Engineering Drawing

Drawing
 The graphical representation of any idea or object is called drawing. Drawing can be prepared
either by:
i. Using free hand
ii. Using drawing instruments
iii. Using computer programs
Types of Drawing
There are two types of drawing:
i. Artistic Drawing
ii. Engineering Drawing
Artistic Drawing
 The drawing representing any object or idea which is sketched in free hand using imagination of
artist is called artistic drawing. Proper scaling and dimensioning is not maintained in artistic
drawing. Examples: Paintings, Posters, Arts.
Engineering Drawing
 Engineering Drawing is the Graphical means of expression of technical details without the barrier
of a language that communicates ideas and information from one mind to another. Engineering
Drawing is the Universal Language for Engineers. One picture/drawing is equivalent to several
sentences. Drawings are also necessary for engineering industries since they are required and are
being used at various stages of development of an engineering product. Engineering drawing is
completely different from artistic drawing, which are used to express aesthetic, philosophical, and
abstract ideas.
Difference between Artistic and Engineering Drawing
Artistic Drawing Engineering Drawing
1. Purpose of artistic drawing is to convey 1. Purpose of engineering drawing is to convey
emotion or artistic sensitivity in some way information about engineering object or idea
2. Can be understood by all 2. Need some specific knowledge or training to
understand
3. No special requirement of engineering 3. Engineering drawing instruments are used to
instruments make the drawing precise
4. Scale maintaining is not necessary 4. Scale maintaining is necessary
5. An artistic drawing may not be 5. An engineering drawing must be numerically
numerically specific and informative specific and informative
6. Standard drawing code need not to be 6. Standard drawing code (like ISO, ANSI, JIS,
followed BS etc,) must be followed

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Objectives of Engineering Drawing
Objectives of Drawing are as follows:
 To achieve the geometric form of the design
 To communicate ideas between designers and manufacturing personnel
 To act as an analysis tool, missing dimensions and tolerances are calculated on the drawing as it is
developed
 To simulate the design
 To act as an extension of the designer's short term memory, designers often unconsciously make
sketches to help them remember ideas that they might otherwise forget
Applications of Engineering Drawing
Applications of Engineering Drawing are as follows:
 It is used in ship for navigation
 For manufacturing of machines, automobiles etc.
 For construction of buildings, roads, bridges, dams, electrical and telecommunication
structures etc.
 For manufacturing of electrical appliances like TV, Phone, Computers etc.

Types of Engineering Drawing

1. Geometrical Drawing
 The art of representing geometric objects such as rectangles, squares, cubes, cones, cylinders,
spheres etc. on a paper is called geometric drawing
a) Plane Geometrical Drawing
o If the object has only 2 dimensions i.e. length and breadth, it is called Plane geometrical
drawing. Examples: Rectangles, Squares, Triangles etc.
b) Sold Geometrical Drawing
o If the object has 3 dimensions i.e. length, breadth and thickness/depth, it is called Solid
geometrical drawing. Examples: Cube, Sphere, Prism, Cylinder etc.
2. Mechanical Engineering Drawing
 The art of representing mechanical engineering objects such as machines, machine parts etc.
on a paper are called mechanical engineering drawing or machine drawing. It is used by
mechanical engineers to express mechanical engineering works and projects for actual
execution
3. Civil Engineering Drawing
 The art of representing civil engineering objects such as buildings, roads, bridges, dams etc. on
a paper are called civil engineering drawing. It is used by civil engineers to express civil
engineering works and projects for actual execution
 There are two types of Civil Engineering Drawing:
i. Architectural Drawing
a) Plan
 It shows the position of different objects and elements of the structure in a two
dimensional view. Only length and width of objects are shown here.

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 b) Elevation and Section
 It shows a view along the height of structure. In elevation view either height and
length or height and width are shown
ii. Structural Drawing
 It shows the detail requirement of reinforcement and their arrangement in structure.
It also shows the specification and properties of construction materials like
concrete, steel, timber etc.
4. Electrical & Electronics Engineering Drawing
 The art of representing electrical engineering objects such as motors, generators, transformers,
wiring diagrams etc. on a paper are called electrical engineering drawing. It is used by electrical
engineers to express electrical engineering works and projects for actual execution. The art of
representing electronic circuits of TV, Phones, computers etc. on a paper are called electronic
engineering drawing or electronic drawing. It is used by electronic engineers to express
electronic engineering works and projects for actual execution

Elements of Engineering Drawing

Figure 1: Elements of Engineering Drawing

Drawing Standards
 There are some drawing standards or drawing codes that accumulates the rules of engineering
drawing for a certain region. Well known drawing codes and their application region is expressed
below:
S.N. Country/Region Code/Standard Full Meaning
1 Worldwide ISO International Organization for
Standardization
2 USA ANSI American National Standards Institute
3 Japan JIS Japanese Industrial Standards
4 UK BS British Standards
5 India BIS Bureau of Indian Standards

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In Nepal, it is usual practice to follow ISO standards. However, in some stances ANSI, BS, BIS are
also followed.
Drawing Instruments and Accessories/ Drafting Tools and Equipments
Following instruments and accessories are required to have perfection in manual drawing:
1. Drawing Board
 Drawing board is made of soft woods. Almost perfect planning of the working surface of the
drawing board is to be ensured.
 A strip of hard ebony edge is fitted in a groove on the shorter edge of the board and perfectly
lined to provide the guide for the T-square.
 The main parts of drawing board are working surface, battens, strips and ebony working edge.
Designation Length × Thickness Recommended
Width (mm) (mm) for use with
sheet sizes
D0 1500 × 1000 25 A0
D1 1000 × 700 25 A1
D2 700 × 500 15 A2
D3 500 × 350 15 A3

Table 1: Standard Drawing Board Sizes

2. Drawing Sheet
 Drawing sheet is the medium on which drawings are prepared by means of pencils or pen.
Drawing sheets are available in standard sizes. A standard A0 size sheet is the one with an area
of 1 m2 and having dimensions of 841 x 1189. Each higher number sheet (A1, A2, A3, etc. in
order) is half the size of the immediately lower numbered sheet. The sides of each size drawing
sheet being in the ration of 1: √2.

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3. Mini Drafter
 This is a device used to draw horizontal, vertical and inclined lines very effectively. This is
mounted on the top left corner of the drawing board by means of a clamping mechanism which
is an integral part of the device. An L-shaped scale which is graduated in millimeters acts as
the working edge of the mini-drafter. The L-Shaped scale also has a degree scale for angle
measurement. The working edge can be moved to any desired location on the drawing board.

Figure 3: Mini Drafter

4. T-Square
 It is made of hard wood, plastic or celluloid. It has mainly two parts Stock and Blade. The stock
is used to move the T-square along the working face of drawing board. T-square is used to
draw horizontal lines as well as base for set square. Stock of T-square makes an angle 90 degree
with working edge (blade). Stock and the blade which are joined together at a right angle to
each other by means of screws.

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 Figure 4: T-Square

S.N. Designation Length of working edge (mm)

1 T0 1500 ± 10
2 T1 1000 ± 10
3 T2 700 ± 5
4 T3 500 ± 5
Table 2: T-Square Standard Sizes

5. Set Squares
 Set squares are a set of 45° set square and 30°-60° set-square. They are used in conjunction
with each other and with T-square to draw vertical and inclined lines. The 45° set square
generally has a protractor whereas the 30°-60° set-square includes French curves. All the
angles of multiple of 15° can be drawn from set squares and their combination.

Figure 5: Set Squares

6. Compasses
 These are used to draw arcs or circles. Each compass consists of a needle point and a pencil
point. Generally, needle point is larger than pencil point.
 Lengthening bars are used to draw very large circles, bow compass are used to draw small
circles and drop compass are used to draw very small circles.

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 Figure 6: Compass

7. Divider
 Dividers are used to transfer lengths to the drawings either from scales or from the drawing
itself.

Figure 7: Divider

8. Pencils/lead sticks/Pencil sharpener/eraser etc.

 The primary tool used in technical drawings is the pencil or lead sticks. Generally, for technical
drawings, the three grades of pencil used is HB, H and 2H. H stands for hardness and B stands
for Blackness. Pencil sharpener is used to mend the pencils. Eraser is used to erase the
unnecessary part of the pencil drawing

Figure 8: Pencil Grades

9. French Curves/Flexible Curves

 French curve is free form template make of acrylic and is used to draw a smooth curve passing
through a number of points. The outer profile of the French curve is adjusted such the smooth

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 curve passes through more than three points and a curve passing through these points are
drawn. The next part of the curve is then drawn by using the next three points in addition to
the last two points of the previous curve.
 A flexible curve consists of a flexible, generally made of metallic wire coated with a thick
rubber material. This can be bend in to any shape so that its working edge can be matched with
a number of points and a smooth curve can be drawn.

Figure 9: French curve

10. Protractor
 It is used to locate out and measuring angles.

Figure 10: Protractor

11. Scotch Tape or Drawing Pin
 Transparent tape is used to stick the drawing sheet on the drawing board, which is known as
scotch tape. This tape is applied at the corners of the sheet. Drawing pins can also be used for
fixing the drawing sheet but they are usually not preferred.

Drawing Sheet and Its Essential Components

 Every engineering drawing has to follow standard format. The drawing sheet consist of drawing
space, title block and sufficient margins. After fixing the drawing sheet on the drawing board,
margins should be drawn. The layout should facilitate quick reading of important particulars.
Drawing sheet consists of the following essential components as shown in below figure:

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 Figure 11: Drawing Sheet Layout

a) Boarders
 Space left all around in between the trimmed edges of the sheet. A minimum of 10 mm, ISO
Standard. Margin/Border of paper can be increased according to requirements and setting of
printer/plotter.
b) Filling Margin
 20 mm minimum on left hand side with border included. This is provided for taking
perforations.
c) Grid Reference System
 Used in all sizes of drawing sheets for easy location of drawing within the frame. The length
and the width of the frames are divided into even number of divisions. The length of the
grids lies between 25 mm to 75mm depending on the Drawing sheet size. The grids along
vertical edges are named by capital letters whereas grids along the horizontal edges are by
numerals. Numbering and lettering start from the corner of the sheet opposite to the title box
and are repeated on the opposite sides. Repetition of letters or numbers like AA, BB, etc. are
practiced in case they exceed that of the alphabets.
d) Title Box
 The title box is drawn at the bottom right hand corner of every drawing sheet and provides
technical and administrative details regarding the drawing/component. Title block contains
Name of the company, Title of drawing, drawing number, sheet number, date, symbol of
projection method, scale of drawing, initials with date and person who have drawn, checked
and approved the drawing. Though there are various dimensions for the title box, ISO
recommended size of title box are 180 mm x 27 mm and 180 mm x 36 mm. Generally used
size of title block is 180 mm x 65 mm.
Lettering

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 Lettering is used for writing of titles, sub-titles, dimensions, scales and other details on a drawing
Heights of Letters and Numerals
 Height of the capital letters is equal to the height of the numerals used in dimensioning.
Generally, there are two types of letter: vertical and inclined. Vertical letters are written at 90
degrees whereas inclined letters are written at 75 degrees to the horizontal.
 Generally, thickness of letters is 0.1 times the height of capital letter, space between characters is
0.2 times the height of capital letter, space between words is 0.6 times height of capital letter and
height of lowercase letters is 0.7 times the height of capital letters.
 Height of letters and numerals – different for different purposes
S. No. Particulars Size (mm)
1 Name of the company 14, 20
2 Drawing numbers, letters denoting section planes 10, 14
3 Title of the drawing 7, 10
4 Sub-titles and heading 5, 7
5 Dimensioning, notes, schedules and material lists 3.5, 5
6 Tolerances, alterations entries 3.5

Table 3: The Letter Sizes Recommended for Various Items

Proportion of Height and Width according to ISO

a) For A, M, O, Q, T, V, X, and Y, Height = Width
b) For, W, Height < Width
c) For other letters, Height > Width
d) For all numbers, Height > Width

Multiple Choice Questions

1. The mini drafter serves the purpose of d) 270°
everything except
3. With the combination of Set-square, the
a) Scales following angles can be drawn except
b) Set square
a) 15°
c) Protractor
b) 25°
d) Compass c) 45°
2. During operation, the two arms of the d) 105
drafter remain at
4. The designation of sheet of size 594 x 841
a) 45° is
b) 90° a) A0
c) 180°
b) A1

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 c) A2 d) Drawing number
d) A3
12. An assembly drawing normally consists of
5. Which of the following is softest pencil? all of the following pieces, except:
a) Parts drawn on their operating
a) 2B
positions
b) 1B
b) Detail number of parts
c) HB
d) H c) Engineering change orders
d) Bill of materials
6. Which of the following is the lightest
13. An engineering change note would be
pencil?
placed:
a) 2B
a) With the other notes in the drawing area
b) 1B
b) On sheet attached to the detail drawing
c) HB
c) In the bill of materials
d) H
d) In the revision book
7. Which of the following is not used to fix
14. What information should be available in
drawing sheet on the board?
engineering drawing?
a) Drawing pins
a) Shape of an object
b) Adhesive tapes
b) Exact Sizes and tolerances of various
c) Clips
parts of the object
d) Thread
c) Name of the company
8. The main ingredients of pencil leads are d) All of the above
a) Graphite and Clay
15. Size of the D1 drawing board is
b) Lead and Graphite
a) 1500 × 1000
c) Clay and Lead
b) 1000 × 700
d) None of these
c) 700 × 500
9. Which set of lead grades has a grade out of d) 500 × 500
sequence? 16. Recommended paper size to be used in D0
a) H, HB, B, 3B type of drawing board is
b) 7B, H, F, 3H a) A0
c) 6B, B, H, 4H b) A1
d) 9H, HB, B, 2B c) A2
10. Which angle cannot be made with either a d) A3
45 or 30/60 triangle or a combination of the 17. Which of the following is the component of
two? drawing sheet?
a) 90 a) Borders
b) 70 b) Filling margins
c) 30 c) Title box
d) 15 d) All of the above
11. A title block contains all of the following
18. Generally, height of letters in drawing sheet
information, except:
is
a) Name and address of company
a) 2.5 mm
b) Parts list
c) Scale of the drawing b) 3.5 mm

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 c) 4.5 mm 20. The following is not included in title block
d) 5.5 mm of drawing sheet
a) Sheet Number
19. Drawing helps in
b) Scale
a) Idea communication
c) Method of Projection
b) Cost estimation
c) Preparing bill of quantities d) Size of sheet
d) All of the above
21. Which of the following pencil grade is used in general for lettering and object lines?
a) F c) B
b) H d) 4H
22. In the manual drawing, which instrument is used to draw smooth curve passing through defined
points?
a) Drafter c) French curve
b) Compass d) Drawing templates
23. Which part of the drawing board guides the T-square?
a) Bottom the board c) Ebony working edge
b) Working surface d) Above the board
24. Which of the following instrument is used to draw circles with more than 150 mm radius
accurately?
a) Compass c) Lengthening bar
b) Small bow compass d) Big bow compass
25. For drawing arcs of radius less than 25mm, which of the following instrument is used?
a) Compass c) Big bow compass
b) Small bow compass d) Lengthening bar
26. Keeping one leg of the compass straight what is the maximum diameter of the circle that can be
drawn?
a) 100 mm c) 300 mm
b) 120 mm d) 360 mm
27. Which of the following instrument is used to draw horizontal lines?
a) Mini drafter c) Protractor
b) T-square d) French curves
28. Which of the following instrument can be used to draw accurate perpendicular lines, parallel lines
and angular lines?
a) Mini drafter c) Protractor
b) T-square d) French curves
29. Which of the following instrument is made of thin strips of wood arranged in a line to form a
rectangle and on which the drawing is made?
a) Mini drafter c) Protractor
b) Drawing board d) Scale
30. Which of the following drawing tool is used by architects for making blueprints?
a) Drawing pencils c) Ink pen
b) Dusters d) Erasers
31. Which of the following drawing tool is used to transfer dimensions when there is repetition of the
dimensions?
a) Compass c) Mini-drafter
b) Protractor d) Divider
32. The part that does not belong to the T-square is

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 a) Working edge c) Stock
b) Blade d) Ebony
33. ……… is used to draw curves which are not circular.
a) Compass c) French curves
b) Protractor d) Mini drafter
34. Which face of the drawing paper should be used in standard drawing?
a) Smooth face c) Both faces are acceptable
b) Rough face d) None of the above
35. During drawing, stock of T-square is placed
a) Adjoining the working edge of the c) Surface of the board
board d) None of the above
b) Adjoining the sliding edge of the board

Drafting Techniques, Methods, Conventions and Symbols

Lines
 Lines is one important aspect of technical drawing/drafting. Various types of lines are used to
construct drawing, each line used in some specific sense. A line may be curved, straight,
continuous, segmented. It may be drawn as thin or thick.
Name of line Appearance Use Feature
type
Visible Line/ To indicate all visible Thick and continuous
Object Line outlines/boundaries of an
object.
Hidden line/ To represent hidden edge of Thin and broken
Dashed line an object
Center line To show center of circle, Thin and chain
arcs and the line passing
through center of hole
Dimension To dimension drawing of an Thin and continuous
line object with arrowhead at ends
Extension line To dimension drawing of an Thin and continuous
object
Cutting plane Thick broken with
line perpendicular
To show imaginary cutting
arrowheads
of an object
ISO cutting Thick chain with
plane line arrowheads
Section lines To show cut portion of an Thin continuous,
object usually inclined at 45
degrees

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 Long break Thin continuous with
line zigzag
To break an object in order
Short break to shorten the view Thick continuous and
line freehand

Construction Used as auxiliary lines to Very thin and

line complete any geometric continuous
construction
Projection line To project or any features Very thin and
from one view to another continuous
Phantom line To show alternate position Thin
of an object

Pencil Uses Guidelines for Various Lines

Line Strokes
 Line strokes refer to the directions of drawing straight or curved lines. Vertical and inclined lines
are drawn from top to bottom, horizontal lines are drawn from left to right and curved lines are
drawn from left to right or top to bottom.

Conventions Used in Lines

 International systems of units (SI) – which is based on the meter
 Millimeter (mm) - The common SI unit of measure on engineering drawing
 Individual identification of linear units is not required if all dimensions on a drawing are in the
same unit (mm)
 The drawing should contain a note: ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN MM (Bottom left corner
outside the title box)

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Texture of Different Materials in Drafting

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Symbols for Various Features

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Dimensioning
The size information of an object is expressed by means of dimensioning in a drawing.
These dimensions indicated should be those that are essential for the production, inspection and
functioning of the object.
The dimensions are written either above the dimension lines or inserted at the middle by breaking
the dimension lines.
Normally, two types of dimensioning system exist. i.e. Unidirectional system and the Aligned
system
i. Unidirectional System
 The dimensions are so oriented such that they can be read from the bottom of the drawing.
It is also known as horizontal system. This system is preferred to aligned system
ii. Aligned System
 All the dimensions are oriented to be read from the bottom or right side of the drawing. In
the aligned system the dimensions are placed perpendicular to the dimension line.

Figure: (a) Unidirectional System (b) Aligned System of Dimensioning

Rules to be followed in dimensioning

 Each feature is dimensioned and positioned only once
 Each feature is dimensioned and positioned where its shape shows
 Size dimensions – give the size of the component
 Every solid has three dimensions, each of the geometric shapes making up the object must have
its height, width, and depth indicated in the dimensioning
 A gap of 1mm has to be kept between extension line and visible line
 An extension line should be extended about 3mm from the outmost dimension line
 Extension lines may cross each other without break

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 Center lines can be used as extension lines
 Extension lines are drawn usually perpendicular to dimension lines
 Dimensioning consists of the following:
a) Dimension lines
b) Dimension lines should be placed at least 10 mm away from the outline
c) Other parallel dimensions should be at least 6 mm apart, or more, if space permits
 The important elements of dimensioning consist of extension lines, leader line, arrows and
dimensions
a) Extension Line
 A thin, solid line perpendicular to a dimension line, indicating which feature is
associated with the dimension. There should be a visible gap of 1 mm between the
feature’s corners and the end of the extension line.
b) Leader Line
 Leaders are used in engineering drawing for dimensioning of arcs, circles etc. They are
also used to present note, symbols, item number or part number etc. A leader should
be terminated by either an arrowhead or a small dot of about 1.5mm diameter. Leaders
should not be drawn bent unless necessary. Leaders should not cross each other. All
notes, symbols and dimensions in a leader need to be provided in horizontal direction.

Figure 6: Leaders
c) Dimension Line
 A thin, solid line that shows the extent and direction of a dimension, dimension lines
are broken for insertion of the dimension numbers

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 Figure: Dimension Line Types Figure: Arrowhead

d) Arrows
 3 mm long and should be 1/3rd as wide as they are long - symbols placed at the end
of dimension lines to show the limits of the dimension. Arrows are uniform in size
and style, regardless of the size of the drawing.
Scales
There is a wide variation in sizes for engineering objects, some are very large and some are very
small.
There is a need to reduce or enlarge while drawing the objects on paper.
The proportion by which the drawing of an object is enlarged or reduced is called the scale of the
drawing.
A scale is defined as the ratio of the linear dimensions of the object as represented in a drawing to
the actual dimensions of the same.
Drawings drawn with the same size as the objects are called full sized drawing
It is not convenient, always, to draw drawings of the object to its actual size such as Buildings,
Heavy machines, Bridges, Watches, Electronic devices etc.
Hence scales are used to prepare drawing at
a) Full size
b) Reduced size
c) Enlarged size
Reducing scales 1:2 1:5 1:10
1: Y (Y>1) 1:20 1:50 1:100
1:200 1:500 1:1000
1:2000 1:5000 1:10000
Enlarging scales 2:1 5:1 10:1
Y: 1 (Y>1) 20:1 50:1 100:1
200:1 500:1 1000:1
2000:1 5000:1 10000:1

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 Full size scales 1:1

Representative Fraction (R.F.) or Scale Factor (S.F.)

 The ratio of the length of the drawing to the corresponding actual length of the object is known as
the representative fraction (R.F.) or the scale factor (S.F.). It is to be remembered that for finding
RF the distances used for calculation must be in same unit. Being a ratio of same units, R.F. itself
has no unit
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑅. 𝐹. =
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡
When 1 cm long line in drawing represents 1 m length of the object,
1 𝑐𝑚 1
𝑅. 𝐹. = =
1 ∗ 100 𝑐𝑚 100
Length of Scale = R.F. × Maximum length to be measured
Representative Fraction can also be represented as,

2 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝐷𝑟𝑎𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑅. 𝐹. = √
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎

For full sized scale, R. F. = 1

For reducing scale, R. F. is less than 1.
For enlarging scale, R. F. is greater than 1.
Polygon
(𝑛−2)∗180
i. Magnitude of any internal angle = 𝑛
, Here, n = number of sides
𝑛(𝑛−3)
ii. Number of diagonals = 2
, Here, n = Number of sides

Polygon Names
S.N. Number of Sides Name of the Polygon
1 Three Trigon or Triangle
2 Four Tetragon or Quadrilateral
3 Five Pentagon
4 Six Hexagon
5 Seven Heptagon
6 Eight Octagon
7 Nine Nonagon or Enneagon
8 Ten Decagon
9 Eleven Hendecagon
10 Twelve Dodecagon

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 11 Thirteen Triskaidecagon
12 Fourteen Tetrakaidecagon
13 Fifteen Pentadecagon
14 Sixteen Hexadecagon
15 Seventeen Heptadecagon
16 Eighteen Octadecagon
17 Nineteen Enneadecagon
18 Twenty Icosagon

Multiple Choice Questions

1. Which type of line is part of dimension a) 1:1
line? b) 1:2
a) Break lines c) 2:1
b) Phantom lines d) None of the above
c) Extension lines 7. Which of the following is full size scale?
d) Cutting plane lines
a) 1:1
2. Which type of line is particular to section b) 1:2
drawing? c) 2:1
a) Break lines d) None of the above
b) Phantom lines
8. Which of the following is enlarging scale?
c) Extension lines
a) 1:1
d) Cutting plane lines b) 1:2
3. Which line type is thin and light? c) 2:1
a) Visible lines d) None of the above
b) Center lines
9. The following line is used for visible
c) Construction lines outlines.
d) All of the above
a) Continuous thick
4. Which line type is thick and black? b) Continuous thin
a) Visible lines c) Chain thin line
b) Center lines d) Short zigzag thin
c) Construction lines
10. The following line is used for dimension
d) All of the above
line.
5. Another name of a cube is a a) Continuous thick
a) Hexahedron b) Continuous thin
b) Tetrahedron c) Chain thin line
c) Octahedron d) Short zigzag thin
d) None of the above
11. The dotted line represents
6. Which of the following represents a) Hidden
reducing scale? b) Projection

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 c) Center d) Cylinder
d) Hatching
19. A tetrahedron has four equal ____ faces
12. Hatching lines are drawn at ___ degree to a) Square
reference line b) Rectangular
a) 30 c) Triangular
b) 45 d) None of the above
c) 60
20. The following is formed by revolving
d) 90
rectangle about one of its sides which
13. In aligned system of dimensioning, the remains fixed
dimensions may be read from a) Cylinder
a) Bottom or right hand edges b) Sphere
b) Bottom or left hand edges c) Hemi sphere
c) Only from bottom d) Cone
d) Only from left side
21. When drawings are drawn smaller than the
14. The internal angle of regular pentagon is actual size of the objects the scale used is
___ degree. said to be_________
a) 72 a) Enlarging scale
b) 108 b) Reducing scale
c) 120 c) Small scale
d) 150 d) Decreasing scale
15. The internal angle of regular hexagon is 22. When drawings are drawn larger than the
___ degree. actual size of the objects the scale used is
a) 72 said to be_________
b) 108 a) Enlarging scale
c) 120 b) Reducing scale
d) 150 c) Small scale
d) Decreasing scale
16. The Length to Width ratio in case of an
arrow head is 23. Which of the following is not a line
a) 1:1 segment?
b) 2:1 a) Bamboo
c) 3:1 b) Ruler
d) 4:1 c) Laser beam
17. The following are the Polyhedron except d) Pencil
a) Prism 24. The drawing for municipality is drawn at
b) Pyramid scale
c) Cube a) 1” = 8’
d) Cylinder b) 1:50
18. The following are the Solids of revolution c) 1:100
except d) Both (a) and (c)
a) Prism 25. The shape of scales is
b) Sphere a) Flat and triangular
c) Cone b) Flat and rectangular

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 c) Flat and square d) All of the above

Projection and Working Drawing

Projection
 In engineering, 3-dimensonal objects and structures are represented graphically on a 2-dimensional
media. The act of obtaining image of an object is known as “Projection”. The image obtained by
projection is known as “View”. A simple projection system is shown in figure below:

Figure 2: A Simple Projection System

 All projection theory are based on two variables:

1. Line of sight/projector
o The lines or rays drawn from the observer to object and to the plane are called line of
sight/projectors
2. Plane of Projection
o A plane of projection (i.e, an image or picture plane) is an imaginary flat plane upon
which the image created by the line of sight is projected. The image is produced by
connecting the points where the lines of sight pierce the projection plane. In effect, 3-
D object is transformed into a 2-D representation, also called projections.
Projection Techniques
 There are generally two types of projection techniques:
1. Parallel
2. Perspective
 In parallel projection, all lines of sight are parallel and the observer is assumed to be stationed
at infinite distance from the object. In most of the cases parallel projection technique is used.
In perspective technique of projection, the observer is assumed to be stationed at finite distance
from the object. The height of the object appears to be reducing as we move away from the
observer. In perspective technique, all lines of sight start at a single point

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 Figure 3: (a) Parallel Projection (b) Prospective Projection

Parallel Vs Perspective Projection

Parallel Projection
 Distance from the observer to the object is infinite
 Projection lines are parallel
 Object is positioned at infinity
Perspective Projection
 Distance from the observer to the object is finite and object is viewed from a single point
 Projectors are not parallel
 Perspective projection technique mimic what the human eyes see, however, they are difficult
to draw
Types of Projection
 There are generally four types of projection:
1. Orthographic/Multi-view Projection
2. Axonometric Projection
3. Oblique Projection
4. Perspective Projection
1. Orthographic/Multi-view Projection
 'ORTHO' means right angle and orthographic means right angled drawing. When the projectors
are perpendicular to the plane on which the projection is obtained, it is known as orthographic
projection. Following six views are possible in orthographic projection of a solid object
a) Top view
b) Front view
c) Left view
d) Right view
e) Rear view
f) Bottom view

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 Figure 4: Viewing the Object from all Six Sides

2. Axonometric Projection
 It is special type of orthographic projection.
 It is a pictorial projection. The Projections in which the description of the object is completely
understood in one view is known as pictorial projection. They have the advantage of conveying
an immediate impression of the general shape and details of the object, but not its true
dimensions or sizes.
 Axonometric projection is a type of parallel pictorial projection in which an object appears to
be rotated to show its all three dimensions. Axonometric projections are generally three types:

Figure 5: Axonometric Projections

i. Isometric Projection
o In isometric projection, all three angles are equal and all three corners are also equal.
The lengths of the projected lines are equal to the cosine of 35° 16’, or 0.8165 times
the true length. A drawing produced using a scale of 0.8165 is called an isometric
projection and is a true representation of the object.
o As shown in figure below, isometric scale is produced by positioning a regular scale at
45 ° to the horizontal and projecting lines vertically to a 30° line

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 Figure 6: Illustration of Construction of Isometric Scale

𝐼𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝐶𝑜𝑠45°

𝐼𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 = = = 0.8165
𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝐶𝑜𝑠30°
Isometric Length = 82 % of true length (approximately)
Isometric Views of Some of Standard Shapes
 Square appears as rhombus in isometric view.
 A rectangle appears as a parallelogram in isometric view.
 The isometric view or isometric projection of a circle is an ellipse.
 Equilateral triangle appears as scalene triangle in isometric view.
 Isometric view of sphere is circle.
3. Oblique Projection
 It is a type of parallel pictorial projection in which projectors are parallel to each other but they
are not perpendicular to the picture plane. The angle is usually kept 15-45 degree. Mostly used
angle is 45 degree
 Oblique projection may be of two types:
i. Cavalier Projection
ii. Cabinet Projection
i. Cavalier Projection
 In this case, the dimensions along all the axes are plotted in full scale
ii. Cabinet Projection
 In this case, the dimensions along the diagonal axis are plotted by reducing it to half of
the actual value. Dimensions along other axes are plotted in full scale.

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 Figure 7: Oblique Projection

4. Perspective Projection
 It is a type of pictorial projection in which projectors are not parallel to each other and they
occur at an angle to the picture plane in such a way that they converge to a point as if an
observer sees the view on the picture plane from that point.
 In case of perspective projection observer is considered to be at finite distance where in case
of any other type of projection observer is considered to be at infinity.

Figure 8: Perspective Projection

Projection Methods
 There are two methods of projection
1. First Angle Projection
2. Third Angle Projection
In orthographic projection of First and Third angle,

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 Frontal plane is also called vertical plane
 Front view is drawn in vertical plane
 Top view is drawn in horizontal plane
 Side views are drawn in profile plane
Above three types of planes are called principal planes and the view drawn on these planes are called
principal views.

Figure 9: Principle Planes and Quadrants

1. First Angle Projection

In first angle projection, object is assumed to be placed in first quadrant. The object is assumed to
be placed in between the observer and plane of projection. The views are obtained by projecting
the images on the respective planes. Note that the right side view is projected on the plane placed
left to the object. After projecting on to the respective planes, the left plane is unfolded towards the
left side to obtain the right side view on the left side of the front view. The bottom plane is unfolded
towards the bottom to obtain the top view below the front view and aligned with the front view.

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2. Third Angle Projection
In the third angle projection, the object is assumed to be placed in third quadrant i.e. the object is
placed behind the vertical plane and below the horizontal plane. In third angle projection plane of
projection is assumed to be placed between observer and object.

Differences between First Angle and Third Angle Projection

First Angle Projection Third Angle Projection
1. Object is assumed to be placed in first 1. Object is assumed to be placed in third
quadrant. quadrant.
2. Object lies between observer and plane of 2. Plane of projection lies between the object
projection. and observer.
3. Plane of projection is assumed to non- 3. plane of projection is assumed to be
transparent. transparent.
4. Front view is drawn above XX line and top 4. Front view is drawn below XX line and top
view is drawn below XX line. view is drawn above XX line.

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 5. Left side view is drawn in right profile plane 5. Left side view is drawn in left profile plane
and the right side view is drawn in the left and right side view is drawn in right plane.
side plane.
Symbol of Projection
The type of projection obtained should be indicated symbolically in the space provided for the
purpose in the title box of the drawing sheet. The symbol is to draw front view and side view of the
frustum of a cone placed with its axis horizontal. The symbol for first angle and third angle
projection are given below:

When orthographic projection of right circular cylinder is done, front view and side view are
obtained as rectangles and the top view is circle.
When orthographic projection of sphere is done, sphere appears as circle in every view whatever
be its position and orientation.
When orthographic projection of right cube is done; front, side and top views are obtained as
square.
When projection of right circular cone is done; front and side view appears as isosceles triangle
and top view appears as circle.

Multiple Choice Questions

1. The straight lines which are drawn from b) Two views
various points on the contour of an object
c) Three views
to meet a plane are called as _________
a) Connecting lines d) Four views
b) Projectors
3. In orthographic projection, each projection
c) Perpendicular lines
view represents how many dimensions of an
d) Hidden lines
object?
2. In the Oblique projection an object is
a) 1
represented by how many views?
b) 2
a) One view
c) 3

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 d) 0 b) Top view
4. When the projectors are parallel to each c) Side view
other and also perpendicular to the plane, the
d) View at 45 degrees perpendicular to
projection is called
horizontal plane
___________________________
8. If isometric projection of an object is drawn
a) Perspective projection
with true lengths the shape would be same and
b) Oblique projection size is how much larger than actual isometric
projection?
c) Isometric projection
a) 25%
d) Orthographic projection
b) 29.5%
4. The object we see in our surrounding
usually without drawing came under which c) 22.5%
projection?
d) 33.3%
a) Perspective projection
9. If an isometric projection is drawn with true
b) Oblique projection measurements but not with isometric scale
then the drawings are called ____________
c) Isometric projection
a) Isometric projection
d) Orthographic projection
5. In orthographic projection an object is b) Isometric view/drawing
represented by two or three views on different c) Isometric perception
planes which _________________
d) Orthographic view
a) Gives views from different angles from
10. If an isometric drawing is made with use
different directions
of isometric scale then the drawings are called
b) Are mutually perpendicular projection ___________
planes
a) Isometric projection
c) Are parallel along one direction but at
b) Isometric view
different cross-section
c) Isometric perception
d) Are obtained by taking prints from 2 or 3
sides of object d) Orthographic view
6. The front view of an object is shown on 11. The angle between the isometric axes is
which plane? __________
a) Profile plane a) 180 degrees
b) Vertical plane b) 60 degrees
c) Horizontal plane c) 90 degrees
d) Parallel plane d) 120 degrees
7. What is additional 3rd view on orthographic 12. The value of the ratio of isometric length
projection in general for simple objects? to true length is ________
a) Front view a) 0.141

By: Er. Manoj Dangal Apex Educational Academy 31|P a g e

 b) 0.372 c) Parallel to each other and inclined to
projection plane
c) 0.815
d) Not parallel to each other and inclined to
d) 0.642
projection plane
13. The length in isometric drawing of line is
18. Lines of sights (projectors) for
20 cm. What is the true length of it?
orthographic projection will be
a) 24.53 cm ______________
b) 15.46 cm a) Parallel to each other and
c) 19.31 cm perpendicular to projection plane

d) 23.09 cm b) Not parallel to each other and

perpendicular to projection plane
14. Isometric view of cube is drawn the angle
between the edge of cube and horizontal will c) Parallel to each other and inclined to
be______ projection plane

a) 15 degrees d) Not parallel to each other and inclined to

projection plane
b) 120 degrees
19. Which are not usually used as angle
c) 45 degrees between the projection plane and receding
d) 30 degrees lines for oblique projection?
15. Isometric view of cube is drawn and faces a) 30 degrees
of cube are seen as ___________ b) 50 degrees
a) Square c) 45 degrees
b) Rectangle d) 60 degree
c) Rhombus 20. In oblique projection, the object is
d) Parallelogram assumed to be placed with one face
_______________
16. Isometric view of equilateral triangle will
be _____________ a) Parallel to plane of projection
a) Equilateral triangle b) Parallel to adjacent edge
b) Scalene triangle c) Perpendicular to plane of projection
c) Isosceles triangle d) Perpendicular to adjacent edge
d) Right angled triangle 21. When the receding lines are drawn to full
size scale then the oblique projection is
17. Lines of sights (projectors) for oblique
___________
projection will be ______________
a) Cabinet projection
a) Parallel to each other and perpendicular
to projection plane b) Isometric projection
b) Not parallel to each other and c) Orthographic projection
perpendicular to projection plane d) Cavalier projection

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22. When the receding lines are drawn to half b) Not parallel, inclined
size scale then the oblique projection is
c) Parallel, inclined
__________
d) Not parallel, perpendicular
a) Cabinet projection
28. Axonometric projection is a special type of
b) Isometric projection a) Orthographic projection
c) Orthographic projection b) Perspective projection
c) Isometric projection
d) Cavalier projection d) Multi-view projection
23. Which of the following statement is wrong 29. In orthographic projection of third angle
in case of oblique projection? type, picture plane is
a) Transparent
a) The object is drawn with the reduced b) Opaque
dimensions c) Semi-transparent
b) Projectors are parallel to each other and d) All of the above
30. Which is not pictorial projection
inclined to projection plane
a) Oblique
c) The choice of the position of the object b) Orthographic
depends upon the shape and size c) Trigonometric
d) Perspective
d) The faces of object which are 31. First angle and third angle projection
perpendicular to the plane of projection will methods are used in
be distorted a) Axonometric views
25. The faces parallel to projection plane are b) Isometric views
having ________ size and shape in oblique c) Orthographic views
d) None of the above
projection.
32. In first angle projection, object is assumed
a) Actual to be placed in
a) First quadrant
b) Double b) Second quadrant
c) Half c) Third quadrant
d) Fourth quadrant
d) Increased 33. Orthographic projection of cube is done;
26. In cavalier projection the receding lines front, top and side views are seen as:
are drawn _________ a) Square
b) Rhombus
a) Half of its actual size c) Rhomboid
b) Double of its actual size d) Rectangle
34. Isometric drawing of a sphere is
c) Full size a) Ellipse
d) Increased or decreased to a particular b) Circle
c) Parabola
ratio
d) Sphere
27. In perspective projection the projectors are 35. In perspective drawings this is placed
_________ to each other and ________ to between the observer and the object:
picture plane. a) Vanishing point / horizon
b) Station point
a) Parallel, perpendicular c) Ground line

By: Er. Manoj Dangal Apex Educational Academy 33|P a g e

 d) Plane of projection / picture plane 44. The hidden parts inside or back side of
36. Perspective drawings are classified object while represented in orthographic
according to their number of these features: projection are represented by which line?
a) Station points a) Continuous thick line
b) Picture planes b) Continuous thin line
c) Vanishing points c) Dashed thin line
d) Ground lines d) Long-break line
37. Two-point perspective is also known as: 45. The Top view of an object is shown on
a) Two-view perspective which plane?
b) Regular perspective a) Profile plane
c) Parallel perspective b) Vertical plane
d) Angular perspective c) Horizontal plane
38. In developing a multi-view drawing the d) Parallel plane
drafter can use a ________ line to help 46. The side view of an object is shown on
locate the top and right side views. which plane?
a) Object a) Profile plane
b) Hidden b) Vertical plane
c) Dimension c) Horizontal plane
d) Miter d) Parallel plane
39. The two ways of drawing orthographic 47. In perspective projection, the eye is
projection are assumed to be situated at a _______
a) First angle, second angle position relative to the object. The ______
b) First angle, third angle is placed between ____ and the _________
c) Second angle, third angle a) Definite, picture plane, eye, object
d) Second angle, fourth angle b) Indefinite, object, eye, picture plane
40. Projection line is c) Indefinite, picture plane, eye, object
a) Continuous thick line d) Indefinite, object, picture plane, eye
b) Continuous thin line 48. A point ‘P’ is above Horizontal Plane (HP)
c) Chain thin line and in front of Vertical Plane (VP). The
d) Dashed line point is in
41. Center line is a) First quadrant
a) Continuous thick line b) Second quadrant
b) Continuous thin line c) Third quadrant
c) Chain thin line d) Fourth quadrant
d) Dashed line 49. Object is placed below horizontal plane
42. The front view of a cube, when it resting on (HP) and behind vertical plane (VP). The
HP on one of its faces and one other face is object is in
parallel to VP, is a) First quadrant
a) Square b) Second quadrant
b) Rectangle c) Third quadrant
c) Parallelogram d) Fourth quadrant
d) Rhombus 50. In which of the following projection depth
43. The following is not a principal view. is not shown?
a) Bottom a) Oblique projection
b) Side b) Isometric projection
c) Top c) Perspective projection
d) Auxiliary d) Orthographic projection

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51. In oblique projection, the object is assumed 59. Which one of the following position is not
to be placed with one face __________ possible in projection of a line?
a) Parallel to plane of projection a) Line perpendicular to HP, parallel to
b) Parallel to adjacent edge VP
c) Perpendicular to plane of projection b) Line perpendicular to VP, parallel to
d) Perpendicular to adjacent edge HP
52. The faces parallel to projection plane are c) Line parallel to both VP and HP
having ________ size and shape in oblique d) Line perpendicular to both VP and
projection. HP
a) Actual 60. When the line is parallel to both VP and
b) Double HP, we can get its True length in
c) Half a) Top view
d) Increased b) Front view
53. The front view of a regular pentagonal c) Both (a) and (b)
lamina perpendicular to HP, is d) Side view
a) A point 61. The front view of a line perpendicular to
b) A line HP, is
c) A regular pentagon a) A line of shorter length
d) A circle b) A line having true length
54. The top view of a circular disc c) A point
perpendicular to HP, is d) Any of the above
a) A point 62. The top view of a line perpendicular to HP,
b) A line is
c) An ellipse a) A line of shorter length
d) A circle b) A line having true length
55. If a regular hexagonal lamina is c) A point
perpendicular to VP, its top view will be a d) Any of the above
a) A point 63. The front view of a line perpendicular to
b) A line VP, is
c) Regular hexagon a) A line of shorter length
d) A rectangle b) A line of true length
56. If a lamina is perpendicular to both HP and c) A point
VP, then its true shape can be obtained in d) Any of the above
a) Front view (elevation) 64. The top view of a line perpendicular to VP,
b) Top view (plan) is
c) Side view a) A line of shorter length
d) None of the above b) A line of true length
57. If a lamina is perpendicular to VP, its true c) A point
shape can be obtained in d) Any of the above
a) Front view (elevation) 65. When the line is inclined to HP and parallel
b) Top view (plan) to VP, we get its true length in
c) Side view a) Front view
d) None of the above b) Top view
58. An oblique plane is c) Side view
a) Inclined to horizontal plane (HP) d) None of the above
b) Inclined to vertical plane (VP) 66. When the line is inclined to VP and parallel
c) Both (a) and (b) to HP, we get its true length in
d) Perpendicular to both vertical and a) Front view
horizontal plane b) Top view

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 c) Side view a) Prism
d) None of the above b) Solids of revolution
67. When the line is inclined to both VP and c) Pyramid
HP, and parallel to PP, we get its true length d) None of the above
in 75. A sphere is a solid generated by the
a) Front view revolution of a
b) Top view a) Circle
c) Side view b) Arc
d) None of the above c) Semicircle
68. If a line is inclined to HP and parallel to VP, d) Any of the above
it will make 76. Which of the following position is not
a) Horizontal trace possible in solids?
b) Vertical trace a) Axis of a solid parallel to HP,
c) Both (a) and (b) perpendicular to VP
d) None of the above b) Axis of a solid parallel to VP,
69. Axes of which of the following solids is perpendicular to HP
perpendicular to their bases? c) Axis of a solid parallel to both HP and
a) Oblique solid VP
b) Right solid d) Axis of a solid perpendicular to both
c) Both (a) and (b) HP and VP
d) None of the above 77. Top view of a right cylinder, resting on HP
70. Following is (are) solids of revolution. on its base, is
a) Sphere a) Circle
b) Cone b) Ellipse
c) Cylinder c) Rectangle
d) All of the above d) Square
71. When the solid is cut by a plane parallel to 78. Front view of a cube resting on HP on one
its base then it is known as of its faces, and another face parallel of VP,
a) Full solid is
b) Truncated solid a) Rectangle
c) Frustum of solid b) Square
d) Half solid c) Parallelogram
72. When the solid is cut by a plane inclined to d) Rhombus
its base then it is known as 79. Side view of a cone resting on HP on its
a) Full solid base rim and having axis parallel to both
b) Truncated solid HP and VP, is
c) Frustum of solid a) Point
d) Half solid b) Circle
73. _______ is a kind of polyhedron having c) Ellipse
two parallel identical faces or bases. d) Triangle
a) Pyramid 80. If frustum of a cone is placed on HP on its
b) Prism base, its top view will consist of
c) Solids of revolution a) A point
d) All of the above b) A circle
74. _______ is type of polyhedron having a c) Two circles
base and an apex. d) An ellipse and a circle

By: Er. Manoj Dangal Apex Educational Academy 36|P a g e

Working Drawing
Working drawings also called production drawings are complete sets of drawing that details the
manufacturing and assembly of products and structures. They are widely used as orthographic views
of machine parts, structures and their assembly.
Working drawings are graphic information prepared by design team for use by construction or
production team. For example: detail drawing of building will be prepared by design engineer which
later will be used by construction engineer/supervisor. Material and component specifics are provided
in the title block of the working drawing.
The sub-assembly where the components will be assembled are usually shown in working drawing.
Working/production drawing mention the number of parts that are required for making assembled unit.
Working drawings are taken by production/construction engineer who decide how best to
manufacture/construct/build the product.
Generally, there are four sets of working drawing:
1. Detail of each non-standard part on a drawing sheet, usually one part per sheet.
2. Sub-assembly drawing of parts
3. Assembly drawing showing all parts and their arrangements in one sheet
4. Bill of materials (BOM), essentially of each parts
Elements of Working Drawing
The basic elements of working/production drawing are as follows:
1. Size and shape of the component
2. Format of the drawing sheet
3. Process sheet
4. Projection method
5. Limits, fits and tolerances of size, form and position
6. Material specification and shape such as casting, forging, plates, rounds etc.
7. Conventions used to represent certain components
8. Inspection and testing methods
9. Specification of standard components
Applications of Working Drawing
Applications of the working drawings are as follows:
1. Physical Construction/Production
This is the major application of the working drawing. Working drawings are used to
construct/produce any structure/product.

By: Er. Manoj Dangal Apex Educational Academy 37|P a g e

 2. Permission
In residential construction, there will be requirement of plans (drawing) in the permitting
process.
3. Estimation and Costing
The bidder and sub-contractors use working drawings to calculate all of their materials, labor
and other expenses.
4. Permanent Record
A set of working drawing constitutes a permanent record of construction and design along with
all details and specifications.
5. Legal Record
The working drawings become parts of legal record for the building. If legal issues arise during
or after construction, court may use working drawings as a basis for determining important
facts.
Construction Detailing in Plan and Section
The detail and section views provide very specific information about a particular construction
or design feature.
These views provide large drawings to show specific drawing.
Common practice is to include one typical wall section and any details unique to the design or
special feature.
Study details sheets carefully before construction begins to assure compliance with structural,
material and energy efficiency requirements.
Significance of Detailing in Terms of Accuracy of Estimation, Bill of Quantities and Construction
Supervision
Detailing of drawing helps to estimate cost very precisely, prepare bill of quantities accurately
and do construction supervision with less error.
In detail drawing; every parts, sections which are not seen clearly in the assembled drawing
are shown clearly.
It eliminates the chances of repetition and exclusion.
It shows every parts very clearly with large scale which helps in supervision with accuracy.
Bill of quantities, cost estimate prepared with the help of detail drawings are accurate and with
less errors.
Working Drawing for Private and Public Buildings, Sanitary Installation and Electrification
Working drawings for sanitary installation and electrification works are more essential for both
private and public buildings.
Working drawings for sanitary installation and electrification helps to perform work in
systematic way in good accuracy.

By: Er. Manoj Dangal Apex Educational Academy 38|P a g e

 These drawings also help in maintenance work.
Nepal National Building Code, NBC 208:2003 has been introduced for Sanitary and Plumbing
Design requirements.
Nepal National Building Code, NBC 207:2003 has been introduced for Electrical Design
Requirements (for Public Buildings)
These codes will have to be used for sanitary and plumbing design works.
Structural Working Drawings and Structural Detail: Column, Beam, Slab, Foundation and
other Structural Element
Structural drawings are used to progress the concept of architect by giving the shape and
position of all parts of structure.
It enables the construction of structure on site very smoothly.
Structural drawings are also used for the preparation of reinforcement drawings.
Structural drawings would typically contain the following information.
 All architect plans must have north point
 Setting out dimensions for concrete structure on site
 Plans, sections, elevations; showing layout, dimensions and levels of all concrete members
within the structure.
 Locations of all holes, fixings and other items affecting the connecting work.
 Notes on specifications, finishes and all references affecting the construction.
 Detail information about the length, shape and number of each number of reinforcing bar.
Techniques of Free Hand Drawing
The basic ideas and concepts are usually outlined by means of freehand sketching.
Using the criteria of technical drawing, symbols and characters, such a sketch becomes clear to
anyone familiar with the international technical language.
The only difference lies in the fact that on a technical drawing, everything is precisely drawn
whereas the accuracy of a sketch/free hand drawing depends on the accuracy of its author and his
or her talent.
It is used for daily communication in engineering as drawing is the Universal Language for
Engineers.
Sketching is also used to quickly present, in a graphical form, an idea or object to non-technical
persons.
Sketching significantly improves the communications between the members of a team, the drafter
and the customer.
Free hand drawings are drawn without the help of engineering drawing instruments.
Proper scale of drawing is not used and the drawing code is not followed. But free hand drawing
shall be drawn in correct proportion as possible.
Free hand drawings are drawn with the help of pencil and eraser only.

By: Er. Manoj Dangal Apex Educational Academy 39|P a g e

 All technical sketches are freehand drawings, but not all freehand drawings are technical sketches.

Free Hand Drawing Instruments

Following instruments are used in free hand drawing:
a) Soft lead pencil
b) Eraser
c) Sharpener
d) Drawing sheet
e) Graph sheet
Suitability of Scales
1. Topographic Maps/Drawings
1 cm = 0.5 km 1:50000
1 cm = 1 km 1:100000
1 cm = 2.5 km 1:250000
2. Town Surveys
1 cm = 50 m 1:5000
1 cm = 0.1 km 1:10000
1 cm = 0.25 km 1:25000
1 cm = 0.5 km 1:50000
3. Sketch Drawing
1 cm = 1 m 1:100
1 cm = 2 m 1:200
1 cm = 5 m 1:500
4. Large Scale Survey and Layout
1 cm = 5 m 1:500
1 cm = 10 m 1:1000
1 cm = 20 m 1:2000
5. Working Drawings, Plans, Elevation and Sections
1 cm = 50 cm 1:50
1 cm = 1 m 1:100
1 cm = 2 m 1:200
As per Public Works Directives (Part III 7.5) the suggested scale for plan and longitudinal sections of
different structures are as follows:

By: Er. Manoj Dangal Apex Educational Academy 40|P a g e

 1. Roads and Irrigation Works: 1:2500 horizontal and 1:250 vertical
2. Bridges: 1:200
3. Buildings: 1:250
4. Typical Details: 1:50 to 1:100
5. Foundations: 1:100 to 1:200
6. Drainage: 1:50 to 1:100
7. Utilities: depending on nature and extent
Multiple Choice Questions
1. Working/drawing space on the paper is shown on the map to be identified on the
determined by ground by their shape and position are
a) Working line called:
b) Drawing line a) Topographical maps
c) Border line b) Geographical maps
d) Trimmed edge c) Geological maps
2. Working drawing is not prepared for d) Site plan
a) Bill of quantities 7. Topographical map is used to represent
b) Estimation a) Artificial detail
c) Layout b) Natural detail
d) Specification c) Construction detail
3. The set of technical drawings used during d) All of the above
the manufacturing phase of the product 8. Concept drawing is normally provided for
including civil construction are known as the work of
a) Structural drawing a) Tender
b) As built drawing b) Construction
c) Working drawing c) Revise estimate
d) Assembly drawing d) All of the above
4. Working drawings 9. As built drawing is normally constructed
a) Must provide complete information …………
to produce the object a) Before the construction
b) Need not provide complete b) After the construction
information c) Simultaneously with the construction
c) Should be supplemented by further d) All of the above
details 10. Free hand sketch is normally used for
d) Should be supplemented by a) Concept
specifications b) Final
5. Site plan is a c) Discussion
a) Structural plan d) None of the above
b) Architectural plan 11. Free hand drawing is used for
c) Sectional plan a) Generate new idea
d) None of the above b) To make correction
6. The maps which are on sufficient large c) Both (a) and (b)
scale to enable the individual features d) None of the above

By: Er. Manoj Dangal Apex Educational Academy 41|P a g e

12. The main purpose of as built drawing is 19. Which of the following pencil grade is
a) Maintenance and service work suitable for sketching?
b) Dimensioning a) 9H
c) Profession b) 10H
d) To award tender c) 6H
13. In engineering free hand drawing is mostly d) H
used for 20. Which of the following is false regarding
a) Shape sketching?
b) Size a) Initial ideas are represented in sketch
c) To express easily to client form
d) To express dimension b) Sketching are made in correct
14. In the first angle method of orthographic proportions
projection c) Sketching is done with the use of
a) The object comes between the instruments
observer and plane d) Sketching need not have a scale
b) The plane comes between the observer 21. To sketch an object, which of the
and object following should be done thoroughly?
c) The observer comes between the a) Need to collect scales and higher
object and plane grade instruments
d) None of the above b) Scaling should be decided perfectly
15. General structural drawing would typically c) All the features of the object should
include: be observed clearly
a) North point d) Need to know what instruments are
b) Plan, section and elevation needed
c) Notes on specification 22. Which of the following is wrong to do in
d) All of the above sketching?
16. In a topographical drawing the symbols a) Using no proper scale
representing natural features are drawn by b) Using no proper instruments
free hand while artificial works are drawn c) Sketching it as small as possible
by d) Sketching with proper proportions
a) Free hand 23. What should be the minimum distance
b) Mechanically between the hand and the pencil tip while
c) Both (a) and (b) drawing a horizontal line?
d) None of the above a) 5mm
17. The purpose of sectional view is to show b) 100mm
a) Surface of the object c) 40mm
b) Internal of the object d) 80mm
c) Shape of the object 24. Which of the following increases
d) None of the above proficiency in free hand drawing?
18. Which of the following is not used in free- a) Using proper instruments
hand sketching? b) Using a better scale
a) Cross-sectioned graph paper c) Using appropriate dimensions
b) Soft rubber-eraser d) Having constant practice
c) Soft-grade pencil
d) Hard-grade pencil

By: Er. Manoj Dangal Apex Educational Academy 42|P a g e

25. An accurate record of changes made to 28. The building construction industry relies
release drawing is tracked via: on sets of ________ drawings to construct
homes and commercial buildings.
a) A revision block
a) Mechanical
b) Basic title form
b) Isometric
c) Working drawings
c) Architectural working
d) Portable documents
d) All of the above
26. Elevation drawings will include
29. The architectural drafter usually begins a
information about ________.
set of working drawings by creating the
a) Roof pitch
________ plan first.
b) Siding
a) Foundation
c) Window style
b) Floor plan
d) All of the above
c) Elevations
27. The site plan illustrates ________. d) Building section
a) The floor plan
30. In city area, the approval of design drawing
b) Where the house sits on the
from ……… is mandatory before the
property
construction of buildings.
c) The roof plan
a) Municipality
d) Where the garage and driveway are
b) Ward
located
c) Both
d) None of above

By: Er. Manoj Dangal Apex Educational Academy 43|P a g e