DISTRIBUTED PROCESS MANAGEMENT
15.1 Load sharing: By moving processes from heavily loaded to lightly
loaded systems, the load can be balanced to improve overall
performance. Communications performance: Processes that interact
intensively can be moved to the same node to reduce communications
cost for the duration of their interaction. Also, when a process is
performing data analysis on some file or set of files larger than the
process's size, it may be advantageous to move the process to the data
rather than vice versa. Availability: Long-running processes may need
to move to survive in the face of faults for which advance notice can be
achieved or in advance of scheduled downtime. If the operating system
provides such notification, a process that wants to continue can either
migrate to another system or ensure that it can be restarted on the
current system at some later time. Utilizing special capabilities: A
process can move to take advantage of unique hardware or software
capabilities on a particular node.
15.2 MCQs designed to test knowledge of legal terminology and
fundamental concepts.Long Answer Questions: These questions may
require students to elaborate on a particular legal principle or case,
exploring various perspectives or discussing its implications in
practice.2.3. Skills Tested in Law ExamsLegal Analysis and Application:
Law exams test a student’s ability to identify relevant legal issues,
apply appropriate laws and precedents, and reach conclusions based on
the facts presented. This requires a deep understanding of case law and
statutory law.Critical Thinking: Law students must think critically about
the ethical implications of legal decisions and analyze the potential
consequences of ls for applying theory to practical scenarios.
Furthermore, students often practice writing answers to past exams
under timed conditions to enhance their ability to structure responses
effectively.________________________________________3. Mathematics
Exams3.1. Overview of Mathematics EducationMathematics education
spans a wide range of topics, from basic arithmetic and algebra to more
advanced areas like calculus, statistics, and abstract algebra.
Mathematics is crucial in many industries, including engineering,
finance, data science, and technology. The primary goal of mathematics
exams is to test students' understanding of mathematical concepts,
their problem-solving abilities, and their aptitude for logical
reasoning.3.2. Structure of Mathematics ExamsMathematics exams are
typically focused on problem-solving and application of formulas,
theorems, and mathematical concepts. These exams may
include:Problem Sets: Students
15.3 The following alternative strategies may be used. Eager (all):
Transfer the entire address space at the time of migration. Precopy:
The process continues to execute on the source node while the address
space is copied to the target node. Pages modified on the source
during the precopy operation have to be copied a second time. Eager
(dirty): Transfer only those pages of the address space that are in
main memory and have been modified. Any additional blocks of the
virtual address space will be transferred on demand only. Copy-on-
reference: This is a variation of eager (dirty) in which pages are only
brought over when referenced. Flushing: The pages of the process are
cleared from the main memory of the source by flushing dirty pages to
disk. Then pages are accessed as needed from disk instead of from
memory on the source node.
15.4 Nonpreemptive process migration can be useful in load
balancing. It has the advantage that it avoids the overhead of full-
blown process migration. The disadvantage is that such a scheme
does not react well to sudden changes in load distribution.
15.5 Because of the delay in communication among systems, it is
impossible to maintain a system wide clock that is instantly available
to all systems. Furthermore, it is also technically impractical to
maintain one central clock and to keep all local clocks synchronized
precisely to that central clock; over a period of time, there will be
some drift among the various local clocks that will cause a loss of
synchronization.
15.6 In a fully centralized algorithm, one node is designated as the
control node and controls access to all shared objects. When any
process requires access to a critical resource, it issues a Request to its
local resource-controlling process. This process, in turn, sends a
Request message to the control node, which returns a Reply
(permission) message when the shared object becomes available.
When a process
has finished with a resource, a Release message is sent to the
control node. In a distributed algorithm, the mutual exclusion
algorithm involves the concurrent cooperation of distributed
peer entities.
15.7 Deadlock in resource allocation, deadlock in message
communication.
15.1 a. Eager (dirty)
b. Copy on reference
15.2 Process P1 begins with a clock value of 0. To transmit
message a, it increments its clock by 1 and transmits (a, 1, 1),
where the first numerical value is the timestamp and the second
is the identity of the site. Similarly, P4 increments its clock by 1
and transmits issues (q, 1, 4). Both messages are received by the
other three sites. Both a and q have the same timestamp, but P1's
numerical identifier is less than P4's numerical identifier (1 < 4).
Therefore, the ordering is {a, q} at all four sites.
15.3 Pi can save itself the transmission of a Reply message to Pj
if Pi has sent a Request message but has not yet received the
corresponding Release message.
15.4 a. If a site i, which has asked to enter its critical section, has
received a response from all the others, then (1) its request is
the oldest (in the sense defined by the timestamp ordering) of
all the requests that may be waiting; and (2) all critical
sections requested earlier have been completed. If a site j has
itself sent an earlier request, or if it was in its critical section,
it would not have sent a response to i.
b. As incoming requests are totally ordered, they are served in
that order; every request will at some stage become the
oldest, and will then be served.
15.5 The algorithm makes no allowance for resetting the time
stamping clocks with respect to each other. For a given process,
Pi for example, clock is only used to update, on the one hand,
request [i] variables in the other processes by way of request
messages, and, on the other hand, token [i] variables, when
messages of the token type are transferred. So the clocks are not
used to impose a total ordering on requests. They are used
simply as counters that record the number of times the various
processes have asked to use the critical section, and so to find
whether or not the number of times that Pi has been given this
access, recorded as the value of token [i], is less than the number
of requests it has made, known to Pj by the value of requestj [i].
The function max used in the processing associated with the
reception of requests results in only the last request from Pj
being considered if several had been delivered out of sequence.
15.6 a. Mutual exclusion is guaranteed if at any one time the
number of variables token_present that have the value true
cannot exceed 1. Since this is the initial condition, it suffices
to show that the condition is conserved throughout the
procedure. Consider first the prelude. The variable for Pi,
which we write token_presenti, changes its value from false to
true when Pi receives the token. If
