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Engineering Materials

Gil Alberto Batista Gonçalves

Paula Marques Editors

Nanostructured
Materials
for Treating
Aquatic Pollution
viii Contents

Nanostructured Membranes for Water Purification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243

Xin Li, Gomotsegang Fred Molelekwa, Meryem Khellouf
and Bart Van der Bruggen
Nanostructured Polymer Composites for Water Remediation . . . . . . . . 275
Michael Ovbare Akharame, Ogheneochuko Utieyin Oputu,
Omoniyi Pereao, Bamidele Oladapo Fagbayigbo,
Lovasoa Christine Razanamahandry, Beatrice Olutoyin Opeolu
and Olalekan Siyanbola Fatoki
Removal of Metal Ions Using Graphene
Based Adsorbents

Imran Ali, Zeid A. ALOthman and Abdulrahman Alwarthan

Abstract The pollution of water sources with toxic metal ions is a thoughtful
subject. Numerous aquatic systems are polluted with dissimilar toxic metal ions from
various industrial effluents and anthropogenic activities. Water treatment seems to
the chief environmental test. The sorption is the best effective method for metal ions
elimination in water. Currently, graphene and its composite materials are attaining
significance as new generation nano-sorbents. Graphene is a two dimensional nano-
material with single layer of graphite. These have achieved a great reputation in water
treatment because of their distinctive physico-chemical features. The present chapter
describes the elimination of metal ions using graphene and its composite materials.
The emphasis has been made on syntheses, applications, regeneration and recycling
and future perspectives. Definitely, this chapter will be valuable tool for researchers,
government authorities and academicians.

Keywords Water treatment · Graphene and composite substances · Toxic and rare
earth metals · Adsorption

1 Introduction

Water is the most significant commodity for the existence of all the individuals on
the earth. Everything in this life need water. Because of that, people must not only
take care for water sources but also to keep water sources clean. The international
water community continues to explore safe water for securing the future of human

I. Ali (B)
Department of Chemistry, College of Sciences, Taibah University,
Al-Medina al-Munawara 41477, Saudi Arabia
e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]
Department of Chemistry, Jamia Millia Islamia (Central University),
New Delhi 110025, India
Z. A. ALOthman · A. Alwarthan
Department of Chemistry, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh
11451, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 1

G. A. B. Gonçalves and P. Marques (eds.), Nanostructured Materials
for Treating Aquatic Pollution, Engineering Materials,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-33745-2_1
2 I. Ali et al.

and aquatic ecosystem health. The quality of water is a significant issuer during last
some decades [1]. If water quality will not be controlled, the disease will develop
and increase and the life will be miserable with short span. Among various water
contaminates, toxic trace metal ions are very serious pollutants owing to their severe
toxicity, carcinogenic and non-biodegradable nature [2]. These metal ions incline to
collect in tissues and create numerous diseases and health maladies in humans. It
is due to their tendency to interact with proteins, enzymes and non-biodegradable
nature [3–5]. The contact to the metal ions, even at bit level, is supposed to be a
risk for the human [6–9]. Thus, this problem is of major concern for the scientists,
academicians and Government authorities. Therefore, their removal is essential for
the health point of views.

2 Water Pollution in Different Ecosystems

The quality of our water springs is worsening rapidly because of rapid growing
of the world people, civilization and industrialization. Our fixed fraction of fresh
water is being polluting continuously by point and non-point sources. These sources
can be categorized based on their targeted water resources i.e. ground and surface
water (Table 1); classified on their maximum probability of water contamination.
The main causes of water contaminations are domestic, industrial and agricultural
happenings [10, 11]. Some other ecological activities and geological variations are
also accountable for polluting water; especially ground water.
More than one thousand pollutants are present in water and these include organic,
inorganic and biological contaminants. The major uses of water are for agriculture,
industrial process, and domestic (household) supply. It is quite obvious that the qual-
ity of water determines its potential uses. The domestic supply must be free from
constituents harmful to health, such as organic, inorganic and biological contam-
inations, and it should taste and smell good. Similarly, quality of water required
for industrial purposes varies widely depending on the process involved. Some pro-
cesses may require distilled water, whereas, other simply needs normal water. Water
for agriculture should be free from boron and possesses 2–10 sodium adsorption
ratio (SAR) value. The various international agencies have devised permissible lim-
its for several constituents in water for different purposes like drinking, bathing,
recreation, agricultural etc. [12, 13]. The wastewater contaminated with metals is
serious aspect in hydrological science. Metals are presented in water systems due
to enduring of rocks and soils, from volcanic outbreaks, and from a diversity of
man actions with the processing, mining, utilization of metals and other substances
that comprise metal contaminants [14, 15]. The most notorious toxic metal contam-
inants are cadmium, arsenic, copper, chromium, lead, mercury, selenium and nickel.
There are dissimilar causes of metal contaminants, that are given in Table 2. The
common restricted metal contamination in water comes via industrial effluents of
battery, tanning, ceramics, glassware, mining, electroplating, photographic, paints
etc. In addition to these industries, acid mine drain typically issues toxic metals from
Removal of Metal Ions Using Graphene Based Adsorbents 3

Table 1 Sources of water pollution

Surface water Groundwater
• Urban runoff (oil, chemicals, organic • Leaks from waste disposal sites (chemical,
matter, etc.) (U, I, M) radioactive materials etc.) (I, M)
• Agricultural runoff (oil, metals fertilizers, • Leaks from buried tanks and pipes
pesticides, etc.) (A) (gasoline, oil, etc.) (I, A, M)
• Accidental spills of chemicals including oil • Seepage from agricultural activates
(U, R, I, A, M) (nitrates, heavy metals, pesticides,
herbicides etc.) (A)
• Radioactive materials (often involving • Saltwater intrusion into coastal aquifers (U,
trucks or train accidents) (I, M) R, I, M)
• Runoff (solvents, chemicals, etc.) from • Seepage from cesspools and septic systems
industrial sites (factories, refineries, mines (R)
etc.) (I, M)
• Leak from surface storage tanks and • Seepage from acid rich water from mines (I)
pipelines (gasoline, oil etc.) (I, A, M)
• Sediments from a variety of sources, • Seepage from mine waste pipes (I)
including agricultural lands and
construction sites (U, R, I, A, M)
• Air fallout (particles, pesticides, metals • Seepage of pesticides, herbicides nutrients,
etc.) intro river, lake, ocean (U, R, I, A, M) and so on from urban areas (U)
• Seepage from accidental spills (train or
truck accidents, for example) (I, M)
• Inadvertent Seepage of solvent and other
chemicals including radioactive materials
from industrial sites or small business (I, M)
Key: U urban; R rural; I industrial; A agricultural; M military

ores, as metals are soluble in an acid. After the drain procedure, these arrangements
scatter acid solutions on the ground, comprising high points of metals, which may
leach into the groundwater. Besides, the concentrations of toxic metals are much
greater than the harmless allowable limits [16].

3 Metal Ions Toxic Effects

The metal ions are important for living systems; but these may have toxicity or car-
cinogenicity at elevated concentrations. Nowadays, the pollution of our atmosphere
owing to toxic metals is very stern and puzzling problem. The toxic metals found into
the atmosphere in dissimilar physico-chemical forms. The organometallic molecules
are more poisonous than the their inorganic forms; with the exemption of arsenic. The
heavy metals inhabit a chiefly significant position as these are maximum poisonous.
Some toxic metals are of vivacious position for flora and fauna progress. However,
these may be toxicant at high concentrations. The most hazardous features of heavy
 4

Table 2 Heavy metal, present in raw materials/processes in major industries

Industry Cd Cr Cu Fe Hg Mn Pb Ni Sn Zn
Pulp & Paper, board mills x x x x x x
Organic chemicals x x x x x x x
Inorganic chemicals x x x x x x x
Fertilizers x x x x x x x x x
Petroleum Refining x x x x x x x
Basic steel works x x x x x x x x x
Basic non-ferrous metal works x x x x x x
Motor vehicle Aircraft plating x x x x x
Glass, Cement x
Textile mill x
Leather tanning x
Steam generation power plant x
I. Ali et al.
Removal of Metal Ions Using Graphene Based Adsorbents 5

metals is their accumulation in living systems even in the neighboring situation. Out
of natural occurring elements, fifty three are heavy metals, while seventeen (Ag, As,
Co, Cd, Cu, Cr, Hg, Mn, Fe, Mo, Pb, Ni, U, Sb, W, V and Zn) are obtainable to the
alive cells and make solvable cations; showing living properties. The men are pre-
dictably bared to carcinogens from ecological, medicinal and occupational sources
[2]. Generally, the noxiousness of metals is defined by calculating LD50 or LC50 .
Nevertheless, some workers described toxicities in terms of EC50 and IC50 termi-
nologies. The metal ions defined in the periodic table are not-toxic and, consequently,
only poisonous metal ions are deliberated here. Amongst numerous metal ions the
maximum shared toxic metals concerned in severe and/or lingering circumstances
comprise arsenic, antimony, lead, chromium, selenium, mercury, etc. Nevertheless,
high amount of other metal ions like rhodium, aluminum, zinc, copper, vanadium,
platinum, etc. may be poisonous [2]. The poisonousness of some notorious metal
ions is discussed below.

3.1 Arsenic (As)

Arsenic is a well-known poisons for log time. The poisonousness of water soluble
arsenic species is arsenite) > arsenate > monomethylarsonate; > dimethylarsinate.
Arsenic in water sows harming all the phases of arsenic appearance [2]. In human
body about 50% arsenic is expelled through faeces, urine, skin, nails, hair, lungs etc.
[2]. The people consuming arsenic polluted water indicates arsenical skin lesions.
Long use of arsenic polluted water can result into hyperkeratosis, conjunctivitis,
hyperpigmentation, disorder in the periphral nervous and vascular systems, cardio-
vascular diseases, skin cancer and non-pitting swelling, gangrene, leucomelanosis,
splenomegaly, and hepatomegaly [2, 17–19]. The effects on the lungs, uterus, gen-
itourinary tract etc. are noticed in the progressive phase of arsenic poisonousness.
Moreover, high amount of arsenic can also create escalation of spontaneous and still-
births abortions [2, 20]. The additional side effects of arsenic pollution are visual dis-
orders, sensory disorders, energy loss, coma, fatigue, convulsions, shock, paralyses,
atrophy, blindness, kidney damage, etc.

3.2 Cadmium (Cd)

Cadmium has severe toxicities including nausea, diarrhea, cramp muscle and harm
of bone marrow. Besides, it is supposed accountable to kidney stones formation [2,
21, 22]. The studies indicated cadmium as responsible for human cancer of prostatic,
pulmonary and liver, renal, hematopoietic system, stomach and urinary bladder [23–
28]. USA International Agency for Research on Cancer and the National Toxicology
Program recognized cadmium as group 1 carcinogenic metal ion [24, 25]. Cadmium
is considered to be lethal with vomiting and nausea at 15.0 mg/L concentartion. It is
6 I. Ali et al.

acute poisonous metal but not deadly. The cadmium effects are hypertension renal
dysfunction, chest pain, anemia, headache, augmented salivation, diarrhea„ throat
dryness, pneumonitis, cough, tenesmus, etc. The diverse molecules carcinogenic in
nature are Cd, CdO, CdS, CdCl2 and CdSO4 .

3.3 Chromium (Cr)

Cr(III)] is crucial for living beings growth and health (at low level) with a nontoxic
concentration of 0.20 mg/day while Cr(VI) is a strong carcinogenic and very deadly
to human and animals. Thus, the collected Cr in plants parts (food) may characterize
possible health threats to human and animals when it is collected in Cr(VI) form at
elevated concentration. The chief noxious effects of chromium(VI) related to respi-
ratory organs, kidney, liver, with hemorrhagic possessions, ulceration and dermatitis
of skin. Chromium is categorized as group I carcinogenic by International Agency
for research on Cancer; for animals and humans. Chromium is found in ground water
of industrial area of steel works, plating, corrosion tanning, etc. industries. Besides
the anthropogenic actions are also responsible for its contamination; the weathering
of rocks [29, 30]. It is carcinogenic with tendency of forming of respiratory cancers.
It was found that Cr(VI) exposure led to danger of emerging lung cancers [31, 32].

3.4 Lead (Pb)

Lead is very substantial toxin among heavy metals with neurotoxical and toxicolog-
ical effects like damage of brain. Lead is a present in inorganic and organic forms.
Inorganic lead damage peripheral and central nervous systems, renal, hematopoietic,
reproductive, cardiovascular and gastrointestinal systems. Organic lead is poisonous
for central nervous system. These sorts of properties are seen at 100.0–200.0 μg/L
blood concentration. The tumor development in rats is owing to lead toxicity. Other
dangerous effects include loss of cognitive abilities, convulsions, anti-social consti-
pation, anemia, visual disturbances, severe abdominal pain, tenderness nausea, ane-
mia, paralysis, vomiting, etc. The different lead substances carcinogenic in nature are
PbAc2 , PbO, Pb3 (PO4 )2 and PbCrO4 [2]. Inorganic lead are absorbed via inhalation,
ingestion while organic lead salts are engrossed via skin.

3.5 Mercury (Hg)

Mercury is found in inorganic and organic forms. Water contamination due to mer-
cury is because of use of mercury based pesticides [2, 33, 34]. Inorganic mercury
substances are poisonous to nervous and nephrological systems. Organic mercury
Removal of Metal Ions Using Graphene Based Adsorbents 7

substances are acute poisonous to central nervous system. Also, irritability, learning
disabilities, discouragement, behavior changes, jerky gait, tremors, gums and mouth
inflammations, swelling of salivary glands, spasms of extremities, teeth loosening
and saliva disorder are other menace of mercury toxicity. However, the toxicity issue
of mercury is not clear and still in discussion. Mercury also effect DNA activities
and is considered as carcinogen.

4 Water Treatment Methods Available

Many water treatment methods are used for removing toxic contaminants in water.
These are grouped as chemical, physical, thermal, biological and electrical nature.
The most important are filtration, centrifugation, crystallization, screening, gravity
and flotation, sedimentation oxidation, separation, precipitation, solvent extraction,
coagulation, evaporation, ion exchange, distillation, electrodialysis, reverse osmosis,
adsorption electrolysis, etc. Amongst these techniques, sorption is considered as the
finest one owing to ease of operation, eco-friendly, inexpensive and capable to remove
all types of the pollutants [35, 36].
Adsorption is an exterior process and is described as an augment for species
on the edge or surface among two phases. The species (pollutant), which stick to
the solid interface is termed as adsorbate and solid material is called as adsorbent.
The sorption is controlled by features of the adsorbate and adsorbent, contact time,
pH, dose, temperature, adsorbent particle size, other species, etc. The occurrence
of suspended materials, greases and oils decreases the efficacy of the phenomenon.
Therefore, sometimes filtration is needed. The pollutants get adhered to the solid
surface of adsorbent when contaminated water is shacked with adsorbent. After
some times, the amounts of the contaminants sorbed gets constant. The relation-
ship pollutant amounts sorbed at fixed time and equilibrium is termed as adsorption
isotherm (Fig. 1). Freundlich, Langmuir, Dubnin, Tempkins and other isotherms are
well-known and may describe sorption data efficiently [37]. The adsorption process
is determined by batch experiments in the laboratory followed by pilot scale and
column operations.

Fig. 1 A typical batch

adsorption isotherm
8 I. Ali et al.

5 Graphene

Graphite is a crystalline material made of carbon in a sequence of fixed parallel sheets.

The carbon atoms in every sheet are fixed in even hexagons in a fashion that every
carbon atom is linked via three other carbon atoms. The 3.35 Å is a space between
two adjacent graphite sheets. The carbon—carbon space in hexagonal collection is
1.42 Å. The intra-planar bonding attractions in every sheet are owing to metallic and
covalent bondings, that are greater in comparison to forces of van der Waal. Graphite
can react with dissimilar reagents forming intercalation substances; resulting into
surface substitution and alteration. The graphite intercalation substances are much
essential in water management as showing quite good sorption dimensions for differ-
ent contaminants. Graphene is one of the most amazing carbon materials in nano size.
The widespread graphene use is in numerous areas industrial purposes. A graphene
only sheet (classically showing graphene) was achieved over compounds by trans-
feral from only crystal graphite utilizing a glue tape. Much progressive techniques
for graphene distinct layer on substrates are described. The even graphene distinct
layers are steady on the substrates, while free may be unstable and tending to form
a roll. Graphene distinct layer can be made constant due to their contacts with the
setting. The surface sorption is utilized to make stable diffusions in water and other
organic solvents [38, 39]. Normally, graphene dispersion and powder structures are
rarely perfect. Graphene particles are bent to a definite degree with raggedy ends.
The basic flaws and outside atoms and elemental groups are committed to graphene
frame. Classically graphene is defined as a distinct carbon layer [40]. Nevertheless,
recent definition is graphene comprises 10 or less sheets. It is also called as exfoliated
graphite nano-sheet or graphite nano-platelet [41]. Graphite nano-platelets fluctuate
in the structures dependent on the width. Graphite nano-platelet of lesser than 50.0 nm
width does not indicate a cellular construction while graphite nano-platelet more than
50.0 nm thick can or cannot show cellular frame-work.
Graphene distinct layer shows sp2 carbon hybridization (organized in honeycomb
hexagonal lattice) with ~5000 W/mK thermal conductivity (at ambient temp.) in dif-
fusion and hypothetical surface area of 2630 m2 g−1 [42, 43]. The side interactions
contain an extreme reduction of 60% in conductivity, which is about 2000 W/mK;
at 100 nm graphene sheet thickness. The size of graphene may range 10 to 100 nm
(thickness) owing to the reasonable thermal conductivity (κ ≈ 1500 W/mK) at ambi-
ent temp [44]. Graphene is examined owing to its tunable and stretchy carbon sup-
port; leading into easy integration and functionalization in a range of utilities [45].
Newly, graphene astonished scientists to discover the prospective in water man-
agement owing to the unique properties like typical structural properties [46], good
mechanical power [47], and small thickness [48]. Elevated tensile power and impene-
trability of graphene are well recognized [49]. Sub-nanometer holes may be generated
in graphene by electron ion beam, oxidation, doping, cluster/ion bombardment, etc.
[50]. These holes are meant to discover the transference of gases and ionic molecules
[51]. Graphene and its compounds are few sheets of graphene, monolayer graphene,
Removal of Metal Ions Using Graphene Based Adsorbents 9

Fig. 2 Crystal structure of graphene

reduced and normal graphene oxides, graphene nano-ribbons, graphene nano-sheets

etc.
The dissimilar methods utilized for graphene and nanocomposites preparations
are electrochemical, reduction, decomposition exfoliation etc. (thermal, microwave,
photochemical) [52, 53]. The laboratory and engineering graphene nano-platelets
can be categorized into two categories i.e. multi-layered (10–60 sheets) and few
coated (1–10 sheets). The graphene crystal assembly described in Fig. 2. The supra-
molecular surface altered graphene structure is represented in Fig. 3. The figure
of graphene interpolating compounds is described in Fig. 4. The supra-molecular
graphene oxide features are given in Fig. 5. The features of this exceptional material
(graphene) is revealed in Table 3. Many methods are described and used to prepare
graphene i.e. motorized utility of extremely inclined chemical vapour deposition,
pyrolytic graphite, epitaxial growth on SiC, bottom-up preparation from organic
moieties, liquid phase utilization carbon nanotubes unzipping, natural reduction of
exfoliated graphite oxide [54]. Table 4 shows the profits and disadvantages of some
commonly utilized syntheses procedures.
10 I. Ali et al.

Fig. 3 Surface modified graphene

6 Wastewater Treatment by Exploring Graphene Sorbents

The adsorption is a process where a pollutant sorbed on the sorbent solid surface [55,
56]. It is controlled by a number of factors like pore volume, surface area and func-
tional groups. It is frequently happened with the opposite desorption, which indicates
transference of sorbates from sorbent superficial to the solution. The renewal of adsor-
bent may be tried depending on the sorbate quantity desorbed from sorbent; renewal
and desorption processes increase [57]. The sorption can be of physico-chemical
type. This being controlled by the types of interactions among the adsorbate and
sorbent. For physical sorption, the increase in sorbate quantity at the boundary is
because of non-specific van der Waal’s interactions. The chemisorptions is devel-
oped via chemical reactions between sorbate and the sorbent, that produce covalent
or ionic bonds. The latter is specific, weak, reversible with small thermal effect,
whereas former irreversible, specific, typically with tens to hundreds of kJ/mol as
heat of sorption [58].
The sorption controlling factors are pH, dose, concentration, ionic strength, tem-
perature, the presence of organic moieties, interaction time and shacking stirring
speed. The adsorption may be demarcated by normally used Freundlich, Langmuir,
Tempkin etc. models [58]. Graphene and its composites are attaining reputation in
water treatment through sorption process because of their remarkable features such
as high surface area, great quantity of handy groups and outstanding movement of
charge species. The graphene and its related materials have been widely explored as
adsorbents for water treatment process.
Removal of Metal Ions Using Graphene Based Adsorbents 11

Fig. 4 Schematic diagram

of intercalating compounds
of graphene
12 I. Ali et al.

Fig. 5 The supramolecular structure of graphene oxide

Table 3 The characteristics

Features Values
features of single layer
graphene [54] C–C bond length thickness 14.2 × 10−2 nm
Optical transparency 97%
Theoretical BET specific surface 2630 m2 g−1
area
Thermal conductivity 5000 W m−1 K−1
Density 0.77 mg m−3
Density carrier 1012 cm−2
Young’s modulus 1100 GPa
Fractural strength 125 GPa
Resistivity 10−6  cm
Electron mobility 200,000 cm2 V−1 s−1

6.1 Toxic Metal Ions Sorption

The contamination of water resources through toxic metal ions like Ag, As, Cd, Cu,
Co, Cr, Hg, Fe, Pb, Mn, Ni, Zn etc. It is being increased progressively in last years
due to unrestrained releases of industrial effluents. The most contaminated industries
are tanneries, mining, metal plating, painting, automobile manufacturing, printing,
petroleum refining, smelting, etc. In view of their perseverance in the atmosphere,
these metal ions incline to gather in living beings, thus, affecting numerous possible
Removal of Metal Ions Using Graphene Based Adsorbents 13

Table 4 The advantages and disadvantages of some graphene synthetic methods [54]
Route Advantage Disadvantage
Mechanical uses of Less defects, inexpensive, Problem of large scale
particularly sloping pyrolytic excellent charge mobility, manufacture & little yield
graphite great chemical constancy and
mechanical robustness
CVD Mass manufacture, high Expensive
quality, big graphene layers
size
Epitaxial growing on SiC Big graphene layers size and High growth temperature and
good quality costly method
Reduction of exfoliated Large scale production & low Low purity, numerous
graphite oxide cost defects, electrical properties
and poor mechanical
Liquid phase exfoliation Large scale production, low Moderate quality, low yield
cost and many impurities
Carbon nanotubes unzipping High quality, high yield & Moderate scalability
potentially low cost

unpleasant effects on human and animals at approval levels. Presently, numerous

studies have been completed to measure metal removal ability of graphene and its
related materials (Table 5).
The graphene ability to pick up Co(II) and Fe(II) from water is described by
Chang and co-workers [59]. Graphene was prepared via ionic liquid assisted electro-
chemical phenomenon as per the procedure described by Liu and co-workers [60].
Co(II) and Fe(II) adsorption was inspected by batch mode. The graphene displayed
great sorption capabilities of 370.0 and 299.30 mg g−1 for Fe(II) and Co(II), corre-
spondingly. Wu and co-workers [61] tested the adsorption ability of graphene oxide
(GO) to remove Cu(II) in water. The finest sets for Cu(II) removal by GO in a batch
mode were 1.0 mg mL−1 dosage, 5.3 pH and 150.0 min interaction time. Copper(II)
equilibrium adsorption information fitted completely to Freundlich isotherm. GO
displayed great adsorption ability (117.5 mg g−1 ) for Copper(II) as per Langmuir
constants. The sorption of Copper(II) on GO was primarily accredited to electrostatic
attraction, outside ion exchange, and complexation as per equations given below:

Cu2+ + GO − COOH → GO − COO − Cu2+ + H+ (1)

 
Cu2+ + (GO − COOH)2 → GO − COO− 2 − Cu2+ + 2H+ (2)

Cu2+ + GO − OH → GO − O − Cu2+ + 2H+ (3)

Cu2+ + (GO − OH)2 → (GO − O−)2 − Cu2+ + 2H+ (4)

Table 5 The adsorption of heavy metal ions in water with graphene-based nanomaterials (data from Ref. 54 with permission)
14

Adsorbents Metal ions Concs. pHs Temp. (K) Contact Adsorption capacity References
times (h)
Graphene Pb(II) 40 mg L−1 4.0 303 15 22.42 mg g−1 [104]
Graphene Sb(III) 1–10 mg L−1 11.0 303 4 10.919 mg g−1 [71]
Graphene Pb(II) 40 mg L−1 4.0 303 15 35.46 mg g−1 [70]
Graphene Pb(II) 40 mg L−1 4.0 303 15 35.21 mg g−1 [104]
Graphene Fe(II) 20 mg L−1 8.0 – 24 299.3 mg g−1 [59]
Graphene Co(II) 20 mg L−1 8.0 – 24 370 mg g − 1 [59]
CTAB modified graphene Cr(VI) 20–100 mg L−1 2.0 293 1 21.57 mg g−1 [67]
Functionalized graphene Cd(II) – 6.2 – 4 73.42 mg g−1 [68]
(GNSPF6)
Functionalized graphene Pb(II) – 5.1 – 4 406.4 mg g−1 [68]
(GNSPF6)
Functionalized graphene Cd(II) – 6.2 – 4 30.05 mg g−1 [68]
(GNSC8P)
Functionalized graphene Pb(II) – 5.1 – 4 74.18 mg g−1 [68]
(GNSC8P)
GO Zn(II) – 5.6 – – 30.1 ± 2.5 mg g−1 [79]
GO Pb(II) 5–300 mg L−1 6.8 298 ± 2 24 367 mg g−1 [72]
(continued)
I. Ali et al.
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