).
◦ We want to see what the bandwidth-delay product means in this case?
◦ This product 1 × 5 is the maximum number of bits that can fill the link.
◦ There can be no more than 5 bits at any time on the link.

95
 Bandwidth-Delay Product
• Filling the pipe with bits
◦ Assuming we have a bandwidth = 5 bps, and delay of the link = 5 s
◦ There can be maximum 5 × 5 = 25 bits on the line.
◦ The reason is that, at each second, there are 5 bits on the line
◦ The duration of each bit is: 1/5 = 0.20 s.

96
Bandwidth-Delay Product
• The number of bits that can fill the link is important if we
need to send data in bursts and wait for the
acknowledgment of each burst before sending the next
one
• To use the maximum capability of the link, we need to
make the size of our burst 2 times the product of
bandwidth and delay
◦ sender should send a burst of data of (2 × bandwidth × delay) bits
◦ sender then waits for receiver acknowledgment for part of the
burst before sending another burst
◦ amount 2 × bandwidth × delay is the number of bits that can be in
transition at any time

97
Jitter
• Related to delay is jitter
• Jitter is a problem if different packets of data encounter
different delays and the application using the data at the
receiver site is time-sensitive (audio and video data, for
example)
• If the delay for the first packet is 20 ms, for the second is
45 ms, and for the third is 40 ms, then the real-time
application that uses the packets endures jitter.

98
Analog and Digital

99
 Conversion Techniques
• Digital-to-digital Conversion •Digital-to-analog Conversion
◦ Line Coding ◦Aspects of Digital-to-Analog
◦ Line Coding Schemes Conversion
◦ Block Coding ◦Amplitude Shift Keying
◦ Scrambling ◦Frequency Shift Keying
◦Phase Shift Keying
• Analog-to-digital Conversion ◦Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
◦ Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) •Analog-to-analog Conversion
◦ Delta Modulation (DM) ◦Amplitude Modulation (AM)
◦Frequency Modulation (FM)
◦Phase Modulation (PM)

100
Digital-to-Digital Conversion
• The conversion involves three techniques: line coding,
block coding, and scrambling.
• Line coding is the process of converting digital data to
digital signals. We assume that data, in the form of text,
numbers, graphical images, audio, or video, are stored in
computer memorys as sequences of bits

Line coding converts a sequence of bits to a digital signal. At the sender, digital data are
encoded into a digital signal; at the receiver, the digital data are re-created by decoding the
digital signal

101
Block Coding
• How to ensure synchronization and provide some kind of
inherent error detecting?
◦ Solution – need redundancy
◦ Block coding → give this redundancy and improve the performance of line coding

• Block coding changes a block of m bits into a block of n

bits, where n > m
◦ referred to as an mB/nB encoding) → distinguishes block encoding
from multilevel encoding
◦ multilevel encoding → written without a slash eg. 8B6T
◦ it replaces each m-bit group with an n-bit group
◦ involves three steps:
◦ Division: sequence of bits is divided into groups of m bits
◦ Substitution: substitute an m-bit group with an n-bit group
◦ Combination: n-bit groups are combined to form a stream (n > m)

102
Block Coding

103
Analog to Digital Conversion
• an analog signal → created by a microphone or camera
• The amplitude of analog signal can take any value over a
continuous range i.e. it can take on an infinite values.
• Digital signal amplitude can take on finite values.
• Digital signal is superior to an analog signal
• Analog signal can be converted into digital by sampling and
quantizing-- digitization
◦ two techniques
◦ pulse code modulation
◦ delta modulation

• Digital data are converted to digital signal using line coding,

block coding or scrambling techniques

104
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
• Change an analog signal to digital data (digitization)
• A PCM encoder has three processes SEE question--what is modulation
and explainain any one modulation
◦ Sampling - analog signal is sampled
◦ Quantization- sampled signal is quantized
◦ encoding - quantized values are encoded as streams of bits

105
PCM - Sampling
• The analog signal is sampled every Ts s, where Ts is the
sample interval or period
◦ Called as pulse amplitude modulation (PAM)
◦ Result →an analog signal with nonintegral values
• The inverse of the sampling interval is called the sampling
rate or sampling frequency and denoted by fs
◦ fs = 1/Ts

106
PCM: Encoding Example
• We want to digitize the human voice. What is the bit rate,
assuming 8 bits per sample?
• Solution
• The human voice normally contains frequencies from 0 to
4000 Hz
• So the sampling rate and bit rate are calculated as follows:

107
PCM: The Whole Process

108
Minimum Required Bandwidth
• It can be proved that the minimum bandwidth of the
digital signal is Bmin = nb × Banalog

109
Delta Modulation (DM)
• PCM is a very complex technique
• Delta modulation reduce the complexity of PCM
• PCM finds the value of the signal amplitude for each sample
whereas DM finds the change from the previous sample → bit
• DM → no code words; bits are sent one after another
◦ Modulator is used at the sender site to create a stream of bits from an
analog signal
◦ Demodulator is used at receiver site to creates the analog signal from
the received digital data
• DM is not perfect → Quantization error introduced in the
process
◦ The quantization error of DM is much less than that for PCM

110
DM...
• The process records the small positive or negative changes,
called delta δ
◦ If the delta is positive, the process records a 1
◦ If it is negative, the process records a 0
• A better performance achieved if the value of δ is not fixed
◦ Adaptive delta modulation - value of δ changes according to the
amplitude of the analog signal.

111
Analog-to-analog conversion
• Change an analog signal to a new analog signal with a
smaller bandwidth
◦ used when only a band-pass channel is available

• Three methods:
◦ Amplitude modulation (AM) : amplitude of a carrier is changed
based on the changes in the original analog signal
◦ Frequency modulation (FM): the phase of a carrier is changed
based on the changes in the original analog signal
◦ Phase modulation (PM): the phase of a carrier signal is changed
to show the changes in the original signal

112
Digital-to-Analog Conversion
• Digital-to-analog conversion is the process of changing one
of the characteristics of an analog signal based on the
information in digital data when a band-pass channel is
available
• Required to send digital data over a band-pass channel
◦Also known as modulation

(band-pass channel)
Digital-to-analog conversion
• Four methods:
◦ Amplitude shift keying (ASK): amplitude of a carrier is changed using the
digital data
◦ Frequency shift keying (FSK): frequency of a carrier is changed using the
digital data.
◦ Phase shift keying (PSK): phase of a carrier signal is changed to represent
digital data.
◦ Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM): both amplitude and phase
of a carrier signal are changed to represent digital data.
Amplitude shift keying
• Amplitude of the carrier signal is varied to create signal
elements
• Both frequency and phase remain constant while the
amplitude changes
• Binary ASK (BASK)
◦uses only two amplitude levels
• Multilevel ASK (implemented with QAM)
◦more than two levels
Binary Amplitude Shift Keying
• Several levels (kinds) of signal elements with a different
amplitude can exists
• ASK → normally implemented using only two levels
◦ Binary amplitude shift keying or on-off keying (OOK)
◦ Peak amplitude of
◦ One signal level is 0
◦ Other signal level is the same as the amplitude of the carrier frequency

middle of the bandwidth - fc : Carrier frequency 0 <d<1

Bandwidth for ASK
• carrier signal is only one simple sine wave -> has a
continuous set of frequencies
• modulation produces a nonperiodic composite signal
• bandwidth is proportional to the signal rate (baud rate)
B = (1 + d) x S
◦ S is the signal rate
◦ B is the bandwidth
◦ d depends on the modulation and filtering process
◦ The value of d is between 0 and 1
Amplitude Minimum Bandwidth = S
Bmin=S
Bmax=2S
Frequency
fc
fc-(S/2) fc+(S/2)
Frequency Shift Keying
• frequency of the carrier signal is varied to represent data
◦ The frequency of the modulated signal is constant for the
duration of one signal element
◦ but changes for the next signal element if the data element
changes
• Both peak amplitude and phase remain constant for all
signal elements
• Binary FSK (or BFSK)
◦ consider two carrier frequencies f1 and f2
• Multilevel FSK (MFSK)
◦ more than two frequencies
Binary Frequency Shift Keying
• Consider two carrier frequencies f1 and f2
◦ first carrier frequency for the data element 0
◦ Second carrier frequency for the data element 1
◦ carrier frequencies are very high and the difference between
them is very small
• Both f1 and f2 are Δf apart from the midpoint between the
two bands
• The difference between the two frequencies is 2Δf
Bandwidth for BFSK
• carrier signal is only one simple sine wave -> has a continuous set of
frequencies
• modulation produces a nonperiodic composite signal
• Consider FSK is two ASK signals, each with its own carrier frequency (
f1 or f2)
• difference between the two frequencies is 2Δ f
◦ minimum value of 2Δf should be at least S for the proper
operation of modulation and demodulation.
B = (1 + d) x S + frequency shift = (1 + d) x S + 2Δf
◦ S is the signal rate
◦ B is the bandwidth
◦ d depends on the modulation and filtering process
◦ The value of d is between 0 and 1
Phase Shift Keying
• Phase of the carrier is varied to represent two or more
different signal elements
• Both peak amplitude and frequency remain constant as
the phase changes
• Today, PSK is more common than ASK or FSK
• Binary Phase Shift Keying
◦ only two signal elements
• Quadrature PSK (QPSK)
◦ uses two separate BPSK modulations

121
Binary Phase Shift Keying
• Or Binary PSK
• only two signal elements
◦ one with a phase of 0°
◦ other with a phase of 180°

122
Binary PSK
• The bandwidth is the same as that for binary ASK, but less
than that for BFSK
• No bandwidth is wasted for separating two carrier signals

PSK ASK
PSK is less susceptible to noise than ASK as ASK is more susceptible to noise than PSK
noise can change the amplitude easier than
it can change the phase
the criterion for bit detection is the phase of the criterion for bit detection is the
the signal amplitude of the signal
superior to FSK because we do not need need two carrier signals
two carrier signals
needs more sophisticated hardware to be No sophisticated hardware
able to distinguish between phases

123
 Comparison ASK, FSK, PSK
Parameters ASK FSK PSK
Variable Amplitude Frequency Phase
characteristics
Bandwidth B =(1+d)S B=(1+d)×S+2Δf B=(1+d)×S
d is due to modulation
& filtering ,lies
between 0 & 1.
Noise immunity low High High
Complexity Simple Moderately complex Very complex
Error probability High Low Low
Performance in Poor Better than ASK Better than FSK
presence of noise
Bit rate Suitable upto 100 Suitable upto about Suitable for high bit
bits/sec 1200 bits/sec rates

124 124
Comparison ASK, FSK, PSK
BPSK
BASK BFSK

QPSK

125 125
Analog-to-Analog Conversion
• Process of transmitting analog information by an analog signal
• Although the signal is already analog, modulation is needed if a
band-pass channel is available to us eg. Radio
◦ The government assigns a narrow bandwidth to each radio station
◦ each radio station – produces low-pass signal
◦ all stations low analog pass signal in the same range
◦ Listening to different stations, the low-pass signals need to be shifted,
each to a different range → bans pass signal

126
Amplitude Modulation (AM)
• Amplitude of the carrier signal is modulated to follow the changing
amplitudes of the modulating signal
◦ Only the amplitude changes to follow variations in the information
◦ The frequency and phase of the carrier remain the same
• The modulating signal is the envelope of the carrier
• The amplitude of the carrier signal changed according to the amplitude of
the modulating signal using a simple multiplier

127
AM Bandwidth
• The modulation creates a bandwidth that is twice the
bandwidth of the modulating signal and covers a range
centered on the carrier frequency
◦ BAM=2B
• As the signal components above and below the carrier
frequency carry exactly the same information, some
implementations discard one-half of the signals and cut
the bandwidth in half.

128
Frequency Modulation (FM)
• Frequency of the carrier signal is modulated to follow the changing voltage
level (amplitude) of the modulating signal
◦ Peak amplitude and phase of the carrier signal remain constant,
◦ As the amplitude of the information signal changes, the frequency of the carrier
changes correspondingly
• Implemented by using a voltage-controlled oscillator as with FSK
◦ The frequency of the oscillator changes according to the input voltage which is the
amplitude of the modulating signal

129
FM Bandwidth
• The actual bandwidth is difficult to determine exactly
• Can be shown empirically that it is
◦ several times that of the analog signal or
◦ 2(1 + β)B where β is a factor that depends on modulation
technique with a common value of 4.

130
Phase Modulation (PM)
• phase of the carrier signal is modulated to follow the changing
voltage level (amplitude) of the modulating signal
◦ peak amplitude and frequency of the carrier signal remain constant
◦ As the amplitude of the information signal changes, the phase of the
carrier changes correspondingly
• It can be proved mathematically that PM is the same as FM
with one difference
◦ FM: the instantaneous change in the carrier frequency is proportional to
the amplitude of the modulating signal
◦ PM: the instantaneous change in the carrier frequency is proportional to
the derivative of the amplitude of the modulating signal

131
Phase Modulation (PM)
• PM is normally implemented by using a voltage-controlled
oscillator along with a derivative
• Frequency of the oscillator changes according to the derivative
of the input voltage, which is the amplitude of the modulating
signal.

132
PM Bandwidth
• The actual bandwidth is difficult to determine exactly, but
it can be shown empirically that it is several times that of
the analog signal
BPM = 2(1 + β)B
• Although the formula shows the same bandwidth for FM
and PM, the value of β is lower in the case of PM (around 1
for narrowband and 3 for wideband)

133
Bandwidth: Revisited
• Bandwidth = highest frequency – lowest frequency
◦ Used to measures maximum data transfer rate of a network or
Internet connection in a given amount of time
◦ Describe network speeds
◦ does not measure how fast bits of data move from one location to another (data rate)
◦ measures how much data can flow through a specific connection at one time
◦ The wider the bandwidth, the faster data can be sent

• Analog devices bandwidth → measured in hertz (cycles per

second)
• Digital devices→ bandwidth is measured in bits per second

134
Bandwidth Utilization
• Reality→ limited bandwidth
◦ Requires wise use → main challenge of electronic communication
◦ Bandwidth Utilization → depends on application
• Two goal of bandwidth utilization
◦ Efficiency
◦ Achieved by combining several low-bandwidth channels into one with larger
bandwidth
◦ Technique is called multiplexing
◦ Privacy and anti-jamming
◦ Achieved by expanding the bandwidth of a channel to insert redundancy
◦ Technique is called spectrum spreading

135
Transmission Medium
• Devices connected to transmission medium as
Bandwidth Bandwidth Bandwidth
requirement of Medium requirement
of Device1 of Device2
• Increased usage of data and telecommunications results into
increased traffic
• How to accommodate this increase?
◦ Add individual links each time a new channel is needed
• Today's technology includes high bandwidth media such as optical
fiber and terrestrial and satellite microwaves

◦ Each medium has a bandwidth far in excess of that needed for the average
transmission signal- costly and also become difficult to manage
136
Shared Link
• Bandwidth of a medium linking two devices is greater than
the bandwidth needs of the devices connected to it, the
bandwidth is wasted
◦ Solution: the higher bandwidth link can be shared to carry multiple
signals from different devices connected to it
◦ Maximizes bandwidth utilization → gives efficient system
◦ reduce the line cost and also it would be easier to keep track of one line than several
lines

• Shared Link: uses multiplexing technique

1 link, n channels D
n signals M E
n signals
U M
(input) X U (output)
X

Multiplexer Demultiplexer
137
Multiplexing
• Process of combining multiple signals (analog or digital),
commonly from slow devices, onto one very fast
communications link
◦ achieved by a device called a Multiplexer (MUX) and Demultiplexer
(DEMUX)
◦ MUX: combines the lines at sender on the left to direct their transmission streams into a
single stream (many-to-one)
◦ DEMUX: separates the stream at receiver back into its component transmissions (one-to-
many) and directs them to their corresponding lines

• allow the simultaneous transmission of multiple signals across

a single data link
◦ Link → physical path
◦ Channel →portion of a link that carries a transmission between a given
pair of lines
◦ One link can have many (n) channels

138
Multiplexing …

synchronous

Asynchronous/
statistical
Analog Multiplexing Analog Multiplexing Digital multiplexing
technique to technique to technique to combine
combine analog combine optical several low rate channels
signals signals into high rate one

• Carrier division multiple access (CDMA) is considered as a fourth

multiplexing category

139
Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
An analog multiplexing technique to combine signals

• Can be applied when the bandwidth of a link in (hertz) is

greater than the combined bandwidths of the signal to be
transmitted
◦ Medium BW > Channel BW
• Transmitting all of the signals along the same high speed
link simultaneously

140
FDM …
• Each signal is modulated to a different carrier frequency
◦ Carrier frequencies are separated by sufficient bandwidth to
accommodate the modulated signal
◦ These bandwidth ranges are the channels through which the various signals travel
◦ Channels can be separated by strips of unused bandwidth -guard bands -to prevent
signals from overlapping
◦ In addition, carrier frequencies must not interfere with the original data frequencies

• These modulated signals are then combined into a single

composite signal that can be transported by the link
• E.g., broadcast radio
• Channel allocated even if no data

141
Conceptual View of FDM

Channel 3
Channel 2
Channel 1

f3
f2
f1

142
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
A digital multiplexing technique to combine data
• digital process that allows several connections to share
the high bandwidth of a link
• Time is shared
◦ Each connection occupies a portion of time in the link
◦ Same link of FDM is shown sectioned by time rather than by
frequency
• Digital data from different sources are combined into one
timeshared link
• Analog data can be sampled, changed to digital data, and
then multiplexed by using TDM

143
 Conceptual View of TDM
1 Data flow 1
D
2 M E 2
U 3 2 1 3 2 1 3 2 1 M
X U
3 X 3

• Portions of signals 1, 2, and 3

occupy the link sequentially
• Data in a message from source
Channel 3
Channel 2
Channel 1
Channel 3
Channel 2
Channel 1
Channel 3
Channel 2
Channel 1
1 always go to one specific
destination 1, 2, 3, or 4
• The delivery is fixed and
unvarying, unlike switching
144 144
Summary
• Signals get impaired by attenuation, distortion, and noise
• For a noiseless channel, the Nyquist bit rate formula defines the theoretical
maximum bit rate.
• For a noisy channel, we need to use the Shannon capacity to find the
maximum bit rate.
• Attenuation, distortion, and noise can impair a signal.
• Attenuation is the loss of a signal’s energy due to the resistance of the
medium.
• Distortion is the alteration of a signal due to the differing propagation
speeds of each of the frequencies that make up a signal.
• Noise is the external energy that corrupts a signal.
• The bandwidth-delay product defines the number of bits that can fill the
link.

145
Summary
• Digital-to-analog conversion is the process of changing one of the characteristics of
an analog signal based on the information in the digital data
• Digital-to-analog conversion can be accomplished in several ways: amplitude shift
keying (ASK), frequency shift keying (FSK), and phase shift keying (PSK)
• Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) combines ASK and PSK
• A constellation diagram shows us the amplitude and phase of a signal element,
particularly when we are using two carriers (one in-phase and one quadrature)
• Analog-to-analog conversion is the representation of analog information by an
analog signal
• Conversion is needed if the medium is bandpass in nature or if only a bandpass
bandwidth is available to us
• Analog-to-analog conversion can be accomplished in three ways: amplitude
modulation (AM), frequency modulation (FM), and phase modulation (PM).

146