Summary of Ergonomics and Human Factors Content

Background Study
Human factors, known as ergonomics in Europe and other regions, is the scientific discipline concerned with the
interaction between humans and machines, tools, or systems. Its primary goal is to improve system performance by
optimizing human-machine interactions to benefit humanity. Ergonomics originates from Greek words “ergon” (work)
and “nomos” (natural laws), representing the laws that define human work capabilities and limitations. It focuses on
designing tasks, jobs, products, and environments compatible with human needs and abilities, ultimately enhancing
efficiency, safety, and comfort.

History of Ergonomics
The concept of ergonomics dates back to the 19th century, with early documentation in Polish newspapers and the
scientific management principles by Frederick Taylor in the early 1900s. Taylor’s work, along with Frank and Lillian
Gilbreth’s time and motion studies, laid the foundation for scientific work design aimed at increasing productivity and
worker efficiency by minimizing unnecessary motions. The discipline gained significant momentum during World War
II, when interdisciplinary teams applied ergonomic principles to complex military equipment, improving control and
display designs in aircraft. Post-war, ergonomics expanded into industry, particularly in manufacturing, with companies
like Eastman-Kodak and IBM pioneering workplace ergonomic programs. The first national ergonomics society was
established in England in 1949, followed by the International Ergonomics Association (IEA) in 1961, which now
represents thousands of ergonomists worldwide.

Applications and Benefits of Ergonomics

Ergonomics spans a wide range of fields including anatomy, physiology, psychology, industrial hygiene, safety
engineering, and computer-aided design. Well-applied ergonomic principles lead to improved productivity, enhanced
safety and health, and increased employee satisfaction. Core ergonomic principles include designing workplaces that
keep everything within easy reach, working at proper heights (typically elbow height), reducing excessive forces and
repetition, maintaining natural postures, minimizing direct pressure points, and providing adjustability and comfortable
environments. These principles help reduce fatigue, prevent injuries, and improve overall job satisfaction.

Focus and Objectives of Human Factors

Human factors engineering emphasizes understanding human capabilities, limitations, behaviors, and motivations to
design tools, systems, and environments that optimize human use. The dual objectives are to enhance work efficiency
and effectiveness, and to improve human well-being by reducing fatigue, stress, and errors while increasing safety,
comfort, and satisfaction. The approach is systematic and interdisciplinary, incorporating knowledge from
biomechanics, psychology, physiology, and engineering to match job demands with human capabilities. It rejects
simplistic checklist applications or reliance solely on common sense, advocating for informed design based on
empirical data.

Human-Machine Systems and Interaction

A central concept in human factors is the “system,” which integrates humans, machines, and other components to
achieve goals unattainable by individual parts alone. Human-machine systems combine human operators with
physical or digital machines, where ergonomics seeks to optimize body-machine interaction by considering
anthropometry (human body measurements), sensory processing, motor control, and cognitive functions. Human
senses (sight, hearing, touch) provide feedback, while effectors (hands, feet, voice) execute control actions. Machines
may include physical devices or abstract information systems like software. Displays and controls must be designed
to provide clear, usable feedback and control interfaces. The immediate environment, including workspace layout,
lighting, noise, and climate, also significantly impacts system performance and human comfort.
Human-machine systems are classified as manual (hand tools powered by the user), mechanical (powered machines
controlled by humans), or automated (systems performing functions with minimal human input). Effective design
accounts for hierarchical system components, their functions, interactions, and operating environments.

Anthropometry
Anthropometry involves measuring human physical dimensions to inform ergonomic design, ensuring products and
workstations fit the user population. Key design mottos are “let the small person reach” and “let the large person fit,”
meaning reach distances are designed for smaller individuals (5th percentile), while clearance dimensions
 accommodate larger individuals (95th percentile). Principles for applying anthropometric data include designing for
extremes (max/min population values), adjustable ranges (equipment adjustable to fit from 5th to 95th percentile), and
averages (used sparingly where extremes or adjustability are impractical).
Static dimensions are body measurements taken in fixed postures (e.g., stature, sitting height, shoulder breadth),
essential for designing equipment like helmets or chairs. Dynamic (functional) dimensions account for body movement
during tasks (e.g., reaching, bending), critical for designing workstations and controls. Anthropometric data must be
representative of the user population and consider factors such as age, gender, ethnicity, and occupation.

Workstation Design
Since people spend up to 90% of their time indoors, especially in workplaces, ergonomic workstation design is crucial
for comfort, satisfaction, and productivity. Modern office design reflects evolving business practices emphasizing
customization, quality, and flexibility. Designs include private offices and open-plan offices, each with distinct
implications for acoustics, privacy, and environmental control.
Key physical office conditions affecting ergonomics include:
 Noise: Controlled by ceiling materials, workstation size, partitions, and sound masking; poor acoustics reduce
satisfaction and productivity.
 Ventilation and Indoor Air Quality: Proper ventilation, temperature control, and cleanliness are vital to prevent
discomfort and health issues.
 Lighting: Adequate task lighting, access to daylight, uniformity, and glare reduction enhance visibility and reduce eye
strain.
 Layout: Workstations should be designed for privacy, accessibility, flexibility, and worker needs, avoiding crowding
and distractions.
Workstation design guidelines focus on preventing static loads and fixed postures, reducing musculoskeletal
disorders, and optimizing work height (typically 50 mm below elbow height). Adjustable chairs, proper use of feet and
hands, gravity utilization, momentum conservation, and use of two-hand motions are emphasized to reduce fatigue
and improve efficiency.

Ergonomic Computer Workstations

A well-designed computer workstation is essential to prevent repetitive strain injuries and promote comfort. Ten steps
for ergonomic computer arrangement include:
1. Assessing how and by whom the computer will be used (single user vs. multiple users).
2. Selecting the type of computer (desktop vs. laptop) recognizing inherent ergonomic challenges.
3. Choosing stable furniture with adjustable surfaces and keyboard/mouse trays.
4. Selecting adjustable, comfortable chairs supporting lumbar region and promoting reclined postures (100-110
degrees).
5. Understanding the type of work (e.g., typing, graphic design) to prioritize input device placement.
6. Ensuring proper monitor placement at comfortable height and distance with document holders.
7. Maintaining good posture: straight wrists, elbows at or above 90 degrees, relaxed shoulders, and supported back.
8. Keeping frequently used items close to the user.
9. Arranging ergonomic workstation components (keyboard trays, wrist rests).
10. Considering environmental factors like lighting, ventilation, and noise.

Principles of Physical Workstation Design

Physical design principles include avoiding static loads and fixed postures, supporting limbs properly to prevent neck
and shoulder pain, using feet as well as hands for control, exploiting gravity to reduce effort, conserving momentum
to avoid unnecessary fatigue, and furnishing adjustable chairs to reduce physiological strain. Safe lifting, preventing
slips and falls, and ergonomic hand tool design are also critical.

Sound and Noise

Sound is a vibration transmitted through a medium perceived by the ear. Noise is unwanted or disturbing sound, often
subjective in nature. Human hearing ranges from 16 Hz to 20 kHz, with sound intensity measured logarithmically in
decibels (dB). Sound pressure levels vary widely, with 0 dB at the threshold of hearing and 130 dB at the threshold of
pain. Noise pollution, originating from industrial, transportation, and social sources, can cause hearing loss, tinnitus,
temporary threshold shifts, and psychological stress.
Sound measurement devices include sound level meters and dosimeters, with different types offering varying
accuracy levels. The ear consists of the outer, middle, and inner ear, converting sound waves into nerve impulses
interpreted by the brain. Noise exposure can damage cochlear hair cells, leading to permanent hearing loss.
 Light and Vision
Light is electromagnetic radiation visible to the human eye, which focuses light through the cornea and lens onto the
retina containing rods and cones. Rods are sensitive to low light, while cones detect color and detail. Visual defects
include myopia (nearsightedness), hypermetropia (farsightedness), and astigmatism, affecting focus and clarity.
Good lighting design balances illumination level, glare reduction, surface luminance uniformity, and color rendering to
improve visual comfort and task performance. Light sources include incandescent, fluorescent, and high-intensity
discharge lamps, each with specific efficiency, color temperature, and rendering characteristics. Proper lighting
reduces visual fatigue and enhances productivity.

Hand Tools and Devices

Hand tools contribute significantly to workplace injuries, including cumulative trauma disorders (CTDs) such as carpal
tunnel syndrome, tenosynovitis, trigger finger, and tennis elbow, primarily caused by repetitive microtrauma and poor
ergonomic design. Principles for hand tool design include maintaining a straight wrist, avoiding tissue compression,
reducing repetitive finger action, ensuring safe operation, and accommodating women and left-handers.
Hand motions involve flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, pronation, and supination. Proper tool handle design
with appropriate grip thickness, length, and force requirements reduces fatigue and injury risk. Vibration exposure
from power tools can cause hand-arm vibration syndrome (HAVS), leading to vascular and nerve damage. Control
measures include selecting low-vibration tools, maintenance, use of vibration-damping gloves, minimizing grip force,
work rotation, and limiting exposure duration.

Manual Material Handling (MMH)

MMH tasks such as lifting, carrying, pushing, and pulling are major causes of back injuries. Assessment approaches
include biomechanical analysis (forces and stresses), physiological evaluation (energy expenditure), and
psychophysical methods (worker perception).
The NIOSH Lifting Equation provides guidelines for safe lifting by calculating the Recommended Weight Limit (RWL)
and Lifting Index (LI), considering factors like load position, lifting frequency, and task asymmetry. The equation helps
identify hazardous tasks, guide redesign, and prioritize ergonomic interventions.
Job design strategies to reduce MMH risks include decreasing object weight, using mechanical aids, minimizing
horizontal and vertical distances, limiting lifting frequency, and providing rest and job rotation. Worker selection and
training complement ergonomic design to prevent overexertion injuries.

Key Insights
 Ergonomics integrates multiple disciplines to optimize human work systems for safety, health, and productivity.
 Historical development was driven by wartime needs but has expanded into diverse industrial and office environments.
 Anthropometric data is foundational for designing adjustable and inclusive workstations and tools.
 Modern office design must balance environmental factors (noise, lighting, ventilation) to support worker well-being.
 Computer workstations require careful ergonomic arrangement to prevent musculoskeletal disorders.
 Hand tool design and vibration control are critical to preventing cumulative trauma disorders.
 Manual material handling risks can be mitigated through ergonomic job design and validated lifting guidelines.

Keywords
Ergonomics, Human Factors, Anthropometry, Human-Machine Interaction, Workstation Design, Noise Pollution, Light
and Vision, Hand Tools, Cumulative Trauma Disorders, Manual Material Handling, NIOSH Lifting Equation, HAVS,
Office Environment, Safety, Productivity, Human Engineering, Biomechanics, Cognitive Ergonomics.

FAQ
Q1: What is the main difference between “fit the man to the job” and “fit the job to the man”?
A1: “Fit the man to the job” involves selecting workers based on specific aptitudes for a job, while “fit the job to the
man” focuses on designing jobs and workplaces to accommodate worker characteristics, making work accessible to
a broader population.
Q2: Why is anthropometry important in ergonomic design?
A2: Anthropometry provides data on human body dimensions crucial for designing workstations, tools, and
equipment that fit users properly, enhancing comfort, safety, and productivity.
 Q3: How does poor lighting affect workers?
A3: Poor lighting can cause eye strain, reduce visual acuity, increase errors, and decrease productivity. Proper
lighting reduces glare and fatigue, improving work quality.
Q4: What are common symptoms of hand-arm vibration syndrome (HAVS)?
A4: Symptoms include reduced blood flow, white fingers (vascular attacks), numbness, decreased dexterity, and loss
of grip strength, often worsened by cold.
Q5: What ergonomic strategies help prevent back injuries during lifting?
A5: Using proper lifting techniques (bending knees, keeping load close), minimizing load weight, using mechanical
aids, and following recommended weight limits based on task conditions help prevent injuries.

This comprehensive summary covers the detailed original content structure, providing clear, in-depth insights into
ergonomics, human factors, workstation design, anthropometry, noise and light ergonomics, hand tool safety, and
manual material handling principles.
Summary

Background Study
Human factors, also known as ergonomics, is a discipline focused on improving the interaction between humans and
technology, aiming to design tools, devices, and systems that are easier and safer to use. The term “ergonomics”
derives from Greek words “ergon” (work) and “nomos” (natural laws), meaning the natural laws governing human
work. While “human factors” is the preferred term in the United States, “ergonomics” is more widely used in Europe
and elsewhere. The field studies how people interact with machines and environments to enhance system
performance by making tasks compatible with human abilities and limitations.
Historically, the systematic study of ergonomics began during the World Wars, where military equipment complexity
necessitated interdisciplinary cooperation among physiologists, psychologists, anthropologists, engineers, and
doctors. This collaboration extended into industry post-war, leading to the establishment of national and international
ergonomics societies, such as the Ergonomics Research Society (UK, 1950), Human Factors Society (USA, 1957),
and the International Ergonomics Association (1961). Early applications were predominantly military, focusing on
aircraft controls and displays, later expanding to manufacturing and industrial environments.
Key principles from pioneers like Frederick Winslow Taylor and the Gilbreths introduced scientific management and
time-motion studies, optimizing tasks by reducing unnecessary movements, improving efficiency, and facilitating
workforce flexibility. Ergonomics today spans various disciplines, including anatomy, physiology, psychology,
industrial engineering, safety engineering, and computer-aided design, emphasizing benefits such as improved
productivity, enhanced safety and health, and increased employee satisfaction.
Principles of Ergonomics
Ergonomics aims to balance job demands with worker capabilities by designing workplaces, tools, and systems that
promote efficiency, safety, comfort, and satisfaction. Key principles include:
1. Keep Everything Within Easy Reach: Ensures that workers can access tools and controls without awkward
movements.
2. Work at Proper Heights: Tasks should be performed around elbow height to minimize strain.
3. Reduce Excessive Forces: Avoid forces that can cause fatigue or injury by redesigning tasks or tools.
4. Work in Natural Postures: Promote neutral body postures to prevent musculoskeletal stress.
5. Reduce Excessive Repetition: Minimize repetitive motions by using power tools or modifying equipment layout.
6. Minimize Direct Pressure (Contact Stress): Design workstations and tools to avoid pressure points on the body.
7. Provide Adjustability and Posture Variation: Adjustable furniture and equipment allow workers to change posture
and reduce fatigue.
8. Provide Clearance and Access: Ensure sufficient space for movement and unobstructed visibility.
9. Maintain a Comfortable Environment: Design environmental conditions (lighting, temperature, noise) suited to the
tasks.
10. Minimize Fatigue and Static Load: Avoid prolonged static postures that cause discomfort.
11. Enhance Clarity and Understanding: Use clear displays and controls compatible with human information
processing.
12. Improve Work Organization: Organize work to support ergonomic goals and efficient workflow.
Focus and Objectives of Human Factors
Human factors prioritize the design of products, equipment, procedures, and environments around human capabilities
and limitations. The field’s objectives are twofold:
 Enhance Effectiveness and Efficiency: Improve convenience, reduce errors, and increase equipment productivity.
 Enhance Human Values: Improve safety, reduce fatigue and stress, increase comfort, job satisfaction, and overall
quality of life.
 Human factors involve applying systematic knowledge about human behavior, motivation, capabilities, and the work
environment to design tools, machines, and systems that are productive, safe, comfortable, and effective. It is not
simply about checklists, personal preferences, or common sense, but about scientific and interdisciplinary
approaches.
Fitting the Job to the Man (FJM) vs. Fitting the Man to the Job (FMJ)
Historically, productivity improvements followed two strategies:
 FMJ (Fit Man to Job): Selecting workers with specific aptitudes to match job demands.
 FJM (Fit Job to Man): Designing tasks and environments to suit the worker’s characteristics.
FJM is the guiding philosophy of ergonomics, aiming to accommodate a range of human attributes through design.
FMJ is only practical in limited circumstances, such as jobs requiring specific physical abilities (e.g., firefighters).
Modern workforce diversity and labor policies favor FJM approaches, emphasizing design adaptability and
inclusiveness.
Systems and Human-Machine Interaction
A central concept in ergonomics is the system, composed of humans, machines, and environments interacting
purposefully to achieve goals unattainable alone. Human-machine systems involve:
 Human Components: The body (subject to physical laws), effectors (hands, feet, voice), senses (sight, hearing,
touch, taste), and central processes (energy supply and information processing in the brain).
 Machine Components: Physical devices (tools, equipment), controls (levers, buttons), and displays (gauges,
screens).
 Controlled Process: The task or operation performed by the system (e.g., digging, driving, data processing).
 Immediate Environment: Physical workspace, environmental factors (noise, lighting, climate), and social/technical
constraints.
Types of human-machine systems include:
 Manual Systems: Hand tools powered by human energy.
 Mechanical Systems: Semi-automated machines with operator controls.
 Automated Systems: Fully automated systems requiring minimal human intervention.
Systems are purposive, hierarchical, interact dynamically, and have inputs and outputs requiring interdisciplinary
knowledge to analyze and design.
Anthropometry
Anthropometry measures human physical dimensions and is fundamental to designing workstations and equipment
that fit diverse users. Key points include:
 Design Mottos: “Let the small person reach” and “Let the large person fit” — designing reach distances for the 5th
percentile (small individuals) and clearance dimensions for the 95th percentile (large individuals).
 Objectives: Create comfortable, convenient, and productive workstations accommodating a wide range of body sizes
and shapes; reduce fatigue and avoid poor postures.
 Application Principles:
1. Design for Extreme Individuals: Accommodate the smallest or largest users depending on the design constraint.
2. Design for Adjustable Range: Use adjustable furniture to fit the 5th to 95th percentile range, covering most users.
3. Design for the Average: Only used when extremes and adjustability are impractical; generally discouraged.
Anthropometric data include static dimensions (e.g., stature, limb lengths) and dynamic (functional) dimensions that
account for body movement during tasks. Typical measurements include sitting/standing height, eye height, shoulder
height, elbow height, reach distances, breadths (hip, elbow), and grip diameters, all critical for ergonomic furniture
and workstation design.
Workstation Design and Modern Work Environment
Workstations should be designed to promote comfort, reduce fatigue, and enhance productivity since people spend
significant time indoors, especially at work. Key aspects include:
 Ergonomic Furniture: Adjustable chairs and desks to fit user body dimensions and support a variety of tasks.
 Modern Office Design: Reflects changing business practices emphasizing customization, flexibility, and integration
of complex tasks.
 Office Layout: Includes considerations of workstation size, acoustic properties, lighting, ventilation, and visual
privacy.
 Acoustic Design: Use ceiling absorbers, partitions, and sound masking to manage noise and improve speech
privacy.
 Ventilation and Indoor Air Quality (IAQ): Proper air flow, temperature control, and contamination management are
essential to comfort and health.
 Lighting and Daylighting: Provide uniform task illumination, minimize glare, ensure access to daylight, use
appropriate color rendering, and support visual comfort.
 Layout: Design workspaces to support the type of work, provide privacy, allow personalization, and facilitate group
collaboration.
Workstation Design Guidelines
There are 14 fundamental ergonomic guidelines for workstation design, including:
1. Avoid Static Loads and Fixed Postures: Promote movement and posture variation to reduce physiological strain.
2. Reduce Musculoskeletal Disorders: Avoid wrist bending, awkward postures, and repetitive strain.
3. Set Work Height Slightly Below Elbow Level: Optimal for both seated and standing work.
4. Provide Adjustable Chairs with Lumbar Support: To accommodate diverse users and support healthy posture.
5. Use Feet as Well as Hands: Leverage leg strength and dexterity in control devices.
6. Use Gravity, Don’t Oppose It: Design tasks to use downward or horizontal motions rather than lifting.
7. Conserve Momentum: Avoid unnecessary acceleration, deceleration, and weight transport.
8. Use Two-Hand Motions Rather Than One-Hand Motions: Improves efficiency and reduces fatigue.
9. Use Parallel Motions for Eye Control of Two-Hand Motions: Facilitates easier eye tracking.
10. Use Rowing Motions for Two-Hand Motions: More efficient and less tiring.
11. Pivot Motions About the Elbow: Minimizes motion time and physiological cost.
12. Use the Preferred Hand: Arranging workflow to favor dominant hand efficiency.
13. Keep Arm Motions in Normal Work Area: Avoid long reaches and maintain close proximity.
14. Let the Small Person Reach; Let the Large Person Fit: Ensure designs accommodate the full user spectrum.
Ergonomic Computer Workstations
Proper ergonomic setup of computer workstations is critical to prevent musculoskeletal disorders and enhance comfort
and productivity. Essential steps include:
1. Assess How the Computer Will Be Used: Consider user population and duration of use.
2. Determine the Type of Computer: Desktop or laptop, noting inherent ergonomic challenges.
3. Select Appropriate Furniture: Stable, adjustable work surfaces and keyboard trays.
4. Choose an Ergonomic Chair: Adjustable height, lumbar support, and comfortable seating.
5. Identify the Type of Work: Different tasks prioritize keyboard, mouse, or screen placement.
6. Optimize Visual Arrangement: Monitor centered, at comfortable height, with proper viewing distance and document
holders.
7. Maintain Good Posture: Neutral wrist position, relaxed arms, back support, and straight head and neck.
8. Keep Frequently Used Items Close: Minimize reach and awkward movements.
9. Ensure Good Ergonomic Arrangement: Adjustable trays, wrist rests, and mouse placement.
10. Consider Environmental Factors: Lighting, ventilation, and noise control.
Principles of Physical Workstation Design
Key physical design principles for workstations include:
 Avoid static loads and fixed postures to reduce physiological stress.
 Support limbs appropriately to prevent musculoskeletal pain.
 Use feet as well as hands to enhance control and reduce fatigue.
 Utilize gravity to aid movements and minimize exertion.
 Conserve momentum by avoiding unnecessary motion.
 Use two-handed operations to improve efficiency.
 Furnish all employees with adjustable chairs to accommodate individual needs.
Sound and Noise in the Workplace
Sound is a vibration traveling through a medium that can be pleasant or, when unwanted, considered noise. Noise
pollution is a significant environmental and occupational hazard with sources ranging from industrial machinery to
transportation. Key concepts include:
 Sound Properties: Amplitude (loudness), frequency (pitch), wavelength.
 Measurement: Sound pressure levels measured in decibels (dB), using logarithmic scales.
 Human Ear Anatomy: Outer, middle, and inner ear play roles in hearing and sound processing.
 Health Effects: Noise-induced hearing loss (NIHL), tinnitus, temporary threshold shifts, stress, and reduced
concentration.
 Noise Control: Measurement devices include sound level meters and dosimeters; importance of proper calibration
and environmental controls.
 Noise Mitigation: Use of barriers, absorption materials, and sound masking systems.
Light and Vision
Light is electromagnetic radiation visible to the human eye, essential for vision and work safety. Important aspects
include:
 Eye Anatomy: Cornea, lens, retina, pupil, and associated structures convert light into neural signals.
 Visual Defects: Myopia, hypermetropia, astigmatism affect focus and clarity.
 Lighting Quality: Adequate illumination, uniformity, color rendering index (CRI), and glare control are critical.
 Lighting Types: Incandescent, fluorescent, high-intensity discharge lamps, each with pros and cons.
 Design Considerations: Balance surface luminances, avoid flicker and glare, provide task lighting, and ensure
energy efficiency.
Hand Tools and Devices
Hand tools are common in workplaces but are associated with significant injury risks, including cumulative trauma
disorders (CTDs) such as carpal tunnel syndrome, tenosynovitis, and tennis elbow. Ergonomic principles for hand
tools include:
 Maintain a straight wrist to reduce tendon stress.
 Avoid tissue compression to prevent ischemia and nerve damage.
 Minimize repetitive finger actions to reduce trigger finger risk.
 Design controls for safe operation and accommodate women and left-handers.
 Use handles that distribute pressure evenly, have soft, non-slip surfaces.
 Consider grip size, shape, and force to optimize control and minimize fatigue.
Vibration and Hand-Arm Vibration Syndrome (HAVS)
Exposure to vibration, especially from power tools, leads to disorders such as HAVS, characterized by reduced blood
flow, numbness, and loss of dexterity. Prevention strategies include:
 Selecting low-vibration tools.
 Proper tool maintenance.
 Using vibration-damping gloves.
 Minimizing grip force.
 Alternating tasks to reduce exposure.
 Limiting daily vibration tool use and providing rest breaks.
Manual Material Handling (MMH)
MMH involves lifting, carrying, pushing, and pulling tasks, which are major causes of musculoskeletal injuries.
Assessment and control strategies include:
 Biomechanical Approaches: Analyze forces and joint stresses.
 Physiological Approaches: Consider energy expenditure and cardiovascular stress.
 Psychophysical Approaches: Use worker feedback to determine acceptable load limits.
The NIOSH Lifting Equation provides guidelines to calculate Recommended Weight Limits (RWL) and Lifting Index
(LI) to assess task safety. Factors influencing lifting stress include load position, lifting height, frequency, object
characteristics, and method of lifting.
Job design and worker training can reduce MMH risks by:
 Reducing load weight and frequency.
 Using mechanical aids and team lifting.
 Designing tasks to minimize awkward postures and distances.
 Providing rest breaks and job rotation.
 Training workers on proper lifting techniques.