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Handbook of Workability and Process Design George E.
Dieter Digital Instant Download
Author(s): George E. Dieter
ISBN(s): 9780871707789, 0871707780
Edition: illustrated edition
File Details: PDF, 25.56 MB
Year: 2003
Language: english
1119 FM 7/29/03 3:39 PM Page i

© 2003 ASM International. All Rights Reserved. www.asminternational.org

Handbook of Workability and Process Design (#06701G)

Handbook
of
Workability
and
Process Design

Edited by

George E. Dieter
Howard A. Kuhn
S. Lee Semiatin

INTERNATIONAL

The Materials
Information Society

www.asminternational.org
1119 FM 7/29/03 3:39 PM Page ii

© 2003 ASM International. All Rights Reserved. www.asminternational.org

Handbook of Workability and Process Design (#06701G)

Copyright © 2003
by
ASM International®
All rights reserved

No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means,
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Handbook of workability and process design / edited by George E. Dieter, Howard A.

Kuhn, Lee Semiatin.
p. cm.
Updated and expanded ed. of: Workability testing techniques. 1984.
ISBN 0-87170-778-0
1. Metals—Formability—Testing. I. Dieter, George Ellwood. II. Kuhn, Howard A. III.
Semiatin, S. L. IV. Workability testing techniques.

TA460.H3195 2003
671.3—dc21
2003052197

ISBN: 0-87170-778-0
SAN: 204-7586

ASM International®
Materials Park, OH 44073-0002
www.asminternational.org

Printed in the United States of America

Multiple copy reprints of individual articles are available from ASM International, Technical Department.
1119 FM 7/29/03 3:39 PM Page iii

© 2003 ASM International. All Rights Reserved. www.asminternational.org

Handbook of Workability and Process Design (#06701G)

Contents

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi Chapter 7 Hot-Tension Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

P.D. Nicolaou, R.E. Bailey, and S.L. Semiatin
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Equipment and Testing Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Hot Ductility and Strength Data from the Gleeble Test . . . . . . . . 72
Isothermal Hot-Tension Test Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Chapter 1 Workability and Process Design—An Introduction . . . . . . . 3 Modeling of the Isothermal Hot-Tension Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Howard A. Kuhn, George E. Dieter, and S.L. Semiatin Cavitation During Hot-Tension Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Workability Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Process Design and Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Chapter 8 Torsion Testing to Assess Bulk Workability . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Approximate and Closed Form Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 S.L. Semiatin and J.J. Jonas
Numerical Techniques in Process Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Material Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Microstructural Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Specimen Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Processing Maps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Torsion Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Flow-Stress Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Interpretation of Torsion Fracture Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Chapter 2 Bulk Workability of Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Measuring Flow-Localization-Controlled Workability . . . . . . . . 108
George E. Dieter Microstructure Development During Deformation
Stress, Strain, and Stress-Strain Curves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Processing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Multiaxial Stress States. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Processing History Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Material Factors Affecting Workability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Process Variables Determining Workability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Chapter 9 Hot Working Simulation by Hot
Workability Fracture Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Torsion Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Process Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Joseph R. Pickens
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Types of Hot Working Simulation Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Hot Torsion Testing Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Chapter 3 Evolution of Microstructure during Hot Working. . . . . . . . 35 Hot Torsion Application Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
S.L. Semiatin Chapter 10 Thermomechanical Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Mechanisms of Microstructure Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Stéphane Guillard and Koushik Ray
Phenomenology of Plastic Flow and Microstructure Typical Types of Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Thermophysical Properties Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Mechanistic Models for Microstructure Evolution. . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Designing Thermomechanical Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Obtaining, Analyzing, and Using Thermomechanical
Workability Testing Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Testing Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Examples of Thermomechanical Testing: Design,
Chapter 4 Bulk Workability Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Experiment, and Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
George E. Dieter
Primary Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Process Design and Workability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Specialized Tests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Workability Analysis Using the Fracture Limit Line . . . . . . . . . . 54 Chapter 11 Design for Deformation Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Why Use Deformation Processes?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Chapter 5 Cold Upset Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Characteristics of Manufacturing Processes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Howard A. Kuhn Categories of Deformation Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Upset Test Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Cold Working . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Test Characteristics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Hot Working . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Fracture Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Forgeability of Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Workability Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Chapter 12 Workability Theory and Application in
Chapter 6 Hot Compression Testing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Bulk Forming Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
George E. Dieter Howard A. Kuhn
Cylindrical Compression Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Stress and Strain States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
Ring Compression Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 Empirical Criterion of Fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Plane-Strain Compression Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Theoretical Fracture Models and Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

iii
1119 FM 7/29/03 3:39 PM Page iv

© 2003 ASM International. All Rights Reserved. www.asminternational.org

Handbook of Workability and Process Design (#06701G)

Chapter 13 Workability in Forging. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 Forward (Direct) Extrusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299

S.L. Semiatin Backward (Indirect) Extrusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
Workability Tests for Open-Die Forging of Cast Structures . . . . 189 Cold Extrusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Workability Tests for Hot/Warm Open-Die Forging of Hot Extrusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
Recrystallized Structures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 Hydrostatic Extrusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
Workability Tests for Cold Open-Die Forging of Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
Recrystallized Structures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Workability in Closed-Die Forging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 Chapter 21 Workability and Process Design in
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 Extrusion and Drawing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
Roger N. Wright
Multipass Workability versus Single-Pass Workability . . . . . . . 316
Chapter 14 Process Design in Impression Die Forging. . . . . . . . . . . 208 General Observations on Fracture and Flaw Development. . . . . 316
T. Altan and M. Shirgaokar Shapes and Tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
Forging Process Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 Some Comments on Fracture Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
Design of Finisher Dies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 Projecting Workability from Mechanical Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
Preform (Blocker) Design in Impression-Die Forging . . . . . . . . 212 Process Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
Prediction of Forging Stresses and Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Process Simulation to Predict Metal Flow and Multidisciplinary Process Design and Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . 323
Forging Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Cold and Warm Forging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 Chapter 22 Multidisciplinary Process Design and
Optimization: An Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
H.L. Gegel, R. Grandhi, J.S. Gunasekera, and Charles Gure
Chapter 15 Modeling Techniques in Forming Processes. . . . . . . . . . 220
Why Use MPDO?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
W.T. Wu, J.T. Jinn, and C.E. Fischer
Process Design Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
Modeling Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Computer Aided Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
Finite Element Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Manual Design Process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Example Simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226 Chapter 23 Optimal Design of Thermomechanical
Current and Future Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
J.C. Malas, W.G. Frazier, H.L. Gegel, and V. Srinivasan
Chapter 16 Rolling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 Concepts of Dynamic Modeling in Optimal Design . . . . . . . . . 338
Flat Rolling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 Material Trajectory Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
Modeling of Strip Rolling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Mechanics of Plate Rolling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 Chapter 24 Application of Multidisciplinary
Shape Rolling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 Optimization (MDO) Techniques to the
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 Manufacturing of Aircraft Engine Components. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
Shesh K. Srivatsa
Chapter 17 Thermomechanical Processing by Turbine Disk Design and Manufacturing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
Controlled Rolling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 Optimization Techniques. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
Fundamentals of Controlled Rolling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 Collaborative Optimization Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
Restoration Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 Formulation of Forging Shape Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
Conventional Controlled Rolling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252 Alternative Forging Optimization Formulations . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
Recrystallization Controlled Rolling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254 Heat Treatment Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
Thermomechanical Processing of Microalloyed Bar . . . . . . . . . 254 Summary of Optimization Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
Summary and Acknowledgment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
Future Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365

Chapter 18 Workability and Process Design in Rolling . . . . . . . . . . 258 Chapter 25 Computer-Aided Optimization for Improved
John G. Lenard Process Engineering Productivity of Complex Forgings . . . . . . . . 368
The Rolling Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258 Ramana V. Grandhi
Workability in Rolling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 Computer-Aided Optimization (CAO). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
Mathematical Models for Workability Prediction . . . . . . . . . . . 270 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
Process Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 Reference Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377

Chapter 19 Drawing of Wire, Rod, and Tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 Tabular Summaries of Typical Flow Stress Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
Drawing of Bar and Wire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 Table 1 K and n values for flow stress-strain relation,
–
K(e– )n, of various steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
s
Tube Drawing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
Lubrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284 Table 2 C and m values for the flow stress-strain rate
relation, s–
C(e–˙ )m, of steels at various temperatures . . . . . . 380
Wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289 Table 3 K and n values for the flow stress-strain
relation, s–
K(e– )n, of various aluminum alloys . . . . . . . . . . 382
Chapter 20 Extrusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291 Table 4 C and m values for the flow stress-strain rate relation,
Extrusion Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291 –
C( –e˙ )m, of aluminum alloys at various temperatures . . . . 383
s
The Extrusion Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294 Table 5 K and n values for the flow stress-strain
Friction and Lubrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297 relation, s–
K(e – )n, of various copper alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . 384

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Handbook of Workability and Process Design (#06701G)

Table 6 C and m values for the flow stress-strain rate Table 8 Average flow stress values obtained from ring
–
C( –e˙ )m, of various nonferrous alloys . . . . . . . . . 384
relation, s compression tests suggested for use in practical applications. 385
Table 7 Average flow stress values determined in the
Abbreviations and Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
uniform compression test that might be used in
practical load-predicting applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389

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Handbook of Workability and Process Design (#06701G)

Preface

Workability is a vital aspect of the processing of materials, having roots At the time of the formulation of Workability Testing Techniques, the
in both material behavior and process design. Whether a part can be pro- use of finite element methods (FEMs) for the modeling and simulation of
duced by plastic deformation without cracking or the generation of other metal deformation processes was in its infancy. In the ensuing 20 years,
defects is of important economic consequence. Because of the complex na- the use of FEM analysis for process design has become rather common-
ture of the workability of metals, there is no single test that can be used to place. Therefore, in contemplating this revision and update, the editors
evaluate it. Several laboratory tests have been developed that are useful in decided to expand the scope to incorporate process design, especially as
screening materials for workability, but in other instances, very specialized influenced by FEM analysis. By doing this, the Handbook of Workability
tests that are specific to the process are commonly used. and Process Design takes on a more mathematical flavor than its prede-
The Handbook of Workability and Process Design is an update and ex- cessor while still retaining a balance with its original intent. Thus, the
pansion in scope of Workability Testing Techniques that was published by chapters that describe the various workability tests continue true to the
the American Society for Metals in 1984. This original work was devel- original intent of providing practical workability testing techniques that
oped by the Metal Working Group of ASM to provide a readily available can be used by the inexperienced practitioner.
description and interpretation of the most common workability tests in the We appreciate the contributions from the many experts who have con-
deformation processing of metals. Prior to its introduction, this informa- tributed to this Handbook. Also, special thanks go to Steve Lampman, of
tion was widely scattered in the literature. The nearly 20 year life of this the ASM staff, who not only provided editorial guidance throughout this
book bears witness to the value and acceptance of the concept behind this project but also expertly provided the chapters that describe the basics of
project. forging, rolling, extrusion, and wiredrawing.

George E. Dieter Howard A. Kuhn S. Lee Semiatin

College Park, MD Johnstown, PA Dayton, OH
May 1, 2003 May 1, 2003 May 1, 2003

vi
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Handbook of Workability and Process Design #06701G

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Handbook of Workability and Process Design Copyright © 2003 ASM International®
G.E. Dieter, H.A. Kuhn, and S.L. Semiatin, editors, p3-21 All rights reserved.
DOI:10.1361/hwpd2003p003 www.asminternational.org

Chapter 1

Workability and Process Design—

An Introduction

WROUGHT FORMS are produced by a wide basic objective of process design and control. and product modeling and simulation, and sen-
variety of metalworking operations that can be Material control is also important, because many sors and model based process control. Effective
classified either as bulk working or sheet form- problems can be traced back to the process of application of such methods and tools leads to
ing. Bulk working operations (Fig. 1) (Ref 1) in- melting and solidification. For example, poros- process design and controls that prevent defects
clude (a) primary operations where cast ingots, ity and shrinkage cavities (pipe) in an ingot can and reach the full advantages offered by bulk-
continuously cast bars, or consolidated powder be passed on to the wrought form (Fig. 4). forming operations in the production of high-
billets are worked into mill shapes (such as bar, The demands of high-performance products performance components.
plate, tube, sheet, wire) and (b) secondary oper- and rapid product development also can be This Handbook focuses on bulk-forming
ations where mill products are further formed major concerns in the manufacturing of new processes, the defects that frequently occur in
into finished products by hot forging, cold forg- products. For example, metallurgical features such processes, and the roles of materials test-
ing, drawing, extrusion, straightening, sizing, (such as dispersoids and reinforcing particles) ing, process design, and process control in
and so forth. From a geometric viewpoint, bulk that lead to desirable properties in modern high- avoiding defects. The types of workability prob-
forming operations are distinguished by large performance materials may also render them lems that may occur are introduced first, and the
changes in cross-sectional area (e.g., round bar hard-to-work. At the same time, rapid product general concepts of process modeling for de-
extrusion or flat rolling) and may be accompa- and process development have achieved a high signing and controlling bulk working processes
nied by large changes in shape (e.g., impression level of sophistication through the use of modern are described. This introductory chapter also in-
die forging or shape rolling). In contrast, sheet design methods and tools, enhanced by comput- cludes a brief overview on modeling of bulk
forming operations (Fig. 2) (Ref 1) typically in- erization. These innovations can be classified as forming processes by numerical techniques such
volve large changes in shape (e.g., cup forming materials testing and data acquisition, process as finite element analysis (FEA). Finite element
from a flat blank) without a significant change in
the sheet thickness. Sheet forming has several
characteristics that distinguish it from bulk
working; for example, sheet formability in-
cludes different criteria such as springback and
the resistance of a sheet material to thinning.
Sheet formability and process design are not ad-
dressed in this Handbook and are left as topics
for another publication. Nevertheless, many of
the same concepts and methods described in the
present Handbook can be applied to sheet form-
ing processes.
While the major role of bulk forming opera-
tions is to produce the desired shape, in doing so
they also modify the material structure and sur-
face. Generally, the effects of bulk working
processes are beneficial, leading to improved in-
ternal quality (closure of casting porosity, re-
finement of grain structure, and grain alignment)
as well as improved surface quality (burnished
surfaces and worked surface material). However,
the large amount of metal movement during bulk
forming operations also can introduce material
discontinuities that are potential defects (i.e.,
imperfections that degrade intended function).
Some general types of surface and internal
discontinuities of wrought products are illus-
trated in Fig. 3 for the example of rolled bar.
Imperfections such as segregation, porosity, or
seams can influence the potential or likelihood
of a defective part, and their prevention is one Fig. 1 General classification of bulk deformation processes. Source: Ref 1
4 / Introduction

Fig. 4 Longitudinal sections of two types of ingots

showing typical pipe and porosity. Pipe is a con-
dition that develops in the nominal top centerline of the
ingot because of metal shrinkage during solidification.
Fig. 2 General classification of sheet forming processes. Source: Ref 1 When the ingots are rolled into bars, pipe and porosity be-
come elongated throughout the center of the bars.

Fig. 3 Ten different types of imperfections that might be found in rolled bar

analysis is an effective method for solving a part produced by the bulk working process is un- that the force that must be applied by the pro-
wide variety of engineering problems and has acceptable and must be scrapped or reworked. cessing equipment and the stresses on the dies
been useful in the design and analysis of both From this practical point of view, workability are lower. On the other hand, a poorly designed
bulk and sheet forming processes (Ref 2). also may be defined by other factors such as the or controlled process can produce defects in an
generation of a rough surface finish or the in- easy-to-work material, leading to a scrap part.
ability to achieve a required tolerance on a criti- By way of example, lead is a very ductile and
Workability Problems cal dimension. workable material that can be formed readily by
Workability also is a complex technological compressive operations such as forging and
Workability refers to the relative ease with concept that is related to both material and rolling; yet, lead fails to form easily in tensile
which a material can be shaped through plastic process characteristics. Workability depends not operations such as drawing.
deformation. Workability is usually thought of only on the fracture resistance (ductility) of the A hard-to-work alloy presents other chal-
as being limited by the onset of fracture. Greater material but also on the specific details (stress lenges to provide a deformation process envi-
workability of a material allows greater defor- state) of the process as influenced by die geom- ronment that prevents defect formation. The
mation and/or a more complex shape that can be etry, workpiece geometry, and lubrication condi- evaluation of a material by the various workabil-
produced before fracture occurs. In general, tions. Ease of manufacture is aided when the ity testing and analysis methods described in this
however, a workability problem occurs when the material has a low flow stress (yield strength) so Handbook provide a framework for intelligently
 Chapter 1: Workability and Process Design—An Introduction / 5

choosing materials for best workability or for such as triple-point cracking/cavitation at hot The fracture locus concept has been used to pre-
changing the design of the process to enhance working temperatures or inhomogeneous defor- vent free surface cracking in forging and to pre-
the workability of a given material. As a first mation that cause internal defects such as central vent edge cracking in rolling. With modifica-
step toward devising a solution to a workability bursts or chevron cracking. Internal fracture can tions, the fracture locus approach has also
problem, it is useful to categorize workability be an extremely dangerous type of defect be- provided insight into such failure modes as cen-
problems in terms of their general source: cause it cannot be detected visually. ter bursting in extrusion and forging and die-
Free Surface Cracking (Adapted from Ref workpiece contact fractures in forging. These
● Fracture-related problems: for example, in-
3). A free surface, by definition, has neither a limits change with chemistry, grain size, temper-
ternal bursts or chevron cracks; cracks on
stress normal to it nor a shear stress on it. Free ature, second-phase content, and possibly with
free surfaces; cracks on die-contacted sur-
surface fractures occur on surfaces undergoing strain rate.
faces
free expansion due to compressive loads on con- The concept of a working limit for free sur-
● Metal-flow-related problems: for example,
tact surfaces between the tools (rolls or dies) and face fracture is important because the workabil-
end grain and poor surface performance; in-
the workpiece. The tensile stresses leading to ity of a metal may be characterized for a partic-
homogeneous grain size; shear bands and
free surface fracture are often referred to as sec- ular set of process conditions. In general, as the
locally weakened structures; cold shuts,
ondary stresses since they are not applied di- working temperature is increased, the location
folds, and laps; flow-through defects
rectly by metalworking equipment. Edge crack- of the fracture line will move upward, indicating
● Control, material selection, and utilization
ing in rolling of plates, strip, or rings is a that higher deformation can be accommodated
problems: for example, underfill, part dis-
primary example of free surface cracking. before fracture. However, higher temperatures
tortion, and poor dimensional control; tool
Another is the surface cracking occurring on ex- are not always beneficial, as in the case of IN718
overload and breakage; excessive tool wear;
posed expanding surfaces during upsetting or on nickel-base superalloy, which has a temperature
high initial investment due to equipment
the leading edges of localized areas of extrusion limit of about 1120 °C (2050 °F) for hot work-
cost; poor material utilization and high
in forgings. ing (Ref 5 and Chapter 12, “Workability Theory
scrap loss
One of the most successful and useful design and Application in Bulk Forming Processes” in
These types of problems are introduced briefly tools to come from bulk workability research is this Handbook). Experimental observations have
in the following sections of this chapter. Each the workability diagram for free surface fracture shown that the slope of the line increases with
type of problem may involve different kinds of during the cold working of wrought and powder strain rate for some metals, most notably some
methods or solutions in the design of the process metals. An example of a workability diagram of brasses and austenitic stainless steels (Ref 6).
and/or product. For example, workability can be this type is shown in Fig. 5 from Chapter 3 of The position of the line drops (lower workabil-
improved by changes in die geometry, work- Ref 4, “Cold Upset Testing.” The graph indicates ity) as the second-phase content increases, much
piece geometry, lubrication conditions, or pro- the locus of free surface normal strains (one ten- like the tensile ductility decreases with second
cessing temperature. Much plastic deformation sile and one compressive) that cause fracture. phase. The fracture line location is also sensitive
of metals is carried out at elevated temperature The workability diagrams are used during to the microstructure. For example, a spher-
(hot working) because flow stress decreases process design by plotting calculated or esti- oidized structure for a high-carbon steel has a
with increasing temperature. mated surface strain paths that are to be imposed higher fracture-line position than a pearlitic mi-
The same general approach applies to sheet during forming on the fracture locus diagram crostructure has. More details and references on
forming operations in that the major emphasis of (Fig. 5). If the final strains lie above the locus, workability in terms of free surface cracking are
formability evaluation also is on measuring and part failure is likely, and changes are necessary in Chapter 11, “Design for Deformation
predicting the limits of deformation before frac- in preform design, lubrication, and/or material. Processes.”
ture. Sometimes the term formability is used in
conjunction with either the sheet formability or
bulk workability. However, the term formability
is limited more properly to sheet forming opera-
tions because there are major distinctions in the
conditions of sheet forming and bulk forming
processes. In sheet forming, metal is deformed
plastically by tensile loads, often without signif-
icant changes in sheet thickness or surface char-
acteristics and with the possibility of significant
elastic recovery or springback because the mag-
nitudes of plastic and elastic deformation may
be similar. In contrast, metal is deformed plasti-
cally by compressive loads during bulk forming,
and the plastic deformation is proportionally
much more prevalent than elastic deformation.

Fracture-Related Problems
The general types of fracture in bulk working
are:
● Free surface fracture
● Die contact surface fracture
● Internal fracture
The most common types of fracture failures in
bulk working are free surface fracture (at hot or
cold processing temperatures) and internal frac- Fig. 5 Schematic workability diagrams for bulk forming processes. Strain path a would lead to failure for material A.
ture. Internal fracture occurs by mechanisms Both strain paths (a and b) can be used for the successful forming of material B. Source: Ref 4
6 / Introduction

Die-Contact Surface Cracking. Cracking caused by high hydrostatic tension in combina- ciently high to tear the material apart internally,
on surfaces in contact with a die is a common tion with internal material weaknesses. Chevrons particularly if the forging temperature is too
problem. Frequently, cracks occur during forg- are internal flaws named for their shape (Fig. 3k). high (Ref 8). Similarly, if the metal contains
ing on surfaces that are in contact with the dies. A central burst, or chevron crack, is associated low-melting phases resulting from segregation,
One common location of such defects is in the most commonly with extrusion and drawing op- these phases may rupture during forging. Ingot
vicinity of a die or punch corner. A combination erations, although it can be generated by forging pipe, unhealed center conditions, or voids asso-
of shear deformation with tension or low values and rolling processes as well. Internal bursts in ciated with melt-related discontinuities may also
of hydrostatic pressure in the vicinity of a rolled and forged metals result from the use of induce center bursts if reduction rates are too se-
die corner are responsible for surface cracking equipment that has insufficient capacity to work vere or temperatures are incorrect during work-
(Ref 7). the metal throughout its cross section. If the ing. The conversion practice to bar or billet must
Observation of a variety of such defects working force is not sufficient, the outer layers of impart sufficient homogenization or healing to
shows that an apparently common characteristic the metal will be deformed more than the inside produce a product with sound center conditions.
is an abrupt change in frictional shear traction metal, sometimes causing wholly internal, inter- An example of an unsound condition that did not
distribution in the region of the crack. High fric- granular fissures that can act as initiation sites for heal is shown in Fig. 6.
tion to retard metal flow in advance of the crack further crack propagation during service loads. In It also is useful to point out that, if the stress
location is one method for preventing such de- forward cold extrusion, the occurrence of central state is compressive in areas where material
fects. These cracks usually do not propagate bursts or chevrons is nearly always restricted to weaknesses occur, the compressive stress state
deeply into the workpiece but instead result in isolated lots of material and usually to only a will close up any porosity or pipe and will retard
unacceptable surface quality or unacceptable small percentage of the pieces extruded in any any inclusions or segregation from initiating
machining depths if that surface is to be finish particular production run. cracks. The stress state, as controlled by the
machined. As the forging community has moved A change in deformation zone geometry is process parameters, thus has an important role in
closer to net-shape forming, this type of defect usually sufficient to eliminate the problem. The the degree of soundness in the worked material.
has become an increasing problem. Causes of conservative design approach is to ensure that no The classic work by Lou Coffin and Harry
this problem include nonuniform lubrication, hydrostatic tension develops. Often, however, Rogers (Ref 9) showed very clear relationships
flow around die corners, and an improper start- the part or tooling design cannot be changed suf- between damage generation and tensile stress
ing workpiece surface. ficiently to eliminate hydrostatic tension. If the states (as well as damage healing and compres-
Central or Internal Bursts (Chevron level of hydrostatic tension can be kept below a sive stress states) during deformation processing.
Cracking). Central bursts are internal fractures critical level, bursting can likely be avoided. Macroetching and ultrasonic inspection meth-
This may be accomplished by a change in lubri- ods are the most widely used for identifying re-
cant, die profile, temperature, deformation level, gions of unsoundness. Bursts usually display a
or process rate. distinct pattern of cracks and do not show
The probability of internal burst is enhanced spongy areas, thus distinguishing them from
in areas of material weakness if they are acted on pipes. Bursts are readily detected by macroetch-
by hydrostatic tension stress states during the ing. Figure 7 shows a large burst that occurred
deformation process. For example, with ingot during the forging of an electroslag-remelted
imperfections (such as pipe, porosity, segrega- (ESR) ingot. The cause was traced to a weak so-
tion, or inclusions), tensile stresses can be suffi- lidification plane near the bottom of the ingot

Fig. 6 Section through a heat resistant alloy forging

showing a central discontinuity that resulted
from insufficient homogenization during conversion. Step
machining was used to reveal the location of the rupture; Fig. 7 Cross section of a forged bar showing a forging burst. The burst is located approximately at the centerline of
original diameter is at right. the workpiece. Arrow indicates the direction of working.
 Chapter 1: Workability and Process Design—An Introduction / 7

combined with higher than normal forging tem-

peratures.

Flow-Related Defects
The defects described in this section are re-
lated to the distribution of metal. They can be
avoided by proper die design, preform design,
and choice of lubrication system. Strictly speak-
ing, these defects are not fundamental to the
workability of the material but are related to the
process details. However, knowledge of these
common forging defects is necessary for a prac-
tical understanding of workability. These are the
defects that commonly limit deformation in sec- Fig. 8 Micrograph of a forging lap. Note the included
ondary operations. oxide material in the lap. 20
Most types of flow-related defects occur in
hot forging, which is described in more detail in
Chapter 13, “Workability in Forging.” However, fillets are initially large and progressively be-
the following provides a general introduction to come smaller as the forging steps are completed.
typical types of defects that may occur from Figure 9 (Ref 10) shows schematically a lap
bulk working. They are common for impression- forming as metal flows around a die corner.
die forging, in which case defect formation may Extrusion-Type Defects. The tail of an extru-
also involve entrapment of oxides and lubricant. sion is unusable because of nonuniform flow
When this occurs, the metal is incapable of through the extrusion die. This results in a cen-
rewelding under high forging pressures; the term ter-to-surface velocity gradient, with metal from
cold shut is frequently applied in conjunction the workpiece interior moving through the die at
with laps, flow-through defects, and so on to de- a slightly higher velocity than the outer material.
scribe the flaws generated. The result shows up at the tail of the extrusion as
Underfill may not seem like a flow-related a suck-in or pipe, and, for extrusions, the tail is
defect, but aside from simple insufficient start- simply cut off and discarded. Alternatively, a
ing mass, the reasons for underfill are flow re- follower block of cheaper material may be
lated. These include improper fill sequence, in- added so that most of the defect falls in the
sufficient forging pressure, insufficient preheat cheaper material, and less length of the extruded
temperature, lubricant buildup in die corners, workpiece is lost.
poor or uneven lubrication, and excessive die For forgings that involve forward or back-
chill. An improper fill sequence may result in ward extrusion to fill a part section, the same
excessive flash loss, or it may be the result of ex- situation can develop. Metal flow into a rib or
traordinary pressure requirements to fill a partic- hub can result in a suck-in defect, which in a
ular section. Sometimes, venting may eliminate worst-case scenario would show up as a fold on
the problem; more often than not, a change in the face opposite to the rib. A best case would
the incoming workpiece shape or a change in the be a depression on what otherwise should be a
deformation sequence is required. flat surface. One method of eliminating this
Laps and Folds. Laps are surface irregularities type of defect is to position more material on Fig. 9 Lap formation in a rib-web forging caused by
improper radius in the preform die. Source:
that appear as linear defects and are caused by the the back face initially. Another method is to Ref 10
folding over of hot metal at the surface. These change the rib geometry (aspect ratio and/or an-
folds are worked into the surface but are not met- gles). If neither of these changes can be accom-
allurgically bonded (welded) because of the plished, an extra forging step may be needed to
oxide present between the surfaces (Fig. 8). Thus, limit the amount of extrusion that is done in any Fig. 11 (Ref 7) for a trapped-die forging that has
a discontinuity with a sharp notch is created. one step. a rib on the top surface. The rib denoted by “2”
In rolling, laps are most often caused by ex- Extrusion-type defects are formed when cen- is filled early in the forging sequence, and sig-
cessive material in a given hot roll pass being trally located ribs formed by extrusion-type flow nificant mass must flow past the rib in order to
squeezed out into the area of the roll collar. draw too much metal from the main body or web fill the inner hub, zone “4.” The result can be a
When turned for the following pass, the material of the forging. A defect similar to a pipe cavity complete shearing-off of the rib in the worst
is rolled back into the bar and appears as a lap on is thus formed (Fig. 10). Methods of minimizing case, with a lesser case being the formation of a
the surface (Fig. 3). A lap or fold occurs in die the occurrence of these defects include increas- shear-type crack.
forging from an improper progression in fill se- ing the thickness of the web or designing the Similar to laps in appearance, flow-through
quence. Normally, a lap or fold is associated forging with a small rib opposite the larger rib, defects can be shallow, but they are indicative of
with flow around a die corner, as in the case of as shown in Fig. 10. an undesirable grain flow pattern or shear band
an upper rib or lower rib, or with a reversal in Shear-Related or Flow-Through Defects. that extends much deeper into the forging. An
metal-flow direction. Shearing defects are also known as flow-through example is shown in (Fig. 12) (Ref 12). Flow-
In die forging, a general rule of thumb is to defects because they result from excessive metal through defects can also occur when trapped lu-
keep metal moving in the same direction. The flow past a filled detail of the part. Flow-through bricant forces metal to flow past an impression.
die corner radius is a critical tool dimension, and defects are formed when metal is forced to flow Seams are crevices in the surface of the metal
it should be as generous as possible. In pro- past a recess after the recess has filled or when that have been closed, but not welded, by work-
gressing through a forging sequence, the die cor- material in the recess has ceased to deform be- ing the metal. Seams result from elongated
ners should become tighter so that the workpiece cause of chilling. An example of this is shown in trapped-gas pockets or from cracks. Even
8 / Introduction

Seams may be continuous or intermittent, as

indicated in Fig. 3(h). Depth of seams varies
widely, and surface areas sometimes may be
welded together in spots. Seams seldom pene-
trate to the core of bar stock. Seams can be
difficult to detect because they may appear as
scratches or because a machining process
may obliterate them. Seams are normally closed
tight enough that no actual opening can be de-
tected visually without some nondestructive in-
spection techniques such as magnetic particle
inspection. Figure 14 is an example of a seam
detected by routine magnetic particle inspection
of a hot-rolled 4130 steel bar. No stringer type
inclusions were observed in the region of the
flaw, but it did contain a substantial amount of
Fig. 11 Schematic of a flow-through crack at the base
oxide (Fig. 14b).
of a rib in a trapped-die forging. Excessive
metal flow past region 2 causes a shear crack to form at A Seams may not become evident until the part
and propagate toward B. Source: Ref 7 has been subjected to installation and service
stresses. For example, seams are sometimes dif-
also result from highly stressed planes in cold- ficult to detect in an unused fastener, but they are
drawn bars or from improper quenching during readily apparent after a fastener has been sub-
heat treatment. Cracks created from these latter jected to installation and service stresses. Seams
Fig. 10 Extrusion-type defect (a) in centrally located
two causes show no evidence of oxidized sur- also may not become evident until the constraint
rib and (b) die-design modification used to exerted by the bulk of material is removed from
avoid defect. Source: Ref 11 faces. Seams are generally heavily oxidized and
decarburized in steels (Fig. 13). the neighborhood of a seam. The incomplete re-
Seams have a large number of possible ori- moval of seams from forging stock can cause ad-
though seams can occur from cracks, the two gins, some mechanical and some metallurgical. ditional cracking in hot forging and quench
can be distinguished from the presence of ox- Seams can develop from cracks caused by work- cracking during heat treatment.
ides. In mill processing, for example, cracks ing or from an imperfection in the ingot surface,
with little or no oxide present on their edges may such as a hole, that becomes oxidized and is pre- Microstructure and Properties
occur when the metal cools in the mold, setting vented from healing during working. In this
up highly stressed areas. Seams develop from case, the hole simply stretches out during forg- A product with poor properties is another po-
these cracks during rolling as the reheated outer ing or rolling, producing a linear seam in the tential problem, and it usually arises from an in-
skin of the billet becomes heavily oxidized, workpiece surface. Seams also result from adequate microstructure such as grain flow and
transforms into scale, and flakes off the part dur- trapped-gas pockets, cracks, a heavy cluster of grain size. A major advantage of shaping metal
ing further rolling operations. In contrast, cracks nonmetallic inclusions, or a deep lap. parts by rolling, forging, or extrusion stems from
the opportunities such processes offer the de-
signer with respect to the control of grain flow.
The strength of these and similar wrought prod-

Fig. 13 Micrograph of a seam in a cross section of a 19

mm (3/4 in.) diameter medium-carbon steel bar
Fig. 12 Flow-through defect in Ti-6Al-4V rib-web structural part. Source: Ref 12 showing oxide and decarburization in the seam. 350
 Chapter 1: Workability and Process Design—An Introduction / 9

ucts is almost always greatest in the longitudinal

(or equivalent) direction of grain flow. The max-
imum load-carrying ability in the finished part is
attained by providing a grain flow pattern paral-
lel to the direction of the major applied service
loads when, in addition, sound, dense, good-
quality metal of satisfactorily fine grain size has
been produced throughout.
Grain Flow and Anisotropy. Metal that is
rolled, forged, or extruded develops and retains
a fiberlike grain structure that is aligned in the
principal direction of working. This characteris-
tic becomes visible on external and sectional
surfaces of wrought products when the surfaces
are suitably prepared and etched (Fig 15). The Fig. 15 Section through a forged head on a threaded
“fibers” are the result of elongation of the mi- fastener showing uniform grain flow that min-
crostructural constituents of the metal in the di- imizes stress raiser and unfavorable shear planes
rection of working. Thus the phrase direction of
grain flow is commonly used to describe the
dominant direction of these fibers within
wrought metal products from the crystallo- size for good workability) and an optimal work-
graphic reorientation of the grains during defor- ing temperature for adequate workability with-
mation and/or the alignment of nonmetallic in- out excessive growth of grain size.
clusions, voids, and chemical segregation. The Control of grain size during thermomechani-
occurrence and severity of fibering varies with cal processing is a topic of significant practical
such factors as composition, extent of chemical importance, and extensive efforts have been em-
segregation, and the amount of work or reduc- ployed in this regard. For example, the concept
tion the workpiece receives. of grain size control has been used for many
In wrought metal, the direction of grain flow years in the production of flat-rolled products.
is also evidenced by measurements of mechani- Small niobium additions increase the austenite
cal properties. Strength and ductility are almost recrystallization temperature, and controlled
always greater in the direction parallel to that of rolling is used to refine the relatively coarse
working. The characteristic of exhibiting differ- austenite structure by a series of high-tempera-
ent strength and ductility values with respect to ture rolling and recrystallization steps. It com-
the direction of working is referred to as “me- bines repeated deformation and recrystallization
chanical anisotropy” and is exploited in the de- steps with the addition of austenite grain-growth
sign of wrought products. Although best proper- inhibitors such as titanium nitride to refine the
ties in wrought metals are most frequently the starting austenitic grain size and to restrict grain
longitudinal (or equivalent), properties in other Fig. 14 Seam in rolled 4130 steel bar. (a) Close-up of
growth after recrystallization. This is a topic of
seam. Note the linear characteristics of this
directions may yet be superior to those in prod- flaw. (b) Micrograph showing cross section of the bar. ongoing interest, as described in more detail in
ucts not wrought—that is, in cast ingots or in Seam is normal to the surface and filled with oxide. 30 the section “Microstructural Modeling” in this
forging stock taken from ingot only lightly chapter.
worked. Similar metallurgical effects on grain size
Although all wrought metals are mechani- momechanical processing on grain size are crit- apply to other materials and hot working opera-
cally anisotropic, the effects of anisotropy on ical in obtaining products with satisfactory prop- tions. Minor variations in composition may also
mechanical properties vary among different erties. This requires a more extensive evaluation cause large variations in workability, grain size,
metals and alloys. For example, a vacuum- of the dynamic and thermophysical conditions and final properties. In one case, for example,
melted steel of a given composition is generally that influence metallurgical processes at a mi- wide heat-to-heat variations in grain size oc-
less mechanically anisotropic than a conven- croscopic level. Thus, the effects of thermome- curred in parts forged from nickel–base alloy
tionally killed, air-melted steel of the same chanical processing on grain size require more 901 (UNS N09901) in the same sets of dies. For
composition. Response to etching to reveal the complex models based on the principles of phys- some parts, optimal forging temperatures had to
grain flow characteristic of anisotropy also ical metallurgy and the continuum mechanics of be determined for each incoming heat of mate-
varies. Metals with poor corrosion resistance mechanical flow. rial by making sample forgings and examining
are readily etched, whereas those with good Grain size and grain structure also influence them after heat treatment for variations in grain
corrosion resistance require more corrosive workability. Workability typically decreases size and other properties. This illustrates the
etchants and extended etching times to reveal with increasing grain size, because cracks may complexity of process design and modeling of
grain flow. Because grain flow can be a vital initiate and propagate easily along the grain thermomechanical forming.
factor in the service performance of a part, it is boundaries. When the grain size is large relative
useful to use arrows on forging drawings to to the overall size of the workpiece, as in con-
show optimum grain flow direction that corre- ventionally cast ingot structures, hot working is Material Control, Selection, and
sponds to the direction of principal service required because of the low workability of the Equipment Utilization
stress. Effects of grain flow are described in material. In general, the workability of metals
more detail in Chapter 11 “Design for increases with temperature. However, as temper- The efficiency and productivity of a forming
Deformation Processes.” ature increases, grain growth also occurs. Thus, operation are influenced by a number of factors
Grain Size. The influence of grain size on the design of thermomechanical processes may such as material selection and control, equipment
properties such as strength and ductility is gen- involve a complex set of factors such as materi- cost, tool wear, part distortion, poor dimensional
erally well understood, and the effects of ther- als control (preforms with suitably fine grain control, poor material utilization, and high scrap
10 / Introduction

loss. Material control is important, as material characteristics (such as energy consumption models besides just continuum mechanics.
variation can have significant effects on proper- and maximum productivity) and/or product Microstructural modeling also requires quanti-
ties and characteristics of the product such as properties (such as microstructural homo- fying the thermal field in the materials and the
grain size and mechanical properties. The re- geneity, grain flow characteristics, and grain associated metallurgical phenomena. The practi-
sponsibility of assuring and verifying the proper- size) cal application of such physical metallurgy-
ties and characteristics of the product is vested in based models continues to advance further as
material control, which controls all processes Each objective requires different types of analyt- numerical techniques such as finite element
employed in production, from selection of raw ical tools or models. For example, models based analysis (FEA) become more sophisticated with
material to final inspection. It establishes manu- on continuum mechanics can address flow- improvements in computer hardware. The abil-
facturing standards to ensure reproducibility in related problems such as insufficient die fill, ity to accurately predict thermomechanical his-
processing and product uniformity. Material con- poor shape control, and fracture conditions. tories by finite element modeling is being used
trol depends on the proper application of draw- The four major design considerations in a to predict the evolution of microstructure,
ings, specifications, manufacturing process con- bulk forming process are material flow, worka- thereby replacing data-intensive empirical meth-
trols, and quality-assurance programs to satisfy bility, resultant properties (microstructure) of ods with more knowledge-based analytical/nu-
all requirements for metallurgical integrity, me- the product, and utilization factors (economics, merical methods using the fundamental princi-
chanical properties, and dimensional accuracy. It efficiency, productivity, etc.). The first consider- ples of transport phenomena, continuum
also provides for identification and certification, ation is the workpiece material and its flow mechanics, and physical metallurgy.
so that a product history can be traced. stress behavior. Flow stress is the stress needed The fourth consideration involves added con-
Effective utilization of materials and equip- to cause plastic deformation and is affected by straints of available equipment and economics in
ment also depends on the type of workpiece ma- temperature, rate of deformation, and amount of addition to flow stress, forming, and part per-
terial and forming operation. Other chapters de- previous plastic deformation. Flow stress behav- formance considerations. The fourth considera-
scribe briefly equipment and workability for ior is based on mechanical testing and can be tion usually dominates the other considerations,
specific types of bulk-working operations. modeled by constitutive equations that describe sometimes to the detriment of the material being
Chapter 11 “Design for Deformation Processes” mathematically the relationship between stress worked. Material utilization may also include
also describes briefly tool materials. A wide and strain during plastic deformation. factors of economic productivity, efficiency, tool
range of materials for tools and dies is available The second consideration is the fracture be- wear, and scrap loss.
to designers. Among the important attributes are havior of the material and the effects of temper-
hardenability; machinability; and resistance to ature, stress state, and strain rate on fracture; this Concepts of Process Modeling
wear, plastic deformation, shock loading, and combined view of ductility and stress state is
heat checking. The needed levels of resistance to termed workability for bulk forming processes. Engineering models are often used to deter-
wear, plastic deformation, and so forth, are de- Even if the desired shape is obtained, cracking mine the response of structure, component,
termined by factors such as type of equipment or some other cracklike discontinuity may occur. process, or system to a set of conditions. The de-
used, workpiece temperature, expected die tem- For example, edge cracking may occur during velopment of any model requires the definition
perature, and number of parts to be fabricated. rolling, or central bursts may occur during ex- of appropriate boundary conditions and the ap-
Low-alloy steels and hot-work die steels are trusion. Cracking of the tool itself may even plication of appropriate mathematical equations
often suitable for conventional metalworking. occur. Many methods have been developed to (which are typically differential equations for
On the other hand, high-temperature die materi- evaluate workability, as described in more detail many physical situations). The complexity of the
als are required for special applications such as in subsequent chapters, with damage criteria de- boundary conditions and the governing differen-
isothermal forging of titanium and nickel-base tailed in Chapter 12 “Workability Theory and tial equations determine the possible methods of
alloys. These die materials include various su- Application in Bulk Forming Processes”. solution. In some cases, solutions may be ade-
peralloys and TZM molybdenum (Mo-0.5Ti- The third major consideration is a determina- quately achieved by analytical (closed-form)
0.1Zr). Recommendations on the selection of tion of the desired final microstructure needed to equations, while in other cases numerical tech-
these materials are made in Chapter 11 “Design produce an acceptable product. Microstructural niques (such as FEA) may be required.
for Deformation Processes.” The approach used optimization or prediction requires additional In the case of deformation processes like a forg-
in making these recommendations and the tool
materials are discussed in detail for hot forging
tooling.

Process Design and Modeling

A considerable array of mechanical tests and

modeling techniques has been developed to pre-
vent defects and/or optimize results in bulk
forming operations such as forging, extrusion,
and rolling. In general, the tools and techniques
for process design have one or more of the fol-
lowing objectives:
● Prevent improper part shape or final geom-
etry that differs from expectations
● Prevent defects or cracking that occur dur-
ing shaping
● Prevent poor properties from the develop-
ment of inadequate microstructure
● Optimize results in terms of desired process Fig. 16 Typical physical phenomena occurring during a forging operation
 Chapter 1: Workability and Process Design—An Introduction / 11

ing operation (Fig. 16), the major process vari-

ables and interactions are shown in Fig. 17. It can
be seen in Fig. 17 that for a metal forming analy-
sis, one needs to satisfy the equilibrium condi-
tions, compatibility equations/strain-displacement
relations, constitutive equations, and, in some in-
stances, the heat balance equation. Modeling the
microstructural effects of these variables could, in
principle, require a more robust set of appropriate
mathematical equations for the process phenom-
ena (such as convection, radiation, chemical reac-
tion, and diffusion, in addition to deformation).
Historically, deformation processing has
fallen in the gap between the traditional disci-
plines of metallurgy and mechanics, and, as a re-
sult, this area has often been neglected in an ac-
ademic sense. A main reason for this is the
difference in length scales by which mechanics
and materials science view a material. The
length scale of deformation is at the atomic
level, and it is at this level that materials science
addresses deformation. In manufacturing, defor-
mation effects are related or measured at a
macroscopic level, and continuum mechanics is Fig. 17 Interaction among major process variables during forming
applied to analyze and explain plasticity quanti-
tatively. However, to understand the macro-
scopic response of materials to temperatures and plastic deformation of material during bulk work- ∂ 2 u ∂ 2 u ∂ 2 u g( x, y, z )
rates of deformation, consideration must be at a ing processes, can be described by differential + + + =0 (Poisson equation)
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 k
lower length scale level, at least to qualitatively equations. Partial differential equations are re-
explain material behavior. The empirical equa- quired when the behavior is a function of time
tions used to address plasticity do not generally and space or of more than one space variable. where the Possion equation includes a heat-
capture the microscopic aspects of deformation. However, if the problem can be simplified to one source function, g(x, y, z), with k as the thermal
Fortunately, the metals that are commonly independent variable (time or one space variable), conductivity of the material.
processed by bulk deformation methods have ordinary differential equations can be used in un- Continuum Mechanics Equations. Con-
many grains per unit volume, and microscopic derstanding the effect of certain parameters on the tinuum mechanic models are based on steady-
events are suitably averaged at the macroscopic response or behavior of the process or object. state equations of mechanical equilibrium and
level. The macroscopic or continuum mechan- Partial differential equations can be divided constitutive equations for mechanical flow. The
ics approach begins to break down when the into three categories: hyperbolic, parabolic, and complete set of equations serves as the founda-
grain size approaches the physical size of the elliptic. Standard hyperbolic equations include tion for continuum mechanics models of bulk
workpiece or when a dominant crystallographic the wave equation: working processes. A model for each case is de-
texture is present in a workpiece. Examples of veloped by imposing appropriate boundary con-
the former include fine wire drawing, bending 1 ∂2u ∂2u ∂2u ∂2u
ditions and initial conditions (tool and work-
of fine wire, and sheet forming processes. = + + piece geometry, temperature, heat flow, etc.) on
c 2 ∂t 2 ∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
Primary examples of the latter are sheet-metal the solutions for the set of equations. In addition,
forming processes or bending of heavily drawn models of thermomechanical processes may also
where c is the wave speed. Parabolic partial require description of thermophysical behavior
wire where crystallographic texture plays a
differential equations include the diffusion and the contact interface between the tool and
dominant role. An additional complication is
equation: worked material.
the fact that most metals have more than one
phase present in their microstructure. The sec- Equilibrium and Compatibility (Strain-
ond phase may be present due to alloying (e.g., ∂u ∂ 2 u ∂ 2 u ∂ 2 u Displacement) Equations. Steady-state equa-
D = + + tions include the forces acting on an element and
cementite in iron), or it may be an unwanted ∂t ∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
phase (e.g., sulfide or silicate inclusions in the compatibility of strain displacements. The
steel). The effects of these second phases are steady-state equations in describing the various
again averaged at the macroscopic level, and the where D is the diffusivity. forces acting on an element in mechanical equi-
material has not been adequately described as Elliptic equations are usually used to model librium are:
having separate phases from a mathematical steady-state phenomena. When hyperbolic or
sense. The materials science community and the parabolic equations are assumed to be invariant ∂ s x ∂ t xy ∂ t xz
+ + = - Fx
mechanics community are trying to bridge this with time, then they reduce to elliptic equations. ∂x ∂y ∂z
length-scale problem, but for now the most use- For example, when the time dependence is re- ∂t xy ∂s y ∂ t yz
ful analysis tools are combinations of contin- moved from the wave equation or the diffusion + + = - Fy
equation, they reduce to the Laplace or Poisson ∂x ∂y ∂z
uum mechanics and empirical results. This is
changing, however, as computer-based numeri- equations for steady-state heat conduction in ∂ t xz ∂ t yz ∂ s z
+ + = - Fz
cal techniques allow more effective modeling solids with constant properties: ∂x ∂y ∂z (Eq 1)
from first principles.
Types of Differential Equations. The physical where s is the normal stress component,  is the
response or behavior of a system, such as the ∂2u ∂2u ∂2u shear stress component, and F is the body
+ + =0 (Laplace equation)
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
12 / Introduction

force/unit volume component. Similarly, the proposed by Sellars and Tegart (Ref 13) by as- where 0 is the uniaxial yield (flow) stress
strain-displacement relationships are given as: suming materials flow during deformation as a measured in tension or compression, and 1, 2,
thermally activated process: 3 are the three principal stresses.
∂u ∂u ∂v
ex = g xy = + Fracture Criteria. Continuum mechanics can
∂x ∂y ∂x Ê Q ˆ also be used in conjunction with multiaxial frac-
e˙ = A [sinh( as )]n¢ exp -
∂v ∂v ∂w Ë RT ¯ ture criteria to gain insights and solutions on the
ey = g yz = +
∂y ∂z ∂y prevention of flow related cracks. Various fracture
∂w ∂w ∂u where A, , and n are constants determined by (or microstructural damage) criteria have been de-
ez = g zx = + fitting empirical data, and Q is the apparent acti- veloped to evaluate workability (e.g., Ref 17–21),
∂z ∂x ∂z (Eq 2) vation energy. At low stresses ( ¯¯ 0.8), the but not all are easily incorporated into continuum
where e is the normal strain,  is the shear strain, equation reduces to a power law: mechanics models of processes. One criterion that
and u, v, and w are the displacements in the x, y, gives a very accurate description of workability
and z directions, respectively. In addition to Ê Q ˆ and is easily implemented in the models is that due
e˙ = A1s n¢ exp -
boundary conditions, the solution of these equa- Ë RT ¯ to Crockcroft and Latham (Ref 17):
tions may be complicated further by time de- ef
pendence of the force functions, the nonlinear
stress-strain behavior of plastic deformation
At high stresses (
¯¯ 1.2), the equation re-
duces to an exponential form:
Ú 0
s1 d e ≥ C

(i.e., constitutive equations), and the flow rules where 1 is the maximum principal stress, ēf is
of plastic deformation (such as the Von Mises Ê Q ˆ
e˙ = A2 exp(bs )exp - the equivalent strain at fracture, and C is a con-
yield citerion) under combined stresses. Ë RT ¯ stant representing the workability of the material.
Constitutive Equations. For a given material, If 1 0, then there are only compressive
the relations between stress components in Eq 1 where  n . stresses and no fracture occurs. The Crockcroft-
and strain components in Eq 2 are given by the Other constitutive relations have been pro- Latham criterion is phenomenological based
constitutive equations representing the behavior posed to describe dynamic recovery and dy- rather than mechanistic, but it captures the phys-
of that material. The simplest example of a con- namic recrystallization, such as the Laasoui- ical concept and intuitive understanding that
stitutive equation is the well-known Hooke’s law Jonas model (Ref 14) and the internal variable damage accumulation, or workability, is depend-
in the elastic regime: model (Ref 15). In all cases, constitutive equa- ent both on the degree of plastic deformation
tions are empirical-based relations derived from (represented by the integral over effective strain)
eE
the reduction of test data. and tensile stress (represented by the maximum
where E is the elastic modulus of the material, Yield Criteria (Flow Rules). The theory of principal stress). Furthermore, both of these
which is measured in a simple tension test or by continuum plasticity involves the definition of physical quantities are readily available outputs
ultrasonic means. yield criterion for when a material yields plasti- of continuum mechanics models and can be eval-
During plastic deformation of most metallic cally or flows. In structural analysis, yield crite- uated at every localized region or point through-
materials, the stress-strain curve becomes non- rion may be characterized as a “failure theory,” out the material to determine potential sites of
linear, because hardening (or less frequently because plastic deformation is an undesired out- crack initiation. As with any constitutive relation,
softening) of the material can occur when con- come in structural design. In bulk deformation, the value of incorporating this workability crite-
tinuing plastic strain is built up. The strain rate yielding of the workpiece is intended, and yield rion into process analyses depends on accurate
can also influence the hardening or softening of criteria are used in the modeling of flow under representation of the actual material behavior,
a material. The general form of the constitutive combined stresses. represented by the coefficient C in this case.
equation for deformation processing is: The continuum mechanics of metallic materi- A more recent fracture criterion is theorized
als includes several theories for yielding, as as (Ref 20):

¯¯  f (ē,ē˙,T)
described in a historical sketch of continuum
where  ¯¯ is the equivalent (or effective) com- plasticity theory with an introduction on com- e
s1f ◊ ≥ C¢
bined stress, ē is the equivalent true strain, ē˙ is putational methods in solid mechanics (Ref 16). s
the equivalent true strain rate, and T is the pro- The first yield criterion for metals was proposed where 1f is the maximum principal stress at
cessing temperature. Most software packages by Henri Tresca in the 1860s. The Tresca crite- fracture, and C is a workability constant. This
for bulk forming modeling have options to input rion is based on the premise that yielding is de- criteria can be related directly to bulk workabil-
the testing data in a tabular form or as a consti- pendent on just shear stresses, whereby plastic ity tests. For incremental loading, Bandstra (Ref
tutive equation. The tabular form is easy to use flow begins when the shear stresses exceed the 21) proved that the criterion can be expressed as:
but is not based on metallurgical principles, as shear yield strength of the metallic material.
with some constitutive equations. Although the Tresca yield criterion is adequate, ef s1
The most frequently used constitutive equa- it neglects the intermediate principal stress, 2. Ú 0 s
d e ≥ C¢
tion is: The Levy-von Mises yield criterion is consid-
ered to be a more complete and generally appli- A review of fracture criteria can be found in Ref

¯¯  K ēn ē˙m  Y 20 and some examples are given in Chapter 12,
cable yielding criteria. It is based on the theory of
where n is the strain hardening exponent, m is Richard von Mises that incorporated a proposal “Workability Theory and Application in Bulk
the strain-rate sensitivity, and Y and K are coef- by M. Levy, which stated that the tensor compo- Forming Processes.”
ficients. Strain-rate sensitivity is important at el- nents of plastic-strain increments are in propor-
evated temperatures, while it has little influence tion to each other just as are the tensor compo-
Methods of Solution
at room temperature for most metallic materials. nents for deviatoric stress. It is based on the The general methods of solving the underly-
In contrast, the importance of the strain-harden- second tensor invariant of the deviatoric stresses ing equations of a model depend on the com-
ing exponent becomes more significant with de- (that is, of the total stresses minus those of a plexity of boundary conditions and process vari-
creasing temperature. hydrostatic state with pressure equal to the aver- ables such as time, space, and internal states.
The most immediately preceding equation age normal stress over all planes) (Ref 16). The Developing an analytical or a closed-form solu-
does not reflect the influence of temperature. For von Mises yield criterion is thus expressed as: tion model may be advantageous in many in-
each temperature, there is a set of equations. A stances, but numerical techniques may be re-
more fundamentally sound equation has been 2s 20 = (s1 - s 2 )2 + (s 2 - s 3 )2 + (s 3 - s1 )2 quired. In some circumstances analytic solutions
 Chapter 1: Workability and Process Design—An Introduction / 13

of partial differential equations can be obtained. ● Contains different phases and grains cally indeterminate (i.e., there is no longer a
However, this is only true of simple forms of the ● Contains discontinuous behavior such as a closed-formed solution that specifies deflection
equations and in simple geometric regions. For phase change over the length of the beam). In this case, nu-
most practical problems, computational or nu- ● Has a nonlinear physical process such as merical techniques (such as finite element analy-
merical solutions are needed. when the heat transfer coefficient is a non- sis) are required to find approximate solutions of
There are several techniques for solving dif- linear function of the temperature deflection and bending stresses. Likewise, the
ferential equations. Numerical algorithms to solution of dynamic problems may also require
solve differential equations consist of lumped- In many instances, meshed models are supple- numerical techniques, depending on the com-
parameter methods or the so-called meshed-solu- mented by some non-meshed symbolic or analyt- plexity of the equations in the models and the
tion methods (such as finite element analysis). ical modeling. This is done in order to decide on appropriate boundary conditions.
If the problem can be simplified for the use of appropriate boundary conditions for the meshed In analytical solutions models, boundary con-
ordinary differential equations, then a lumped- part of the problem, because it is the boundary ditions need to be set at a very early stage. In
parameter model might be used. A lumped- conditions that effectively model the physical meshed-solution models, boundary conditions
parameter model may help in understanding the problem and control the form of the final solu- are typically represented separate from the main
effect of certain parameters on the process. tion. Analytic models are always useful for dis- equations and decoupled to some extent from
However, these methods do not model spatial tinguishing between mechanisms that have to be the model itself. Therefore, sensitivity analysis
variation directly, and the parameters do not nec- modeled separately or modeled as a coupled set. can be done much easier using meshed methods.
essarily always have direct physical significance. Boundary Conditions. Application of appro- Material Properties. All models of bulk-
Typically, partial differential equations are re- priate boundary conditions is a major part of the working processes require input of accurate ma-
quired to describe the process in terms of time, activity of process modeling. Boundary and initial terial properties so that the fundamental materi-
space, field variables, and internal states. Several conditions represent geometric factors (e.g., sym- als behavior can be represented faithfully by the
methods have been developed for the numerical metry, tool shape, and workpiece shape), thermal constitutive equations. Acquiring these proper-
solution of partial differential equations. This factors (e.g., heat flux and temperature) and loads ties can be difficult and expensive. Sensitivity
typically involves meshed-solution methods (e.g., tool pressure and tool friction) pertinent to analysis of the model with respect to variations
such as the finite element method, the finite dif- the particular problem being modeled. These con- in property data should be done. In many in-
ference method (FDM), and the boundary ele- ditions or constraints influence the complexity of stances, it may be possible to use models with
ment method (BEM). Each has different suitabil- the problem and the most appropriate method or inexact material property information in order to
ity for different types of problems. For example, algorithm for solving the equations of the model. predict trends, as opposed to determining actual
the finite difference method is often adopted in For example, consider the simple example of values. Problems may arise if the material prop-
fluid mechanics but is seldom used in solid and a uniformly loaded cantilever beam (Fig. 18a). erties are improperly extrapolated beyond their
structural mechanics. Finite element methods In this case (assuming uniform loading and a range of validity. In deformation modeling,
are the most common for linear and nonlinear rigid connection), then closed-formed equations Young’s modulus, Poisson’s ratio, anisotropic
continuum mechanics, although the boundary can provide analytical solutions for the deflec- behavior, and flow stress (as functions of stress,
element method (BEM) has advantages in some tion and bending stress over the length of the strain, strain rate, and temperature) are needed.
applications of continuum mechanics. beam (Fig. 18a). However, if the boundary con- Closed-Form and Numerical Methods of
These numerical methods provide approxi- ditions are altered by the addition of simple sup- Solution. Several types of theoretical methods
mate solutions by converting a complex contin- ports (Fig. 18b), then the system becomes stati- are available for metal forming analysis, as
uum model into a discrete set of smaller prob-
lems with a finite number of degrees of freedom.
The meshes are created by using structured ele-
ments like rectilinear blocks or unstructured
meshes with variable-shaped elements (e.g.,
tetrahedra, bricks, hexahedral, prisms, and so
forth) for better fidelity to the macroscopic con-
ditions or boundaries. Once a discrete-element
model has been created, mathematical tech-
niques are used to obtain a set of equilibrium
equations for each element and the entire model.
By applying various boundary conditions and
loads to the model, the solution of the simultane-
ous set of equations provides the resulting re-
sponse anywhere in the model while still provid-
ing continuity and equilibrium. The process of
solution is essentially a computer-based numeri-
cal method, where interpolation functions (poly-
nomials) are used to reduce the behavior at an in-
finite field of points to a finite number of points.
Meshed-solution models have advantages
over the typical closed-form solutions, as they
more readily give solutions to irregular shapes,
variable material properties, and irregular
boundary conditions. Construction of a discrete
meshed model for numerical solution may be
necessary if the modeled volume:
Fig. 18 Effect of boundary conditions on the solution of a cantilever problem. (a) The beam deflection and bending
stresses for a uniformly loaded cantilever can be solved by a closed-form equation as shown. (b) A supported
● Has a complex shape (as is common in bulk cantilever beam is statically indeterminate, and numerical methods are required to approximate defection and bending-
forming) stress conditions that are consistent with the boundary conditions established by the additional supports.
14 / Introduction

described in Ref 22 and 23. Generally, the meth- large length of contact zone compared to the sections leads to progressively smaller estimates
ods of deformation modeling fall into one of two small strip thickness, or wire drawing, which has of the power dissipated, hence the term “upper
categories: a large length of contact in the die compared to bound.” The equilibrium equations are not
the wire diameter. Under these conditions, the solved in this case, but as the upper limit is min-
● Closed form analytical approximations
normal stresses can be assumed to vary only in imized, satisfaction of equilibrium is ap-
● Numerical methods using discrete elements
the direction of the large dimension. This re- proached. With the upper bound method, again,
However, this division is not entirely distinct, as duces the complex set of continuum equations to closed form solutions can be developed for sim-
closed-form methods are often solved by dis- one ordinary differential equation of equilibrium ple geometries, while numerical methods are
crete-element numerical methods, as well. The and one strain equation. The ordinary differen- used for complex geometries.
general distinction between the two sets of ana- tial equation can be solved in closed form, or, for The upper bound method is based on the limit
lytical methods is that the first set is based on complex geometries, it can be solved by numer- theorem stating that the power dissipated by the
simplifying assumptions that permit closed form ical methods. boundary forces at their prescribed velocities is
solution as well as rapid numerical and graphi- In this approach, the deformation is assumed always less than or equal to the power dissipated
cal methods. Solving the partial differential to be homogeneous, and the force equilibrium by the same forces under any other kinemati-
equations by numerical methods, in contrast, re- equations are set up and solved using an appro- cally admissible velocity field. A kinematically
duces the need for simplifying assumptions. priate yield criterion. The slab method is a quick admissible velocity field is one that satisfies the
Regardless of the solution method, continuum way of obtaining approximate load and strain velocity boundary conditions and material in-
mechanics is the starting point. Each problem estimates in axisymmetric and plane-strain prob- compressibility. This method allows kinemati-
starts with the continuum equations and then, lems and is therefore widely used. This method cally admissible velocity fields to be set up as a
through various simplifying assumptions, leads does not account for the contribution of redun- function of an unknown parameter. Power dissi-
to a solution method that may be closed form or dant work, which is the additional work ex- pation is then minimized with respect to the un-
numerical. The next two sections of this chapter pended due to inhomogeneous deformation. In known parameter to yield a reasonable estimate
briefly introduce some typical closed formed this method, stress and strain gradients are ac- of load.
methods and numerical techniques. counted for in only one direction and are The main disadvantage of this method is that
assumed to be uniform in the perpendicular the choice of velocity field is rather arbitrary,
direction. and the poorer the selection, the more the esti-
Approximate and Closed Slip Line Method. The slip line field method mated load will exceed the true load. Another
Form Solutions (Ref 31) utilizes the wave nature of the hyper- limitation is that no local stress field is com-
bolic differential equations that describe plastic pared. The upper bound method does offer a rel-
The equations of continuum mechanics are deformation to produce a graphical method of atively simple way of calculating the major force
the basic starting point of a model, and then var- solution of the stress field in a two-dimensional requirements (Ref. 27).
ious simplifying assumptions lead to a solution plane strain or axisymmetric field. These con- The lower bound method is not of great
method that may be closed form or numerical. In structions can be carried manually for problems practical significance, because forming loads are
general, the boundary conditions in metal form- having simple geometry or by numerical tech- underestimated. However, it does provide an in-
ing operations are too complicated for analytical niques for complex geometries. (Interestingly, dication of how conservative the upper bound
solution of plasticity in the forming of parts with the equations describing hypersonic fluid flow solution is if the lower bound solution is known.
even relatively simple geometric features. are also hyperbolic, and methods similar to slip The lower bound approach is based on the limit
However, the need to obtain at least approximate line fields are used to design rocket nozzles and theorem stating that the power dissipation of the
solutions may be satisfied by simplifying as- expanders. The equivalent of slip lines in plastic actual surface forces at their prescribed veloci-
sumptions, but each of the analytical approaches flow are the shock waves occurring in hyper- ties is always greater than the power dissipation
has its limitations. The most commonly used ap- sonic fluid flow.) of the surface tractions corresponding to any
proximate methods include: The slip line field approach was developed for other statically admissible stress field. A stati-
plane-strain problems. It assumes that the mate- cally admissible stress field must satisfy force
● The slab method, which restricts the change
rial is rigid and ideally plastic (that is, the mate- equilibrium and not violate the yield criterion.
of stress to only one direction
rial does not strain harden). The theory is based
● The uniform deformation energy method,
on the fact that any state of stress in plane strain
which neglects redundant work involved in
can be represented as the sum of a hydrostatic Numerical Techniques in
internal shearing due to nonuniform defor-
stress and a pure shear stress. Given the force Process Modeling
mation
and velocity boundary conditions, this slip line
● The slip-line field solution, which is limited
field is constructed. The main advantage of this
to rigid-plastic materials under plane-strain Numerical solution of the continuum equa-
method over the slab method is that it can pro-
conditions tions is required when the simplifying assump-
vide local stress calculations even when the de-
● The bounding methods, which can provide tions of methods described in the preceding are
formation is not homogeneous. The major limi-
fairly good estimates of upper and lower not justified. The general types of numerical
tations of the slip-line field approach are:
limits of the deformation force but cannot techniques used in the solution of partial differ-
provide details of local stress and strain dis- ● It is usable only for plane-strain problems. ential equations includes:
tributions ● It assumes rigid and ideally plastic materials.
● The method is tedious, and solutions are ● The finite element method
These methods are discussed only briefly with- ● The boundary element method
difficult to verify.
out attempting a rigorous description of the ● The finite difference method
equations that are solved. More details are avail- This technique has been applied to forging, ex-
able in several other sources (Ref 24–30). These trusion, and other processes. With the continued improvement in computer
methods are described in detail with examples in The upper bound method breaks up the de- capabilities, these numerical techniques have be-
the cited references and are presented here in in- formation volume into a number of simple trian- come very effective in the engineering analysis
creasing order of complexity. gular or rectangular sections and applies the of static problems, dynamic conditions (where
The Sachs (slab) method is applicable to principle of compatibility of deformation along the calculation of inertial and/or damping forces
problems in which one dimension is greater than with the limit theorem on power dissipation. involves derivatives with respect to time), or
the others, such as strip rolling, which has a Rearrangement or refinement of the deformation quasi-static conditions where rate-dependent
 Chapter 1: Workability and Process Design—An Introduction / 15

plasticity may require a realistic estimation of ble mainly to linear elliptic partial differential Table 1 Engineering problems addressed
time (but where inertial forces may still be neg- equations. It also requires reformulation of the by the finite element method
lected.). The general theory and practical use of governing partial differential equations into a Possible
the methods are described in Ref 32. Fredholm integral equation, which applies to a Discipline Typical unknown boundary conditions
In applications involving continuum mechan- range of physical problems. For example, ellip-
Structural Displacement Stress or
ics, the finite element method is the most com- tic partial differential equations like the Laplace displacement
mon technique, although the boundary element or Helmholtz equations can be reformulated as Thermal Temperature Heat flux or
method (BEM) has advantages in some applica- Fredholm integral equations and then be solved convective term
tions of continuum mechanics. The finite differ- by the BEM. The advantage is that the mesh or radiative term
Electrical Voltage Current source
ence method has proven to be useful in fluid and need only cover the boundaries of the domain. Magnetic Electromotive Magnetic field
thermal problems but is seldom used in solid and The BEM can be an effective tool in the force source or intensity
structural mechanics. Nonetheless, the finite dif- analysis of various metal forming problems in Fluid flow Pressure, velocity Velocity
ference method is a simple and efficient method rolling and extrusion. For example, Ref 33 Diffusion Mass concentration Flux of species
(Fickian)
for solving ordinary differential equations in demonstrates that the BEM can be used to effi- Diffusion Flow velocity Boundary flow
problem regions with simple boundaries. For ciently and accurately analyze planar and ax- (porous
each node of the mesh, the unknown function isymmetric forming problems involving both media)
values are found, replacing the relevant differen- material and geometric nonlinearities, along Corrosion Anode consumption Electropotential
rate
tial equation, (i.e., dy  f [x,y]dx) by a difference with complicated interface conditions. Like Crack Strain energy Stress
equation: FEM, the use of BEM in the modeling of metal propagation release rate
forming operations may require consideration of Acoustic Sound pressure Velocity
elastic-plastic behavior and elastic-viscoplastic noise level
y  f(x + x/2,y + y/2) x
problems involving large strains. Elastic strains
where x y are steps in an iterative procedure. are assumed to be small, while nonelastic strains
Hyperbolic and parabolic partial differential (plastic or viscoplastic) are presumed to be tailed temperature, strain, and strain-rate histo-
equations are often solved using a hybrid of the large. When strains become large, the original ries at each individual material point in a work-
FEM and FDM. The spatial variables are mod- mesh may become so distorted that the interpo- piece are also available from FEM simulations.
elled using the FEM, and their variation with lation polynomials are incapable of modeling Simulation of thermomechanical processes can
time is modelled by the FDM. the geometry of the elements and their relevant be based on models of continuum mechanics,
Other numerical techniques include: state variables. This requires a process of transport phenomena (heat flow), and metallur-
remeshing. gical phenomena (e.g., grain growth and recrys-
● Finite-volume methods, which are impor-
tant in highly nonlinear problems of fluid tallization).
mechanics Finite-Element Analysis The range of FEA applications in the area of
● Spectral methods, which are based on trans- material processing is extremely wide, and a
Finite element analysis (FEA) is a computer- brief review of the finite element techniques ap-
forms that map space and/or time dimen-
based analytical technique that allows numerical plied to metal forming, nonmetal forming, and
sions to spaces where the problem is easier
solutions to be obtained for complex mathemat- powder metallurgy are briefly discussed in Ref
to solve
ical and engineering problems by creating a dis- 35 with an encyclopedic view of the different
● Mesh-free methods, which are a recent de-
crete or finite number of individual nodes and el- possibilities in these various fields of applica-
velopment of finite difference methods with
ements. Discrete elements fill the appropriate tion. Many texts (e.g., Ref 2, 23, 34) also de-
arbitrary grids
geometry, and the method enables the system- scribe finite element theory and how it is used in
These techniques and the finite difference atic solution of equilibrium equations for each forming analyses. Models may be based on con-
method are only mentioned for reference with- element and the entire model with as much fi- tinuum mechanics in the evaluation of flow
out further discussion. The finite element and delity to geometry as needed. and/or fracture problems supplemented by more
boundary element methods are more common in Finite element analysis is a powerful analysis sophisticated thermomechanical/thermophysical
the modeling of bulk deformation processes, as tool that is flexible for solving problems with ir- models for the simulation of microstructural
described later in this chapter in more detail. regular shapes, variable material properties, and evolution.
Application of these computer models has be- irregular boundary conditions. With advance- Finite element models of flow during defor-
come an essential tool in meeting product re- ments in computer technology, the use of nu- mation processes are based on the equations of
quirements of dimensional tolerances, surface merical methods such as FEA has grown. The mechanical equilibrium and flow behavior, as
finish, and consistency of properties. method was originally developed for structural previously described in the section “Continuum
problems (stress displacement of complex Mechanics Equations” in this chapter. As noted,
Boundary Element Method geometries), but the same concepts and princi- constitutive equations are mathematical expres-
ples apply to other kinds of engineering prob- sions that describe stress-strain curve in the re-
The boundary element method (BEM) is a lems such as those listed in Table 1. In deforma- gion of nonelastic (plastic or viscoplastic) flow.
technique for representing a complex structure tion processes, FEA is a useful tool in die design Constitutive equations for plastic deformation
or component as a computer model in order to and process analysis. Common problems solved are typically nonlinear, as plastic deformation of
determine its response to a set of given condi- by FEA include insufficient die filling, poor materials is generally a function of the strain
tions. Like the finite element method (FEM), the shape control, poor flow of material, cracks and hardening/softening and the strain-rate harden-
model is formed by subdividing the structure voids that lead to fracture, and inadequate prop- ing/softening response of a material for different
into small elements to form the overall model. erties from microstructural variations (grain conditions of temperature, stress, and mi-
However, unlike the FEM, only the surface (or size). crostructure. Constitutive equations are required
boundary) of the problem requires subdivision, The application of finite element modeling for realistic modeling, and they are unique for
thereby reducing the dimensionality of the prob- (FEM) in metal forming (e.g., Ref 2, 23, 34) has each material under each processing condition.
lem and thus dramatically reducing the compu- brought great changes to design methodologies Constitutive equations may be developed from
tational effort in obtaining a solution. that were formerly based on trial and error data obtained under simplified experimental
The BEM has a more restricted range of ap- approaches. For example, shape changes during conditions or from thermomechanical testing.
plication than FEM has. In general it is applica- forging are easily predicted by FEM. The de- Constitutive equations are then extended to more
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
 Finance - Practice Problems
Winter 2024 - Division

Prepared by: Teacher Johnson

Date: July 28, 2025

Abstract 1: Historical development and evolution

Learning Objective 1: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 2: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Learning Objective 3: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 3: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Learning Objective 4: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 5: Historical development and evolution
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Study tips and learning strategies
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Study tips and learning strategies
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 10: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Review 2: Critical analysis and evaluation
Note: Practical applications and examples
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 12: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Historical development and evolution
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 14: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 14: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 15: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Experimental procedures and results
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 18: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 19: Experimental procedures and results
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Topic 3: Key terms and definitions
Remember: Practical applications and examples
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Literature review and discussion
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 23: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 23: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 24: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 25: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 25: Practical applications and examples
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 26: Case studies and real-world applications
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Study tips and learning strategies
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 28: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 28: Research findings and conclusions
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 29: Research findings and conclusions
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Topic 4: Case studies and real-world applications
Note: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 32: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 32: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 33: Case studies and real-world applications
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 34: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 35: Current trends and future directions
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 36: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Case studies and real-world applications
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Appendix 5: Literature review and discussion
Example 40: Current trends and future directions
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 42: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 42: Case studies and real-world applications
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 44: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Historical development and evolution
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 46: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Definition: Case studies and real-world applications
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 49: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Unit 6: Current trends and future directions
Key Concept: Current trends and future directions
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Current trends and future directions
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Study tips and learning strategies
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
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