Multimedia for Learning | Methods and Development THIRD°EDITION Stephen M. Alessi The University of lowa Stanley R. Trollip Capella University Allyn and Bacon Boston # London # Toronto = Sydney = Tokyo = SingaporeTo our parents Series Editor: Amis Burvikovs Editorial Assistant: Patrice Mailloux Senior Marketing Manager: Brad Parkins Production Editor: Christopher H. Rawlings Editorial-Production Service: Omegatype Typography, Inc. ‘Composition and Prepress Buger: Linda Cox Manufacturing Buyer: Julie McNeill Electronic Compositon: Omegatype Typography, Inc. Copyright © 2001 by Allyn & Bacon ‘A Pearson Education Company 160 Gould Street ‘Needham Heights, Massachusetts 02494 Internet: www ablongman.com All sights reserved, No part of the material protected by thi copyright notice may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval syste, without the writen permission of the copyright owner, Previous editions were published under the title Computer-Based Instruction: Methods and Development, copyright © 1991, 1985. Between the time Website information is gathered and then published, it is not unusual for some sites to have closed. Also, the transcription of URLS can result in unintended typographical errors, ‘The publisher would appreciate notification where these occur so that they may be corrected in subsequent editions. Thank you, Many of the designations used by manufacturers and sellers to distinguish their prodycts are claimed as trademarks. Where those designations appear in this book, and Allyn and’Bacon was aware of a trademark claim, the designations have been printed ‘in caps ot initial caps. Designations within quotation marks represent hypothetical products. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Alessi, Stephen M, ‘Multimedia for learning : methods and development / Stephen M. Alessi, Stanley R. Toollip 3rd ed. p. om. Rev, ed. of: Computer-based instruction, 2nd ed. 1991, Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-205-27691.-1 (alk. paper) 1, Computer-assisted instruction. 2, Edvcation—Dats processing, 3, Interactive video. 4. Anificialintelligence—Educational applications. 1. Trollip, Stanley R., 1947- I. Alessi, Stephen M., 1951~ Computer-based instruction. {I1. Tie. LB1028.5 .4358 2001 371334@—~de21 (00-060603 Printed in the United States of America w9876543 05 04 03 G2 aPreface ix PART | General Principles o Introduction 3 A Short History of Educational Computing 3 When to Use the Computer to Facilitate Learning 5 ‘The Process of Instruction 7 Methodologies for Facilitating Learning 10 ‘Two Foundations of Interactive Multimedia 12 Developing Interactive Multimedia 12 Conclusion 13 References and Bibliography 13 a Learning Principles and Approaches 16 Introduction 16 Behavioral Psychology Principles 17 ‘Cognitive Psychology Principles wy Constructivist Psychology Principles at The Constructivist-Objectivist Debate 36 Conclusion 41 References and Bibliography 41 IBD General Features of Software for Learning 48 Introduction of a Program 48 Learner Control of a Program 51 Presentation of Information 60 Providing Help 77 Ending a Program 78CONTENTS Conclusion 81 Refecences and Bibliography 81 Summary of General Features 85 PART I! Methodologies Tutorials 89 Introduction of the Tutorial 90 Questions and Responses 94 Judgment of Responses 109 Feedback about Responses 113 Remediation 120 Organization and Sequence of Program Segments Learner Control in Tutorials 129 Conclusion 132 References and Bibliography 132 Summary of Tutorials 135 Hypermedia 138 Introduction 138 Structure of Hypermedia 141 Hypermedia Formats 142 ‘The Hypermedia Database 150. Navigation and Orientation 155 Support for Learning and Learning Strategies Conclusion 172 References and Bibliography 174 Summary of Hypermedia 180 Drills 181 Introduction 181 Basic Drill Procedure 182 ‘The Introduction of a Drill 183 Item Characteristics 184 Item Selection and Queuing Procedures 189 Feedback 198 121rR CONTENTS Item Grouping Procedures 200 Motivating the Learner 204 Data Storage and Program Termination 207 Advantages of Multimedia Drills 209 Conclusion 209 References and Bibliography 210 Summary of Drills 212 Simulations 213 Introduction 213 ‘Types of Simulations 214 Advantages of Simulations 226 Factors in Simulations 231 Simulation Design and Development 260 Conclusion 263 References and Bibliography 263 Summary of Simulations 269 Educational Games 270 Examples of Educational Games 271 General Factors in Games 277 Factors in the Introduction of a Game 280 Factors in the Body of the Game 283 Factors in the Conclusion of aGame 294 Pitfalls Associated with Creating and Using Games 296 Conctission 298 References and Bibliography 298 Summary of Educational Games 301 Tools and Open-Ended Learning Environments 302 Introduction 302 Construction Sets 303 Electronic Performance Support Systems 306 Microworlds 07 Learning Tools 308 Expert System Shells 310vi CONTENTS Modeling and Simulation Tools 313 Multimedia Construction Tools 318 Open-Ended Learning Environments 320 Concusion 328 References and Bibliography 328 Summary of Tools and Open-Ended Learning Environments 333 Tests 334 Computerized Test Construction 335 ‘Computerized Test Administration 337 Factors in Tests 338 Other Testing Approaches in the Computer Environment 353 Security 365 Conclusion 368 References and Bibliography 368 Summary of Tests 374 Web-Based Learning 372 Introduction ‘372 What Is the “Web” in Web-Based Learning? 373 Uses of the Web for Learning 378 “ Factors in Web-Based Learning 382 Concerns with Web-Based Learning | 397 . Advantages of Web-Based Learning 398 7 ‘The Future of Web-Based Learning 399 Conclusion 399 References and Bibliography 400 Summary of Web-Based Learning 403. ART It! Design and Development @ Overview of a Model for Design and Development 407 Introduction 407 Standards 409 ‘Ongoing Evaluation 410CONTENTS vil Project Management 410 Phase 1—Planning 411 Phase 2—Design 412 Phase 3—Development 4i2 Establishing Expectations 413 The Evaluation Form 414 Conclusion 432 References and Bibliography 432 B Planning 437 Define the Scope of the Content 437 Identify Characteristics of Learners and Other Users 438 Establish Constraints 442 Cost the Project 454 Produce a Planning Document 463 Produce a Style Manual 466 Determine and Collect Resources 467 Conduct Initial Brainstorming 469 Define the Look and Feel of the Project 4am Obtain Client Sign-Off 474 Conclusion 480 References and Bibliography 480 - Summary of Planning 481 WD design 482 The Purpose of Design 482 The Audiences for Design Documents 483 Develop Initial Content Ideas 487 Task and Concept Analyses 492 Preliminary Program Description 499. Detailing and Communicating the Design $02 Prototypes 502 Flowcharts 503 Storyboards ‘514 Scripts $22 The Importance of Ongoing Evaluation 522 Client Sign-O 523ii contents B Conclusion 524 References and Bibliography S25 Sammary of Design 527 Development 528 Project Management 530 Prepare the Text Components 533 Write the Program Code 534 Create the Graphics 536 Produce Video 538 Record the Audio 539 Assemble the Pieces 541 Prepare Support Materials S4L Alpha Testing 548 Making Revisions 549 Beta Testing 550 Final Revisions 552 Obtaining Client Sign-O 553 Validating the Program 553, Conclusion 557 References and Bibliography 559 4 Summary of Development 561 APPENDIXES ’ APPENDIX A_ Storyboard Forms 562 APPENDIX B Manuals’ Content Checklists 565 Index 568aie We wrote the second edition of this book (then entitled Computer-Based Instruction: Methods and Development) almost ten years ago. At that time, microcomputers Were starting to become common; multimedia capabilities (sound and video) were just begin- hing to appear; and authoring tools were still in their infancy, Since that time, three great changes have taken place. First, multimedia capabilities have grown enormously and become very common. ‘This has been due to a proliferation of multimedia-capable computers, new technologies such as QuickTime, and vastly improved authoring tools far editing video, audio, ani- mation, and photographs. Today's software incorporates all those along with text in a fairly smooth way. Second, educational theory has undergone great change, To the behavioral theories dominating the first half of the 20th century and the cognitive theories added during the following four decades have now been added the constructivist theories of the last ten years. With them has come an increased emphasis on collaborative leaming, instruction an- cchored in realistic contexts, communication theory applied to learning, and a variety of new methodologies for learning, such as hypermedia and open-ended fearing environments. Third, and for most people the most profound change, has been the World Wide Web revolution. The academically oriented Internet of the seventies and eighties has in the last decade been radically transformed and expanded into a computer network for al- most everyone. The Web is used by millions of people for business, commerce, enter- tainment, and education. Schools are rapidly connecting to the Web and taking advantage of its features. I i interesting to note that in the time between our first and second edi tions (1985 to 1991) the world of educational computing changed from one of mainframe computers to stand-alone microcomputers. Although that change resulted in dramatically cheaper computing power for everyone, it also resulted in a loss of centralization. Stand- alone microcomputers could not be used for communication the way terminals con- nected to mainframe computers were. Updating microcomputers with new versions of software was very difficult. At the time of our second edition, we bemoaned the fact that microcomputers represented a step backward for instructional computing due to their lack of interconnection. In the 1990s, the Web has caused us fo come fui circle. The Web alfows all microcomputers to be connected once again, and the popular features of the Web (on-line shopping, for example) are encouraging everyone to go on-line. Many of the “new” technologies at the time we were writing the second edition (videodiscs, artificial intelligence) have diminished greatly in importance. Some have been replaced, such as videodiscs being superceded by CD-ROMs, whereas others, such as artificial intelligence, have been eclipsed by what people see as easier and more use~ ful technologies, such as hypermedia and the Web.PREFACE Largely as a result of these changes, the last ten years have also seen explosive growth of computer technology used for learning in schools, universities, businesses, in- dustry, and the professions. Consequently, the quantity of educational software has in- creased dramatically. This has led happily to more good quality software becoming available. Unfortunately, the availability of bad courseware has also increased partly be- cause the tools for producing instructional software are affordable and accessible to al- most anyone and because the distribution of courseware has become so much easier, panicularly through the Web. This is especially true of Web-delivered materials, which typically are not very interactive Jack quality control, and can be confusing to use. So, ten years since our second edition and sixteen years since our first edition, we have come full circle in more ways than ane. Contpucers are increasingly interconnected, which is a great benefit. But the authoring tools for the newest technologies, especially Web-site authoring, are still primitive. Software that promotes truly active learning is still the exception. Also, more than ever before, we are in the midst of a great debate about haw computers should be used to facilitate learning and instruction. However, the field has pra- gresscd impressively. The multimedia and multisensory capabilities of today's computers ‘are so advanced that competent designers have the hardware needed for creating and im- plementing better software. It is no longer necessary to convince people that computers can be useful for learning. Schools and businesses are all increasing their equipment and Software purchases and are eager to obtain and use more effective software, In light of these events, we have made a number of changes to this book. The first and most obvious is a change in its tite. Due to changes in the field, we have added chap- ters on new methodologies that place greater emphasis on multiinedia and on new ap- ‘roaches to facilitate learning. The second change is the addition of several new chapters, ‘one on hypermedia, one on tools and open-ended leaming environments, and one on Web-based leaming. The third change, necessitated by the increased cpmplexity of de- veloping miltimedia programs (in contrast to traditional computer-based instrction that consisted largely of text and still pictures), is a.greatly altered model of design and de- velopment that includes increased emphasis on ahgoing evaluation, quality control, and project management. The fourth change is an expanded emphasis,on the theories of earning that underlie good design and more attention (o the greatef variety of learning, approaches represented by both cognitive and constructivist theories. The fifth, and last, cchange is that we have developed a Web site (www.alessiandtrollip.com) to accompany and support the book that contains interactive examples, design templates, and develop- ment tools, {¢ also will be updated with new information pertaining to multimedia de- velopment as it becomes available. : ‘The organization of this third edition is as follows. Part] {Chapters 1 through 3) con- tains a general introduction, a discussion of the theories of learning that we believe apply to all software for learning, and a review of the basic software characteristics (such a5 display design and user control) that apply to software of any methodology. Part I (Chap- ters 4 through 11) analyzes both the traditional and new methodologies for multimedia- based leaming. Part II includes chapters on tutorials, hypermedia, drills, simulations, games, tools and open-ended leaning environments, tests, and Web-based learning. In each of these chaptess, we describe the particular methodology and some of its variations; we give examples and analyze the critical factors that determine the methodology's ef- fectiveness. Part III (Chapters (2 through {5} describes a model for design and develop-PREFACE xi ment and gives practical suggestions for taking a project to a successful conclusion. The ‘model is based on our years of teaching and practical experience in several multimedia development environments. It emphasizes quality control, an iterative approach, and tight project management, In summary, developing effective multimedia cequires an appreciation for the com- plexity of human learning (Chapter 2), an understanding of the basic methodologies and theis otitical factors (Chapters 3 through 11), and a systematic design and development model (Chapters 12 through 15). ‘Our purpose in this third edition remains largely the same as the first two editions, namely to provide a sound foundation for developers of interactive multimedia for leamn- ing. Although computer technology bas improved dramatically, the quality of software for learning still lags far behind. Our goal is to help current and future developers har- ness the power of today's hardware to better facilitate learning. Once again, we extend our thanks to all those who helped us in creating the first (wo editions. For this, the third edition, we add our thanks to our current students and col- leagues who have given us their comments and suggestions, and to the many colleagues at other universities who have used our previous editions and have frequently reminded us of the need for a new one. In particular, we would like to thank Terry Coble, Beth Hoeppner, and the students in the fall 1999 class of 7W:135 at The University of lowa for reviewing the entire manuscript and making many helpful suggestions. S.M.A. SRT.General PrinciplesCHAPTER 1 Introduction @ A Short History of Educational Computing It has been about forty years since educators and computer scientists began using com- puters for instructional purposes. In that time span incredible advances have been made in computer technology and its availability. In the 1960s and most of the 1970s instruc- tional computing took place on large mainframe computers or occasionally on medium- sized computers. Educational computing existed only at large universities and was largely restricted to reading and typing text. Developing instructional materials required learning computer programming, often in a low-level language unsuitable for the purpose. ‘The invention of the microcomputer near the end of the 1970s has brought about the rapid spread of computing in businesses, schools, and homes. Microcomputers have evolved from machines that depended on typing and text printouts and were difficult to program, to machines that allow interaction via text, gcaphics, voice, and pointing. The ‘most recent developments in microcomputer technology provide even greater power and ‘ease of use through advanced visual and auditory devices. They also permit networking many microcomputers to share information and resources. With all these advances has been a steady and dramatic decrease in cost. In 1978 the first widely available microcomputers were released, The Apple II microcomputer succeeded in becoming the most common microcomputer for use in schools. Most early microcomputer courseware was designed for the Apple Il, thus increasing its popularity in the schools even more. The release of the IBM personal computer in 1981 resulted in a sudden expansion of the microcomputer market into business and industry. But the Apple I's early lead, lower cost, availability of courseware, and better integration of text, graphics, and color prevented the IBM-PC from penetrating the elementary and secondary school market. The 1984 release of Apple's Macintosh computer instigated many changes in the field of microcomputing. This computer provided far better integration of text and graphics, bet- ter voice and music capability, and permitted not only typing for user input, but the mouse for pointing at and drawing on the screen. These and other features made the MacintoshPART 1 General Principles much easier to use than previous computers. But its cost, lack of color, and lack of course- ware prevented it from having much initial impact on education. Its greatest impact, rather, was on the improved design of subsequent microcomputers, which copied its graphical power (and its overall ease of use), and put the mouse on a par with the keyboard. Even though the Macintosh pioneered advances in usability, IBM-compatible com- puters rapidly gained the greater share of the desktop and laptop markets, especially as. ‘Microsoft improved its Windows operating system, which had many similarities to that of the Macintosh. The use of personal computers (PCs) continued to grow as companies developed and released systems that allowed PCs to communicate with each other. First, Jocal area networks (LANs) were developed, which linked PCs that were physically close to each other. Then wide area networks (WANs) became available that linked LANs, as well as remote individual computers. The Internet, a worldwide collection of interconnected local and wide area networks, grew throughout the 1980s. In the early 1990s came the development that has transformed the entire comput- ing landscape, the creation of a part of the Internet known as the World Wide Web. Since the early 1990s, the Internet has transformed from a network used primarily by acade- mia and government, for the exchange of textual materials, into a worldwide resource, Today, hundreds of millions of people use the Intemet to pursue activities as diverse as shopping, dating, researching, forming associatjons, exchanging textual, graphic, and“ - video information, and, of course, learning. The Internet has and will continue to trans- form everything we do. Educational computing began with a few, large, government-funded projects on mainframe and minicomputers. The University of Hinois PLATO project began in 1960 (Alpert & Bitzer, 1970). The PLATO project eventually enabled computer-based in- struction (CBI) to integrate text and graphics, and provided instructors with one of the first programming environments for computer-based instruction. Begipning in 1972, the Mitre Corporation's TICCIT (Time-shared, interactive, Computer-Controlléd Informa- tion Television} project (Merrill, Schneider, & Fletcher, 1980) introduced computer- based instruction on minicomputers. With it came the concept of learner-controlled instruction (Wydra, 1980) and a particular philosophy for designing computer-based i struction, today known as component design theory (Merrill, 1983/ 1987; 1988). These carly educational computing systems were sophisticated and had features similar to those available on the Web today, One of their drawbacks, however, was that communication and other costs were high. These costs, together with the advent of microcomputers, led to their demise and the takeover by desktop computers. In many ways, this transition set back the field of instructional computing because the many ben- efits of having user computers networked were lost. In addition, a number of years passed before microcomputer-based authoring software became available for developing instructional programs as sophisticated as were their mainframe predecessors. The carly days of instructional computing were filled with excitement and prophe- cies for the potential of great educational improvement through cémputer-based in- struction. However, although there have been great strides in technology and availability, ‘actual improvement in learning is less dramatic. In some ways, the Internet and World Wide Web have both advanced and hindered the growth of effective instructional soft- Ware. They have advanced it by making computer networks easily accessible to so many people, They have hindered it by not providing tools for developing good instructional multimedia, At the time of writing (early 2000), software designed specifically for theCHAPTER 1 Introduction : Web for developing instruction was not prevalent. HTML and Java, the two primary pro- gramming languages for the Web, were not designed for developing instructional appli- cations, whereas traditional instructional authoring systems, such as Authorware, frequently caused difficulties due to their need for plug-ins—software additions needed by Web browsers to run these applications. ‘The current state of instructional computing is still in flux, with users facing jssues of software and hardware incompatibility, as well as a lack of excellent and effective ed- ucational software. Two other factors hinder the success of instructional computing; a shortage of people skilled in developing quality courseware (which has resulted ia much low-quality courseware) and disagreement within the field on how computers should be used in education. The availability of multimedia capabilities on so many computers has further confused the issues because many designers and developers believe that just adding multimedia elements makes software more instructionally effective. Notwithstanding this confusion, using computers for training and education is growing rapidly, largely because of the popularity of the Internet and World Wide Web, We believe that the convenience of the Web causes people to both overlook the short comings of currently available software and fuels the demand for higher quality For the most part, documenting gains in leaning is difficult when delivering in- struction via computer. However, it is widely accepted that computer-based instruction at Teast reduces the time spent learning. Even if the learning itself is not better, reducing time is a benefit. Properly used, computers can improve learning effectiveness and efficiency (Christmann et al; 1997; Kulik & Kulik, 1991). In addition, using technology for learn- ing has logistical benefits. Materials can be distributed more cheaply and easily: iti ier to ensure all users have the most recent version of the materials; learners the materials at their convenience; accessibility is facilitated for people with di and dangerous, expensive, or unique environments can be simulated to improve access. ‘The most obvious event of the last decade has been the explosion of the World Wide ‘Web and its effect on learning with multimedia. But almost in parallel, this decade has witnessed a dramatic debate on paradigms for learning and instruction. Adherents of the ‘new paradigm, constructivism, have argued against the older behavioral and instructivis: approaches, and to some extent against the dominant cognitivist paradigm. Adherents o! the traditional approaches, especially proponents of the Instructional Systems Desigt (ISD) approach, are equally critical of constructivist claims. This continuing debate i: addressed frequently in this book. Something useful can be learned by studying thes. different approaches. ‘The field of instructional computing is still young and evolving. Progress has beer made, but much remains to be learned regarding the best ways to harness the power of com puters. The proliferation of educational and training applications on the internet hopefull: provide the momentum for people to take instructional multimedia more seriously. As thi ‘occurs, the amount of good materials for learning and instruction should increase. @ When to Use the Computer to Facilitate Learning Hundreds of research studies have been conducted to prove that using computers to teac is better than using books, teachers, films, or other more traditional methods. Overal reviews of these studies claim a small effect in favor of computer-based instructio6 PART I General Principles (Kulik & Kulik, 1986; 1991), Some researchers have argned that small differences are cither a research attifact or caused by some reason other than computer use (Clark, 1983), and considerable debate has surrounded whether computers or any medium can improve learning (Clark, 1994; Kozma, 1991, 1994; Tennyson, 1994). Researchers claiming the effect exists have argued that it would be. greater but is artificially losvered -« bécdiyse much of the instruction delivered via computer is poorly designed. Some con- structivist educators argue that learning differences are hard to detect because most pro- grams attempt to teach the learners rather than provide an environment in which learners construct their own meaningful and individualized learning, Howeves, for another res- \ son, we maintain that little difference is demonstrated by these many studies. Different media have different advantages. For teaching one topic (a particular aspect of reading comprehension, for example) with one set of leamers (sixth graders), a book may be bet- ter. For another topic (operating a drill press) and different learners (factory workers), instructional video may be better. ‘If we were to chart out all the instructional topics, the wide variety of learners, and the many instructional situations, we would sometimes find an advantage for books, sometimes teachers, sometimes film or video, sometimes peer-tutoring, sometimes hands-on field experience, sometimes listening 10 an audiotape, and sometimes comput- cers. Not surprisingly, across these many studies, which utilized a variety of topics, learn- ers, and situations, little or no overall effect was found in favor of a single medium. To take advantage of the computer's particular capabilites and not to waste them, our first rule for correctly using or developing instruction to te delivered via computer is to do so in situations where the computer is likely to be beneficial (Trollip & Alessi, '~ 1988). These situations include those in which the cost of instruction by other methods is high (for example in military training); safety is a concem (chemistry taboratori ‘he material is hard to teach by other methods (graphing in calculus); ¢xtensive indivi wal leamer practice {s needed (foreign language grammar and vocabulary); learner mo- tivation is typically lacking {anciem world, history); logistic difficulties exist in traditional instruction (science experiments that take a long time to complete); or the in- tended learners have special needs {such as visual or auditory disabilities that can be al- leviated by multimedia allowing a choice between auditory and visual channels). Although none of these situations guarantees that a compvter will be beneficial as vehicle for delivering instruction, they increase the probability of success. High qual- ity and creative instructional design coupled with careful evaluation and sevision are also necessary ‘The situations above all fall within the broad area of providing instruction. That is, for the most part, content resides within the computer program and is made available to the leamer in a variety of ways. Constructivist educators argue that we should focus on Jearning—thas to put content in the computer and ask people to try to remember it mis- assigns learning soles, They argue that a person is better tha a computer at organizing, feflecting on, and structuring information, which typically occurs in the computer in traditional insteuctional applications. On the other hand, the computer is better than a person at remembering information—typically the human's role in traditional computer- based instruction. Their approach is to use the computer as a tool for leaming, where its role is to provide a “space” in which learning takes place, (0 store the results of learner activity, and to take care of time-consuming tasks that detract from learning (such asCHAPTER 1 Intcoduetion 7 complex calculations). We discuss these approaches to learning in Chapters 5 (“Hyper- media"), 7 (“Simulations”), 9 ("Tools and Open-Ended Envicanments"} and 11 (“Web- Based Leaming”). “There is room and need for both approaches. In some situations, providing instruction is appropriate; in others, providing the tools for learning is appropriate. More often than not ‘the two should be combined. Dogmatism on either side is unnecessary and unproductive, @ The Process of Instruction In the ongoing debate between constructivist educators and instructivist educators, ia- struction has been portrayed as an approach whereby knowledge is given to people, while learning is an approach whereby people obfain knowledge for themselves. Such a distinction is artificial and a misuse of semantics. The two, instruction and learning, al- most always go hand in hand, and the term instruction should be understood much more generally. Instruction should be the creation and use of environments in which learning is facilitated. People certainly can learn completely on their owa and without ausside in- stigation. However, in institutions in which learning must be facilitated (such as public schools, universities, or businesses), instruction is that facilitation of learning, and it can ‘combine a variety of approaches. Instruction can admittedly be strictly directed or be much more open-ended. Most instruction falls in between. However, to facilitate learn- ing ((e., to provide instruction) in at least a moderately efficient way, the process must include several essential activities. This section describes our model for successful in- struction. According to that model, the following four activities or phases of instruction should occur for learning to be effective and efficient: Presenting information # Guiding the learner « Practicing # Assessing learning In contrast ¢q this model, proponents of discovery or constructivist learning might omit the first phase or change the order of the first two phases. Research evidence in favor of discovery learning is usually limited to some learners (usually higher-ability feamners) and some kinds of learning (such as problem solving). Our opinion is that dis- covery leaning activities are most beneficial when placed within the context of a larger learning environment with these four activities. That is, guiding the leamer can include discovery techniques. But as a complete mode! for building learning environments, dis- covery learning has not proved beneficial for most learners and mast subject aseas. Presenting Information The first three phases are based on research on successful classroom instruction (Rosen- shine & Stevens, 1986). To teach something new, the instructor must first present infor- mation, This may be done in a quraber of ways. For verbal or pictorial information, an instructor may present rules and exaniples, show pictuces, or provide other nonverbal_ PART 1 General Principles information. To teach skills, such as operating a 35-mm camera or doing long division, the instructor can model the skills fo be leaned. That is, the instructor actually performs the skills so that learners can imitate them. ‘An important method of presenting information is through example. Thus, in addi- tion to stating the physical rule force equals mass times acceleration, the instructor can demonstrate applications of that physical rule, such as a truck accelerating more quickly when it is empty. The skill of long division can be modeled using a variety of numbers in the dividend and the divisor. Most learners require mote than one example before they are able to apply a rule or skill. Presentation of information can be accomplished with any medium, not just with live instructors. It often occurs completely under the control of the learner. When col- lege students read their course textbooks, information is being presented. When factory workers watch videotapes about new equipmeat, information is being presented. When a leamer does library research or engages in any activity to seek out existing knowledge oF information, the first phase is occurring. Guiding the Learner ‘The first phase, presenting information, is instructor or media centered. The second phase, guiding the learner, is more interactive and includes both the learner and the medium. For example, having observed a videotape presentation, the leamer might now perform under instructor guidance. Again, this means different things depending on the nature of the material. The fearner may answer questions about factual information, may apply rates and principles in peoblem-solving activities, or practice procedural skills. In ‘each case, an instructor (or interactive medium) observes the leamer, corrects errors, and gives suggestions or hints. ff the leamer distorts factual information, an instructor might remind the leaner of the correct information, perhaps by repeating it. When the learner performs a skill incorrectly, a computer may model again the procedure or patt of it. If a leamer demonstrates misunderstanding of concepts or principles,.a fellow leamer might try to understand the confusion and dispel it. : In the classroom, guidance often takes the form of the instructof asking questions that learners must answer. When a question is answered incorrectly, the instructor may either tell the learner the correct answer or may ask leading questions to help the learner recall the correct information. ‘When one learns from a book, questions ot suggested activities are sometimes in- cluded as guidance. But unlike in the classroom, if the leamer does riot do these cor- rectly, true guidance does not occur. The leamer may receive help only at some later time, such as when the instructor checks the learner's work and provides feedback. Guidance is important in instruction because nobody teams everything from a sin- gle exposure, Leamers make errors and are frequently unaware that they have. Learners must be made aware of these and correct them. The interactive process of the learner at- tempting to apply new knowledge, the instructor correcting and guiding, dnd the learner making further attempts are components frequently omitted in instruction and yet prob- ably the most important. As previously stated, not all models of teaching begin with the presentation of in- formation. Discovery learning is based on the assumption that learners discover princi- tami nada alanine ih antnstsensenhtnataetie,ledirit dnihotnCHAPTER 1 Introduction ‘ ples or develop skills through experimentation and practice. There is evidence that for some kinds of information, such as in the sciences or for the development of self-directed learning strategies, learnet inquiry and discovery are effective (Derry anid Lajoie, 1993; Jonassen, Peck, & Wilson, 1999; White, 1993). For the majority of regular schoo! sub- jects and most procedural or physical skills, we regard a model that begins with the pre- sentation of information as more efficient and demonstrably more successful (Klausmeier & Feldman, 1975; Koran, 1971; Merrill, 1974). In cases where a discovery approach is believed to have some advantage, we would stress that guided discovery (in contrast to undirected, free discovery) is more successful. The discovery activity should be a part of the guidance phase of instruction. It should follow some initial exposure to relevant material. And it usually should be followed by the other phases of instruction. Practice Learning is not complete when a learner can do something once or can demonstrate that he or she currently understands the material. The learner must usually be able to perform ‘quickly or fluently, sometimes under conditions of distraction, with few or no errors. Furthermore, we usually want to lean information permanently rather than for a short time, Practicing a skill once or answering a single question does not guarantee retention. Repeated practice is often required to retain information and to become familiar with i. The third phase, practice, is also learner centered. Although an instructor or inter- active medium may observe the leamer and makes corrections when errors are observed. the emphasis is on the learner practicing and the instructor making only short corrective statements, Fluency and speed are related but slightly different aspects of well-learned infor- mation. To be fluent in a skill not only means doing it quickly, but doing it without think- ing about it. To speak French fluently, for example, it is necessary that the correct words come automatically, without thinking. Reading, writing, spelling, arithmetic, driving a car, and countless other skilis are almost worthless if not performed in this way. On the other hand, some information does aot require fluency. It does not matter whether one can perform a chemistry experiment or write a critical essay quickly. One need not be able to make decisions about starting a business without thinking about it. Itis more important that such things be done carefully and correctly. However, one must at least remember how to do these things. Practice not only enhances speed and fluency but also retention. Many examples of practice in classroom instruction exist. In elementary school reading instruction, the instructor frequently asks learners questions or requires them to fead passages from primers. In arithmetic instruction, workbooks are the most common ‘method of practice. They allow all leamers to practice simultaneously rather than hav- ing most leamers listen while one leamer at a time practices. Unfortunately. when a Jeamer makes an exror practicing in a workbook, it might never be corrected. In foreign-language instruction, a common type of practice is flashcards. The leamer produces a pile of cards, for example, with French words on one side and equiv- alent English words on the reverse. The leamer then goes through the deck of cards try- ing to translate the words comectly and receives immediate corrective feedback by ooking at the other side of the card10 © PART 4 General Principles Assessing Learning The first three phases just discussed are what most people consider 1o be instruction. * However, we should not assume that instruction is successful for ali leamers. Rather, Teaming should be assessed, usually with tests or rubrics, which are an important past of the instructional process. These provide information about the level of learning, the qual- ity of teaching, and future instructional needs. Instructors and learners alike place undue emphasis on assessment as a means of assigning grades. Our emphasis in this book is on ‘assessment as a means of guiding instructional decisions—to determine what instruction is needed for which learners. ® Methodologies for Facilitating Learning According to the model we have described, the provess of instruction includes the pre- sentation of information to learners; guidance of leamers’ first interaction with the ma- ial; learners practicing the material to enhance fluency and retention; and, finally, assessment of learners to determine how well they have learned the material and what they should do next. This model, though derived from research on successful classroom instruction, can, also he applied to interactive multimedia, That is not to say that the computer must ful- fill all the phases of instruction. Computers are but one element in a learning environ- ment, along with teachers, other leamers, and other media. The computer may serve one + of a combination of the Cour phases. It may present initial information after which the Ieamer receives guidance from an instructor and practices using 3 workbook. One may 4 i i { learn initial information from a lecture, after which the coraputet is Wied?to practice some parts of the material for fluency. The computer may be used for the first three phases, with assessment being done in traditional ways. In all cases, the four phases of instruc- tion should be present, generally using a combination of media. When the computer is responsible for total instruction, itis important that all four phases be included. This is not always done. It is common, for example, for computer programs intended for practice (drills to be expected to carry the load of total instruc- tion, When this is attempted, learners can fail to learn what is desired, 1n Part Il of this book, we discuss eight methodologies of Interactive Multimedia (IMM) for the facilitation of learning: Tutorials Hypermedia « Drilis Simulations # Games # Tools and open-ended learning environments, # Tests # Web-based leaningCHAPTER 1 Introduction " Tutorials are programs that generally engage the fiest two phases of instruction. They take the role of the instructor by presenting information and guiding the learner in ini- tial acquisition, Hypermedia programs are another methodology for presenting or ob- taining information but ace designed for a more open-ended or constructivist learning experience. They are less structured than tutorials, thus allowing leamers to choose their ‘own paths through the material. Each individual would likely have different paths for different reasons. Drills and most games typically engage learners in the third phase, helping them to practice for fluency and retention. We use the term drill for practice which repeats the material (o be learned untit it is mastered. Drill and game methodologies are often com- bined for motivational purposes. Some learning games are not repetitious, that is they do not practice $0 mastery, and so we would not call them drills, but they are nonetheless designed to provide practice in some area. ‘Simulations are more complicated. A simulation may be used to present informa- tion and guide the learner, to guide and practice, 10 do all three, or to assess-a learner's knowledge. However, it is rare for a simulation (or a single lesson of any methodology) to provide all four phases of instruction, Most methodologies must be used in conjunc tion with other programs or media to provide complete instruction. The four phases of instruction typically occur over days or weeks, not a single instructional sessi Simulations may be used for direct instruction or for a more constructivist ap- proach. Many simulations allow users to operate freely within a constrained environ- ment. For example, in a program to simulate a chemistry titration experiment, the user may be allowed to assemble the equipment in a variety of ways or use any amounts of chemicals, but wauld not be able to use equipment or chemicals not shown. In a physics simulation for learning mechanics, the user could choose from a variety of devices for projecting or dropping objects and measuring their motions. Simulations may also be, ‘combined with the game methodology to foster discovery learning. Games, as we have just said, may be combined with drills or with simulations, But many learning activities use games without being drills or simulations. Games may be used to practice information in a nonrepetitive manner, miay be used as a discovery e vironment, or may be used to integrate learning across a number of subject areas, as is often done with the adventure game genre. Games usually support the thitd phase, prac- tice, when they are combined with the drill methodology or used in the content integra- tion fashion typical of adventure games. Less frequently, games may be used for guidance o¢ assessment when combined with the simulation methodology. Tools are computer software that leamers use in conjunction with other media or activities for achieving some educational goal. They are by their nature more open ended and flexible. Graphics tools may be used to support drawing in art or graphing in math. Calculation tools may support science or business education. They may be a part of any of the phases of instruction and may support either constructivist or objectivist learning environments. Open-ended leaming environments, like simulations, provide an environment to support exploration. They usually include tool software as well, Although they may be used to foster leamers| obtaining or creating knowledge, they are frequently an environ- ment in which learméts practice the application of new knowledge.PART | General Principles Tests almost always represent the fast phase, assessment of what has been learned. An exception is practice tests or quizzes, which are commonly used to foster the prac- tice phase of instruction. Finally, Web-based leaming can be combined with any of these other methodolo- gies (for the Web is essentially a delivery medium) though at this time, it is used mostly in conjunction with the hypermedia methodology. Use of the Web can foster any of the phases of instruction. We devote a chapter to each of these eight approaches, and so it might be assumed that any interactive multimedia lesson must be classifiable as one of them. This is not the case, Many lessons combine methodologies, such as a lesson that begins with a tu- torial and then follows with a drill, or a drill that is practiced in she context of a game to make it more enjoyable. In fact, it is rare for a program to use only one methodology. In the eight chapters of Part II, we describe and give examples of the methodologies, ana- lyze their characteristics, and give recommendations for their design. The methodologies that we discuss in this book provide the basic groundwork for understanding and devel- oping good interactive multimedia of either the instructivist or constructivist varieties, “I Two Foundations of Interactive Multimedia Before we analyze the methodologies of interactive multimedia, the next two chapters will provide a foundation on which to build the discussion. First, it is important to un- derstand the different theories of tearning that underlie all instruction and learning envi- ronments. Chapter 2 discusses those underlying issues. Second, interactive multimedia must be built on sound human factors to be effec- tive. Human factors is the study of the interaction of people with technology. Chapter 3 examines the general issues of scteen design, multisensory presentatidn, types of inter- actions, learner control, and the facilitation of motivation. &@ Developing interactive Multimedia Finally, Part III discusses the various aspects of taking a design to fruition as a complete multimedia product, After a general introduction to development in Chapter 12, Chapter 13 provides a detailed look at how to plan a project properly, including the important is- sues of knowing the constraints under which you have to work (such as the budget), of keeping the project on track (project management}, and of defining the overall standards for the project. Chapter 14, “Design,” discusses the process of defining the content, structure, and interactions of the multimedia program, and the essential issue of communicating your design ideas accurately to all team members. Finally, Chapter 15, “Development,” examines the development aycle and revisits Project management. We consider production not only of the primary product but also of ancillary pieces, such as learner and instructor manuals. We also provide guidelines for testing your product and validating its effectiveness. Athenee ter innit shanna ninaCHAPTER 1 Introduction - @ Conclusion It is useful to lay out our own philosophy with respect to using computers to facilitate earning, First, we believe that there is a real world out there (an objectivist belief) and. that people must learn to function appropriately in that world to survive and be success- ful. Second, we believe that learning is a constructive process whereby each leamer ob- serves and interprets reality and creates an understanding of it. Third, we believe that the two points above demand a combination of approaches—recognizing that leaming is con- structive, but also that there are essential truths to be leamed. The fact that learning is con- structive does not require that education be constructive. Rather, education should include direct instruction methods, experiential methods, exploration methods, and others. Designing software that helps people to leam is a difficult and rewarding experi- ence, no matter which phifosophical approach you ascribe to. All philosophies share the ‘common goal of having the people lear something useful and meaningful. We encour- age you to jump right in and get your own interactive multimedia project underway (a constructivist approach) because you will leam much from the experience. Before you do so (or at least in parallel), we recommend you finish reading this book (a cognitivist approach) because it can save you a great deal of time and anguish by pointing out both well-established good practices, as well as known pitfalls. REFERENCES. AND. BIBLIOGRAPHY ‘itfors" tote: Each chapter of this book has its own bibliography specific to the topic of the chap- ter. However, the bibliography for this chapter inchodes general and classic references on the instructional uses of computers. Alpert; D,, & Bitzer, D. L. (1970). Advances in ‘computer-based education. Science, 167, 1582-1590. Baker, F.B. (1978). Computer-managed instruction: ‘Theory and practice. Englewood Cliffs, NJ Educational Technology Publications. Bangert-Drowns, R. L Kulik, J. A. & Kulik, C- L.C. (1985). Effectiveness of computer-based education in secondary schools. Journal of Computer-based Instruction, 12(3). 59-68. Biter, G. G., & Pierson, M. E. (1999). Using tech- ‘nology in the classroom (4th ed.) Boston: Allya and Bacon, Boltet, J. D. (1990). Writing space: The computer, hypertext, and the history of writing. Hillsdale, Nk: Lawrence Erlbaum. Bork, A. (1981). Learning with computers. Bedford, "MA: Digital Press. Braun, J. A., Femlund, P, & White, C. S. (1998) Technology tools in the social studies curricu- tum. Wilsonville, OR: Franklin, Beedle & Associates. Christman, E.. Badgett, J. & Lucking, R. (1997). Microcomputer-based computer-assisted in- struction within differing subject areas: A sta- tistical deduction. Journal of Educativnal Computer Research, 16(3), 281-296. Clark, R, E, (1983). Reconsidering research on leaming fro media. Review of Educational Research, 53(3), AAS-458. Clark, R. E, (1994). Media will never influence learning. Educational Technology Research ‘and Development, 42(2), 21-29. Clements, D. H. (1989). Computers in elementary mathematics education, Englewood Cliffs. NJ Prentice-Hall Daiute, C. (1985). Writing and computers. Reading. MA: Addison-Wesley. Deny, S. J., & Lajoie, S. P.(1993), A middle camp for (un)intelligent instructional computing: An in- troduction. In S. P. Lajoie & S. J. Derry (Eds.).14 PART 1 General Principles Computers as cognitive tools (pp. 1-11). Hills- dale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, Far, M. J, & Psotka, J. (1992). Intelligent instruc tion by computer: Theory and practice. Wash- ington: Taylor & Francis. Gayeski, D. M. (1992). Making sense of multimedia: Introduction to special issue. Educational Technology. 325), 9-13. Grabe, M.. & Grabe, C. (1998). Integrating technol- ‘gy for meaningful learning (2nd e4.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin, Hannafin, M. J., Dalton, D. W., & Hooper, S. R. (2987). Computers in education: Barriers and solutions. In E. E. Miller & M. L. Mosley (Eds.), Educational media and technology yearbook (pp. 5-20). Littleton, CO: Libraries Unlimited. Hawisher, G. E., & Selfe, C. L, (B45). (1989). Crit- cal perspectives on computers and composition instruction. New York: Teachers College Press. Hunter, B. (1984), My students use computers: Learning activities far computer literacy. Re- ston, VA: Reston Publishing. Jonassen, D. H., Peck, K. L., & Wilson, B. G. (1999). Learning with technology: A constructivist per- spective. Upper Saddle River, NI: Prentice Hall. Kearsley, G. (Ed.), (1987), Antficia imeltigence & instruction: Applications and methods. Read- ing, MA: Addison-Wesley. Kearsley, G., Hunter, B.. & Furlong, M. (1992). We teach with technology: New visions for educa- tion. Wilsonville, OR: Franklin, Beedle & Associates. Klausmicier. H. 3. & Feldman, K.V. (1975). Effects of a definition and a varying number of examples and nonexamples on concept attainment. Jour- nal of Educational Psychology, 67, 174-178. Koran, M. (1971), Differential response to induc- live and deductive instructional procedures. Journal of Educational Design, 62, 300-307. Kozma. R. B, (1987). The implication of cognitive psychology for computer-based leaming tools, Educational Technology, 27(41), 20-25. Xozma, R. B. (1991). Learning with media. Review of Educational Research, 61(2), 179-2UL, Sozma, R. B. (1994). Will media influence learning? Refeaming the debate, Educational Technology Research and Development, 42(2), 7-19. Culik, CL, C...& Kulik, JA. (1991). Effectiveness ‘of computer-based instruction: An updated analysis. Computers in Human Behavior 71&2), 75-94. Kulik, C-L. C., & Kulik, 5. A. (1986), Bffectiveness of computer-based education in colleges. AEDS Journal, 19, 81-108. Kulik, J. A. Kulik, C-L. C., & Bangert-Drowns, R. L. (1985), Effectiveness af computer-based ‘education in elementary schools. Computers in Human Behavior, 1, 59-74, Lajoie, S. P, & Derry, 8. J. (Eds.). (1993). Comput- ers as cognitive tools. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Exibaum. Larkin, J. H., & Chabay, RW. (Eds.). (1991). Com- ‘puter assisted instruction and intelligent tutor- ing systems, Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Litdeton, K., & Light, P. (Eds). (1999), Learning with computers: Analyzing productive interac- tion. London: Routledge. Lockard, J., Abrams, P.D.. & Many, W. A. (1994), ‘Microcomputers for twenty-first century edu- cators (3rd ed). Glenview. IL: Scott Fores- ‘man/Litle Brown, Merrill, M.D. (1983). Component display theory. fn C. M. Reigeluth (Ed), Instructional design theories and models (pp. 279-333). Hillsdale, Lawrence Erlbaum, Merill, M. D. (1987). The new component design theory: instructional design for coursewafe au- thoring, Instructional Sciance, 16, 19-34. Merrill, M. D. (1988). Applying component display “theory to the design of courseware. In D. H. Jonassea (Ea), Instructional designs for micro- computer cou'seware (pp. 61-95). Hillsdale, NU: Lawrence Eelbaumi, Merrill, M, D., Schneider, E. W., & Fletcher, K. A. (1980). TICCIT. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educa- ional Technology. Merrill, P.F, (1974). Effects of the availability of ob- Jectives and/or rules on the learning process. Journal of Educational Psychology, 66, 534-539. Mentill, P. F, Hammons, K., Vincent, B. R, Reynolds, P. L., Christensen, L., & Tolman, M,N. (1996). Computers in education (3rd d.). Boston: Allyn & Bagon, Mayskens,J.A. (Ed.). (1998). New ways of learning and teaching: Focus on technology and foreign language education, Boston: Heinle & Heinle. Nix, D., & Spiro, R. (Eds. (1990). Cognition, edu- cation and multimedia: Exploring ideas in high technology. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.CHAPTER 1 Introduction O'Neil, HF. (Ed). (1981). Compuer-based insiruc- tion: A state-of-the-art assessment. New York: Academic Press. O'Shea. T., & Self, . (1983). Learning and teaching with computers: Artificial intelligence in edu- cation. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Papert, 5. (1980). Mindstorms: Children, computers and powerful ideas. New York: Basic Books. Pea, R.D., & Sheingold, K. (Bds.). (1987). Mirrors of minds: Patterns of experience in educational computing, Norwood, NS: Ablex. Provenzo, E. F, Bret, A, & McCloskey, G. N. (1999). Computers, curriculum, and cultural change: An introduction for teachers, Mah- wah, NJ: Lawrence Ertbaumn. Regian, J.'W., & Shute, V. 4, Eds.) (1992). Cogni- tive approaches 10 automated instruction. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Reynolds, K.E., & Barba, R. H. (1996). Technology for the teaching ond leaming of science. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Roberts, N., Friel, S. & Ladenburg. T. (1988). Cont- ‘puters and the social studies: Educating for the * ‘future. Mento Park, CA: Addison-Wesley. Rosenshine, B., & Stevens, R. (1986). Teaching functions. In M. C. Wittrock (Ed), Handbook of research on teaching (3rd ed. pp. 376-391). New York: Macmillan. Sandholtz, J. H., Ringstaff, C.. & Dwyer. D.C. (1997). Teaching with technology: Creating student-centered classrooms. New York: Teachers College Press. ‘Schank, R.. & Cleary, C. (1995). Engines for educa- sion. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. 15 Schrum, L., & Berenfeld, B. (1997). Teaching and Yearning in the information age: A guide to ed- ‘wcational telecommunications, Boston: Allyn and Bacoo. Steinberg, B. R. (1984). Teaching computers to teach, Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. ‘Steinberg, E. R. (1991), Compurer-assisted instruc tion: A synthesis of theory, practice, and tech. nology. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Taylor, R. (Ed). (1980), The computer in the school: Tutor, tool, tutee. New York: Teachers College Press, ‘Tennyson, R, D, (1994). The big wrench vs. inte- ‘grated approaches: The great media debate. Educational Technology Research and Devel- ‘opment, 42(3), $5-28. Trollip, $. R., & Alessi, S. M. (1988). Incorporating. computers effectively into classrooms. Journal of Research on Computing in Education, 21(1), Ws. Walket, D. F, & Hess, R. D. (Eds.). (1984), Insiruc- ional software: Principles and perspectives for design and use. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Wenger, E. (1987), Artificial intelligence and tutor ing systems: Computational and cognitive ap- roaches to the communication of knowledge. Los Altos, CA: Morgan Kaufmann, White, B. ¥, (1993). ThinkerTools: Causal models, conceptual change, and science educ Cognition and Instruction, 10(1), 1-100. ‘Wilkinson, A. C. (1983). Classroom computers and ‘cognitive science. New York: Academic Press. ‘Wydra, F. T. (1980). Leamer controlled instruction. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology.or Learning Principles and Approaches @ Introduction 16 Developing effective materials (in any medium) that facilitate learning requires an un- derstanding and appreciation of the principles underlying how people learn, Just as en- gineering is the application of basic principles from physics and chemistry, and as inedicine is the application of basic principles of biology, instruction is the application of basic principles of leaning, As you design educational software, you should always te thinking about the principles of learning, and assessing whether your software reflects and is compatible with them: However, no universal agreement exists on how learning occurs. How psychologists have viewed the principles of learning has changed significantly throughout the 20th century. Today many educators are strong proponents of particular approaches, whereas others take a more eclectic apptoach, which comprises a combination of principles from different theories. In the middle of the 20th century, learning theory was dominated by the principles of behavioral psychology, exemplified by the work of B. F. Skinner (1938, 1969, 1974), which maintains that leaning should be described as changes in the ob- Servable behavior of a learner made as 2 fuaction of events in the environment. In the 1970s, the behavioral paradigm began to be expanded by the ideas of cogni- tive psychology, which maintains that a complete explanation of human learning also re- quires recourse to nonobservable constructs, such as memory and rhotivation. However, not all psychologists and educators abandoned behavioral principles in favor of cogai- tive principles; indeed, many ardent behaviorists continued to insist that behavioral the- ory and approaches were best. A few more ardent cognitive psychologists sought to throw out all the tenets of behavioral psychology and begin with a opmpletely new ap- proach. However, the vast majority of psychologists and educators simply added the new cognitive learning principles to those of behavioral psychology. In the 1980s, a new learning paradigm, constructivism, began to influence educa- tion and instructional desiga. Constructivist philosophy counters objectivist or positivist philosophy. Objectivist philosophy maintains that the world follows real and consistent