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Elementary Number Theory

Second Edition

V nderwood Dudley

DePauw University

rn
w. H. FREEMAN AND COMPANY
New York
 Contents

Preface vii

Section 1 Integers 1

Section 2 Unique Factorization 10

Section 3 Linear Diophantine Equations 20

Section 4 Congruences 27

Section 5 Linear Congruences 34

Section 6 Fermat's and Wilson's Theorems 42

Section 7 The Divisors of an Integer 50

Section 8 Perfect Numbers 57.

Section 9 Euler's Theorem and Function 63

Section 10 Primitive Roots 73

Section 11 Quadratic Congruences 83

v
vi Contents

Section 12 Quadratic Reciprocity 94

Section 13 Numbers in O ther Bases 106

Section 14 Duodecimals 1 14

Section 15 Decimals 119

Section 16 Pythagorean Triangles 127

Section 17 Infinite Descent and Fermat's Conjecture 135

Section 18 Sums of Two Squares 141

Section 19 Sums of Four Squares 149

Section 20 Xl - Ny::! = 1 155

Section 21 Bounds for mx) 163

Section 22 Formulas for Primes 172

Section 23 Additional Problems 182

Appendix A Proof by Induction 205

Appendix B Computer Problems 210

Appendix C Factor Table for Integers Less Than 10,000 217

References 225

Answers to Selected Exercises 227

Answers to Selected Odd-Numbered Problems 231

Comments on Selected Odd-Numbered Problems 238

Index 247
 Preface

Mathematics exists mainly to give us power and control over the phys­
ical world, but it has always been so fascinating that it was studied for
its own sake. Number theory is that sort of mathematics: it is of no use
in building bridges, and civilization would carry on much as usual if
all of its theorems were to disappear, nevertheless it has been studied
and valued since the time of Pythagoras. That greatest of mathe­
maticians Carl Friedrich Gauss called it "The Queen of Mathematics,"
and "Everybody's Mathematics" is what the contemporary mathe­
matician Ivan Niven calls it. The reason for its appeal is that the subject
matter-numbers-is part of everyone' s experience, and the things
that can be found out about them are interesting, curious, or surprising,
and the ways they are found can be delightful: clean lines of logic, with
sustained tension and satisfying resolutions.
A course in number theory can do several things for a student. It can
acquaint him or her with ideas no student of mathematics should be
ignorant of. More important,it is an example of the mathematical style
of thinking-problem, deduction , solution-in a system where the
problems are not unnatural or artificial. Most important, it can help to
diminish the feeling that many students have, consciously or not, that
mathematics is a collection of formulas and that to solve a problem you
need only find the appropriate formula.

VII
viii Preface

This text has been designed for a one-semester or one-quarter course

in number theory, with minimal prerequisites. The reader is not re­
quired to know any mathematics except elementary algebra and the
properties of the real numbers. Nevertheless, the average student does
not find number theory easy because it involves understanding new
-
ideas and the proofs of theorems. I have tried to make the proofs
detailed enough to be clear, and I have included numerical examples,
not only to illustrate the ideas, but to show the fascination of playing
with numbers, which is how many of the ideas originated.
I have included an introduction to most of the topics of elementary
number theory. In Sections 1 through 5 the fundamental properties of
the integers and congruences are developed , and in Section 6 proofs
of Fermat' s and Wilson's theorems are given. The number theoretic
functions d, cr, and 1> are introduced in Sections 7 to 9. Sections 10 to
12 culminate in the quadratic reciprocity theorem . There follow three
more or less independent blocks of material: the representation of
numbers (Sections 13 to 15), diophantine equations (16 to 20) , and
primes (21 and 22) . Because I think that problems are especially im­
portant and interesting in number theory, Section 23 consists of 260
additional problems, some classified by section and some arranged
'
without regard to topic.
There are three appendixes. Appendix A, Proof by Induction, should
be read when and if necessary . Because computers integrate naturally
with number theory , Appendix B presents problems for which it com­
puter can be programmed . Appendix C contains a table that makes it
easy to factor any positive integer less than 10,000.
Because I believe that the best way t o learn mathematics i s to try to
solve problems, the text includes almost a thousand exercises and
problems. I attribute the success of the first edition not to the
exposition-after all, the proofs were already known-but to the prob­
lems, and the problem lists have been revised , deleting unsuccessful
problems and including new ones that may be mOre successful . The
exercises interrupt the text and can be used in several ways: the stu­
dent may do them as he reads the material for the first time; he may
return to them later to check on his understanding of material already
studied; or the instructor may include them in his exposition . Some of
the exercises and problems are computational and some classical , but
many are more or less original, and a few , I think, are startling.
Number theory pr?blems can be difficult because inspiration is some­
times necessary to find a solution, and inspiration cannot be had to
 Preface ix

order. A student should not expect to be able to conquer all of the

problems and should not feel discouraged if some are baffling . There is
benefit in trying to solve prOblems whether a solution is found or not.
I. A . Barnett has written [1] "To discover mathematical talent, there is
no better course in elementary mathematics than number theory . Any
student who can work the exercises in a modern text in number theory
should be encouraged to pursue a mathematical career."
Answers are provided where appropriate for exercises and odd­
numbered problems-those marked with an asterisk. Comments are
given for those problems marked with a dagger . Although there are
more problems than a student could solve in one semester, they should
be treated as part of the text, to be read even if not solved. Some­
times they may be more interesting than the material on which they
are based.
The first edition contained many errors, and I want to thank the
many people who pointed them out and suggested improvements.
These errors have all been removed, but inevitably new ones have been
added . I hope that when the reader finds one , he will feel pleased with
his acuteness rather than annoyed with the author . Corrections will be
welcomed.

Underwood Dudley
May 1978
Elementary Number Theory
 Section

1
Integers

The subject matter of number theory is numbers , and a large part of

number theory is devoted to studying the properties of the integers­
that is, the numbers ... , -2, - 1 , 0, 1 , 2, . . . . Usually the integers
are used merely to convey information (3 apples, $32, 1 7x2 + 9) , with
no consideration of their properties . When counting apples, dollars, or
X2 'S, it is immaterial how many divisors 3 has, whether 32 is prime or
not, or that 1 7 can be written as the sum of the squares of two integers .
But the integers are so basic a part of mathematics that they have been
thought worthy of study for their own sake. The same situation arises
elsewhere: the number theorist is coinparable to the linguist, who
studies words and their properties, independent of their meaning.
There are many replies to the question , "Why study numbers?"
Here are some that have been given:

Because teacher says you must.

Because you won't graduate if you don't.
. Because you have to take something.
Because it gives your mind valuable training in thinking logically.
Because numbers might be interesting.
Because.numbers are a fundamental part of man's mental universe
and hence worth looking into.

1
 2 Section 1

Because some of the most powerful human minds that ever existed
were concerned with numbers, and what powerful minds study is
worth studying.
Because you want to know all about numbers: what makes them
work, and what they do.
Because mathematics contains some beautiful things, and someone
told you that number theory contained some of the most beautiful­
and few of the most ugly-things.
Because it is fun.
Let us begin.
In this section, and until further notice, lower case italic letters will
invariably denote integers. We will take as known and use freely the
usual properties of addition, subtraction, multiplication, division; and
order for the integers. We also use in this section an important property
of the integers-a property that you may not be consciously aware of
because it is not stated explicitly as the others. It is the least-integer
principle: a nonempty set of integers that is bounded below contains a
smallest element. There is the corresponding greatest-integer principle:
a nonempty set of integers that is bounded above contains a largest
element.
We will say that a divides b (written a I b) if and only if there is an
integer d such that ad = b . For example, 216, 12160, 17117, 5150, and -

81- 24. If a does not divide b , we will write a %b. For example, 4%2 and
3%4.
" Exercise 1. t Which integers divide zero?
Show that if a I b and b 1c , then a 1c .
Exercise 2.

As a sample of the sort of properties that division has, we prove

Lemma !. Ifd l a and d l b, then d l (a + b) .

Proof. From the definition, we know that there are integers q and· r
such that
dq = a and dr = b .

t Answers to selected exercises, those preceded by an asterisK (*), are provided on

pp. 226ff.
 Integers J

Thus
a +b =d(q +r) ,
so from the definition again, d I (a +b).
In the same way, we can prove

Lemma 2 . Ifd l al, dla!, .. . ,dla", then dl(cla l + c2a 2 + . . . +c"a,,)

for any integers Cl, C2 , • , CII'
• •

Proof. From the definition, there are integers qI> q2,' .. ,qll such that
a l =dql, a2 = dq2' . . . ,a" =dq". Thus
cla l +cza:+ . . . + cna" = d(Clq l+ C2Q! + . . . +C.,.Q,,) ,
and from the definition again , dlcla] +CZa 2+ . . . +c"a".

Exercise 3. Prove that if d I a then d I ca for any integer c .

As an application of Lemma 2 , let us see if it is possible to have 1 00

coins, made up of C pennies, d dimes, and q quarters, be worth exactly
$5.00. If it is possible, then
c+d+q=l00
and
C+ 1 0d +25q = 500.
Subtract the first equation from the second and we get 9d+24q = 400.
Since 3 19 and 3 124,Lemma 2 says that 3 19d+ 24q. That is, 3 1400.But
that is impossible, so having exactly $5.00 is impossible with 1 00 pen­
nies, dimes, and quarters. There are, however, five different ways of
getting $4. 99, and later we will develop a method for finding them.
Fractions are not as natural as integers, and there seems to be a
human tendency to avoid them. For example, we divide a gallon into
quarts, a quart into pints, and a pint into ounces so that we can always
measure with integer mUltiples of some unit. Finding a unit common to
different measures was a problem which would arise naturally in
commerce-if 1 5 Athenian drachmas are worth 1 8 drachmas from
Miletus, how many Athenian drachmas are equivalent to 60 Miletian
drachmas? That is one reason why the Euclidean Algorithm for finding
 4 Section I

greatest common divisors was part of Euclid's Elements, written

around 3 00 Be. The rest of this section will be devoted to the greatest
common divisor and its properties, which we will use constantly later.
We say that d is the greatest common divisor of a and b (written d = (a,
b» if and only if
(i) dla and dlb, and
(ii) ifcla and c l b , thel1 c :5 d.
Condition (i) says that d is a common divisor of a and b, and (ii) says
that it is the greatest such divisor. For example, (2, 6) = 2 and (3,
4) = 1. Note that if a and b are not both zero, then the set of common
divisors of a and b is a set of integers that is bounded above by the
largest of a, b, -a, and -b. Hence, from the greatest-integer principle
for the integers, the set has a largest element, so the greatest common
divisor of a and b exists and is unique. Note that ( 0, 0) is not defined,
and that if (a, b) is defined, then it is positive. In fact, (a, b) �. 1
because lla and lib for all a and b.
'" Exercise 4. What are (4, 14), (5, 15), and (6, 16)?
" Exercise 5. What is (n , 1), where n is any positive integer? What is (n,
O)?
" Exercise 6. If d is a positive integer, what is (d, nd)?

As an exercise in applying the definition of greatest common divisor,

we will prove the following theorem, which we will use often later:

Theorem 1 . If (a, b) = d, then (aid, bid) = 1.

Proof. Suppose thate= (aid, bid). We want to show thate= 1. We will

do ihis by showing that e :5 1 and e� 1. The latter inequality follows
from the fact that e is the greatest common divisor of two integers, and
as we have noted, every greatest common divisor is greater than or
equal to 1. To show that c :5 1, we use the facts that c I (aid) and c I (bid).
We then know that there are integers q and r such that eq = aid and
cr = bid. That is,
(ed)q·= aand (ed)r = b.
These equations show that cd is a common divisor of a and b. It is thus
no greater than the g reatest common divisor of a and b, and this is d.
 Integers 5

Thus cd :S d. Since d is positive, this gives c :S 1. Hence c = 1 , as was

to be proved.
If (a, b) = 1 , then we will say that a and b are relatively prime, for a
reason that will become clear in the section on unique factorization.
When a and b are small , it is often possible to see what (a, b) is by
inspection. When a and b are large, this is no longer possible. The
Euclidean Algorithm makes it easy, but first we need.

Theorem 2 . The Division Algorithm. Given positive integers a and b,

b f= 0,. there exist unique integers q and r, with 0 :S r <b such that

a = bq + r.

Proof. Consider the set of integers {a, a - b, a 2b, a - 3b, . . } . It

- .

contains a subset of nonnegative integers which is nonempty (because a

is positive) and bounded below (by 0); from the least-integer principle,
it contains a smallest element. Let it be a - qb . This number is not
negative and it is less than b, because if it were greater than b it would
not be the smallest nonnegative element in the set: a (q + 1)b would
-

be.

I I
a- (q + J)b 0 a - qb a-lb a-b a

Let r = a bq: this construction gives us q and r, and it remains to

-

show that they are unique. Suppose that we have found q. rand ql, r]
such that

a = bq+ r = bq]
with 0 :S r< b and 0 :S r1 <b. Subtracting, we have

(1)

Since b divides the left-hand side of this equation and the first term on
the right-hand side, it divides the other term:

b I (r - rl) .

But since O :s r <b and 0 :S r1 <b, we have

-b <r - rl <b .

The only mUltiple of b between -b and b is zero. Hence r - rl = 0, and

it follows from (1) that q - q1 = 0 too. Hence the numbers q and r in the
thewem are unique.
 6 Section 1

Although the theorem was stated only for positive integers a and b ,
because it is most often applied for positive integers, nowhere in the
proof did we need a to be positive .
theorem is true if 0:Sr < b is replaced with 0 :S r < -b ;
vited to reread the proof and verify that this is so.
" Exercise 7. What are q andrif a = 75 and b = 24? Ifa = 75 and b = 25?

Theorem 2, combined with the next lemma, will give the Euclidean
Algorithm.

Lemma 3. If a = b q + r, then (a, b) = ( b, r).

Proof. Let d = (a, b). We know that since d I a and d I b , it follows from
a = b q + r that d I r. Thus d is a common divisor of b and r. Suppose that
c is any common divisor of b and r. We know that c I b and c I r, and it
follows from a = b q + r that c I a. Thus c is a common divisor of a and b ,
and hence c :S d. Both parts of the definition of greatest common di­
visor are satisfied, and we have d = ( b ,

Exercise 8. Verify that the lemma is true when a = 16, b = 6, and q = 2.

Let us apply Lemma 3 to find the greatest common divisor of 69 and

2 1.
get (21, 7) = 7. The ancient Greeks would have found the greatest
common measure of these two lengths
a

by laying the shorter against the longer as many times as possible

b b b
a

and then breaking off the remainder and applying it

r I----l
r
b
until, as in this case, a common measure is found. The formal state­
ment of the process just carried out for a special case is
 Integers 7

Theorem 3 . The Euclidean Algorithm . If a and b are positive integers,

b f= 0, and
a=bq+r, 0::.::; r < b,
b = rq l +rl , O:Sr1 < r,
r =r]q2+r 2' 0::.::; r2 < r],

then for k large enough, say k = t, we have

and (0, b) = rt.

Proof. The sequence of nonnegative integers

b>r>r]>r2 > " .
must come to an end. Eventually, one of the remainders will be zero.
Suppose that it is rH]' Then rt-] = rtqHl' From Lemma 3 applied over
and over,
(a , b) = (b, r) = (r, 1'] ) = (r] , r2) = ... =(rH, 1'1) =rt.
If either a or b is negative, we can use the fact that (a, b) = (-a,
-
b ) = (a, -b) = (-a, b) .

'" Exercise 9. Calculate (343, 280) and (578, 442).

The computation of (343 , 280) = 7:

(2) 343 = 1 . 280 +63
(3) 280 = 4 . 63 + 28
(4) 63 = 2·28 +7
28 = 4 · 7
can be worked backward. From (4), 7 = 63 - 2·28. Substitute for 28
. from (3): 7 = 63 - 2(280 - 4· 63) = 9·63 - 2·280. Substitute for 63
from (2): 7 = 9(343 - 280) - 2·280 = 9·343 - 1 1 · 280. We have found x
and y such that 343x + 280y = 7, namely x = 9 and y = - 1 1 . What was
done in this example can be done in general:
8 Section 1

Theorem 4. If (a, b) = d, then there are integers x and y such that

ax + by = d.

Proof. Work the Euclidean Algorithm backward. The details are

omitted.

We will find a better method for solving ax +by = (a, b) later, so the
computational process in Theorem 4 is not important. What is impor­
tant is the existence ofx and y and not their values. To illustrate the
usefulness of Theorem 4, here are three corollaries.

Corollary 1. If dlab and (d. a ) = 1, then dlb.

Proof. Since d and a are relatively prime, we know from Theorem 4

that there are integers x and y such that
dx + ay = 1.
MUltiplying this by b, we have
d(bx ) + (ab)y = b .
The term d(bx ) can of course be divided by d, and so can (ab)y, since d
divides abo Thus d divides the left-hand side of the last equation and
hence divides the right-hand side too, which is what we wanted to
prove. Note that if d and a are not relatively prime in Corollary 1, then
the conclusion is false. For example, 618·9, but 6�8 and 619.

Corollary 2. Let (a, b) = d, and suppose that c i a and clb . Then cld.

Proof. We know that there are integers x and y such that

ax +by = d.
Since c divides each term on the left-hand side of this equation, c
divides the right-hand side too.

This corollary thU$ says that every common divisor of a pair of integers
is a divisor of their greatest common divisor.
 Integers 9

Corollary 3. Ifalm, blm, and (a, b )= 1, then ablm.

Proof. There is an integer q such that m=b q , and since a 1m we have

a Ib q . But (a, b)= 1, so Corollary 1 says that a I q . Hence there is an
integer I' such that q = ar, and thus m=b q =bar. That shows that
ablm.

Problems'"

* 1 . Calculate (314, 159) and (4144, 7696).

2. Calculate (3141, 1592) and (10001, 100083).

" 3. Find x and y such that 314x + 159)' = 1.

4. Find x and y such that 4144x + 7696y = 592.

5. If N= abc + 1, prove that (N, a) = (N, b) = (N, c) = l.

6. Find two different solutions of 299x + 247y = 13.

7. Prove that if a Iband b Ia , then a b or a= = - b.

8. Prove that if a Ib and a> 0, then (a, b) a . =

9. Prove that «a, b), b) = (a, b).

10. (a) Prove that (n, n + 1) = 1 for all n > O.

(b) If 11 > 0, what can (11, n + 2) be?

11. (a) Prove that (k, 11 + k) = 1 if and only if (k, 11) = l.

* (b) Is it true that (k, 11 + k) =
d if and only if (k, 11) = d ?
12. Prove: If a Ib and c Id, then ac Ibd.

13. Prove: If dla and d l b , then d"lab .

14. Prove: If c lab and (c, a) = d, then c Idb.

15. (a) If x' + ax + b = 0 has an integer root, show that it divides b .

(b) Ifx' + ax +b = 0 has a rational root, show that it is in fact an integer.

* Answers to selected odd-numbered problems, those preceded by an asterisk (0). are

provided on pp. 231ff. Comments on selected odd-numbered problems, those preceded
by a dagger (t), are given on pp. 238ff.
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