FMS 355 Questions and answers

15 July 2025 17:08

Q.1 Application of biotechnology in food processing

Ans :
Applications of Biotechnology in Food Processing
Biotechnology plays a crucial role in improving the quality, safety, and nutritional value of food. The key applications include:
1. Fermentation Technology
Biotechnology enhances traditional fermentation processes using selected microorganisms to produce yogurt, cheese, bread, vinegar, and alcoholic beverages.
2. Enzyme Technology
Microbial enzymes like amylase, protease, and lipase are used to improve food texture, flavor, and shelf life. For example, proteases in meat tenderization and amylases in bread-
making.
3. Genetically Modified (GM) Foods
GM crops like golden rice (rich in vitamin A) and pest-resistant maize contribute to better nutrition and reduce the use of chemical pesticides.
4. Probiotics and Prebiotics
Biotechnology helps develop probiotic-rich foods (e.g., curd, kefir) that improve gut health by maintaining a healthy microbiome.
5. Single Cell Protein (SCP)
Microorganisms like yeast and algae are used to produce high-protein food supplements, addressing malnutrition.
6. Food Preservation
Biopreservatives like bacteriocins (produced by lactic acid bacteria) extend the shelf life of food by preventing spoilage.
7. Flavors and Additives Production
Microbial biotechnology is used to produce natural flavor compounds (like vanillin) and food colors (like carotenoids) through fermentation.
8. Biosensors for Quality Control
Enzyme-based biosensors are used to detect contaminants, pathogens, or spoilage in food, ensuring safety and quality.

Conclusion:
Biotechnology in food processing enhances food safety, quality, and nutrition while supporting sustainable and eco-friendly practices.

Q.2 Define genetic engineering and discuss different steps of genetic engineering

ANS:
Definition of Genetic Engineering:
Genetic engineering is the process of direct manipulation of an organism’s DNA using biotechnology to introduce, remove, or alter specific genes. It allows scientists to transfer genes
between unrelated species to develop organisms with desired traits.
Example: Producing insulin by inserting the human insulin gene into E. coli bacteria.

Steps of Genetic Engineering:

Genetic engineering involves the following key steps:

1. Isolation of the Desired Gene

• The target gene (e.g., insulin gene from human DNA) is identified and isolated from the source organism using restriction enzymes.
• These enzymes cut the DNA at specific sequences.

2. Insertion into a Vector

• The isolated gene is inserted into a vector (usually a plasmid or a virus).
• The vector acts as a carrier, transferring the gene into the host.
• DNA ligase enzyme is used to join the gene and vector, forming recombinant DNA.

3. Transformation (Gene Transfer into Host)

• The recombinant DNA is introduced into a host cell (e.g., E. coli) through a process called transformation.
• Methods include:
○ Heat shock
○ Electroporation
○ Microinjection
○ Gene gun (biolistics)

4. Selection and Screening

• The transformed cells are grown on selective media.
• Only the cells that successfully took up the recombinant DNA will survive (often using antibiotic resistance markers).
• Screening methods like blue-white screening or PCR confirm successful transformation.

5. Expression of the Gene

• The host cell begins to transcribe and translate the inserted gene to produce the desired protein or trait.
• Example: Bacteria producing human insulin.

6. Harvesting the Product

• The final product (e.g., protein, enzyme, or hormone) is extracted, purified, and processed for medical, industrial, or agricultural use.

Diagram (optional for exams)

You may draw a simple flowchart:
Gene isolation → Vector preparation → Recombinant DNA → Transformation → Selection → Expression → Product harvesting

Q.3 Explain the recombinant DNA technology

ANS:
Definition:
Recombinant DNA (rDNA) technology is the process of combining DNA from two different sources to form a new DNA molecule. This technology enables the transfer of a gene from
one organism into another to express a desired trait or produce a specific product.
It is also known as genetic engineering or gene cloning.

Steps in Recombinant DNA Technology:

1. Isolation of Genetic Material (DNA)
• The desired gene (e.g., insulin gene) is isolated from the donor organism.
• Restriction enzymes (endonucleases) are used to cut the DNA at specific sequences.

2. Selection of a Suitable Vector

• A vector is a DNA molecule used to carry the gene into a host cell.
• Common vectors: Plasmids, bacteriophages, cosmids.
• The same restriction enzyme is used to cut the vector so that the gene can be inserted.

3. Insertion of Gene into Vector

• The desired gene is inserted into the vector DNA using DNA ligase, forming recombinant DNA.

4. Transformation (Transfer into Host Cell)

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4. Transformation (Transfer into Host Cell)
• The recombinant DNA is introduced into a host organism (e.g., E. coli).
• Methods: Heat shock, electroporation, microinjection, gene gun.

5. Selection of Transformed Cells

• Only cells that successfully received the recombinant DNA are selected.
• Selectable markers (e.g., antibiotic resistance) are used to identify the transformed cells.

6. Expression of the Gene

• The host organism expresses the inserted gene, producing the desired protein (e.g., insulin, enzymes, hormones).

7. Harvesting the Product

• The final protein or product is extracted, purified, and processed for industrial, medical, or agricultural use.

Diagram (optional for exams)

You can draw a simple labeled diagram showing:
Gene → Cut → Ligate into vector → Transfer to host → Multiply → Express → Product

Applications of Recombinant DNA Technology

• Production of insulin, growth hormones, vaccines.
• GM crops (e.g., Bt cotton, golden rice).
• Gene therapy and diagnosis of genetic disorders.

Conclusion:
Recombinant DNA technology revolutionized modern biotechnology by enabling precise genetic modifications, improving food, medicine, and agriculture.

Q.4 Discuss the biosensors and its application

ANS:
Biosensors and Their Applications
Definition:
A biosensor is an analytical device that combines a biological component (like enzyme, antibody, or microorganism) with a physical transducer to detect and measure specific
substances (analytes).
It converts a biological response into an electrical signal.

Basic Components of a Biosensor:

1. Bioreceptor
○ A biological element (enzyme, antibody, nucleic acid) that interacts with the target analyte.
2. Transducer
○ Converts the biological interaction into a measurable signal (e.g., optical, electrical, thermal).
3. Signal Processor (Display System)
○ Converts the signal into a readable format (e.g., digital display or graph).

Types of Biosensors (Based on Transducers):

• Electrochemical Biosensors – Measure changes in current or voltage.
• Optical Biosensors – Use light absorption, fluorescence, etc.
• Thermal Biosensors – Detect heat changes from biochemical reactions.
• Piezoelectric Biosensors – Detect mass changes on a surface.

Applications of Biosensors:
1. Food Industry
• Detecting pathogens (e.g., E. coli, Salmonella) in food.
• Measuring sugar, alcohol, acidity levels in products.
• Monitoring freshness and spoilage in packaged foods.
2. Medical Field
• Glucose biosensors for diabetes monitoring (e.g., glucometer).
• Detection of diseases (e.g., HIV, cancer markers).
• Drug level monitoring in patients.
3. Environmental Monitoring
• Detecting pollutants in water and air (e.g., heavy metals, pesticides).
• Monitoring biological oxygen demand (BOD) in wastewater.
4. Biotechnology and Research
• Enzyme activity measurement.
• Monitoring fermentation processes in industries.

Advantages of Biosensors:
• High sensitivity and specificity.
• Fast and real-time analysis.
• Portable and user-friendly.
• Requires small sample volume.

Conclusion:
Biosensors are an essential part of modern food safety, healthcare, and environmental monitoring. With increasing demand for rapid and accurate testing, biosensors play a key role in
quality assurance and disease diagnosis.

Q.5 Explain the chemical nature of nucleic acid

ANS:
Chemical Nature of Nucleic Acids
Definition:
Nucleic acids are biological macromolecules that store and transmit genetic information in all living organisms. The two types are:
• DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)
• RNA (Ribonucleic Acid)

Chemical Composition:
Nucleic acids are polymers of nucleotides. Each nucleotide consists of three components:
1. Nitrogenous Base
○ Purines: Adenine (A), Guanine (G)
○ Pyrimidines: Cytosine (C), Thymine (T in DNA), Uracil (U in RNA)
2. Pentose Sugar

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 2. Pentose Sugar
○ Deoxyribose in DNA
○ Ribose in RNA
3. Phosphate Group
○ Links nucleotides together via phosphodiester bonds to form a nucleic acid chain.

Structure:
DNA
• Double-stranded helix
• Sugar: Deoxyribose
• Bases: A, T, G, C
• A pairs with T; G pairs with C (hydrogen bonds)
• Found in nucleus
RNA
• Single-stranded
• Sugar: Ribose
• Bases: A, U, G, C
• A pairs with U in complementary base pairing
• Found in nucleus and cytoplasm

Bonding and Polymerization:

• Nucleotides are joined by 3’-5’ phosphodiester bonds.
• Base pairing in DNA occurs through hydrogen bonds (A=T has 2 bonds, G≡C has 3 bonds).
• The entire molecule has directionality (5' to 3' end).

Functions:
• DNA stores genetic information.
• RNA helps in protein synthesis (mRNA, tRNA, rRNA).
• Some RNA molecules have catalytic activity (ribozymes).

Conclusion:
Nucleic acids are complex molecules composed of nucleotides, crucial for inheritance, gene expression, and protein synthesis. Their chemical structure makes them ideal for storing and
transmitting genetic information.

Q .6 Define the difference between the DNA and RNA

ANS:
Difference Between DNA and RNA
Feature DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) RNA (Ribonucleic Acid)
Full Form Deoxyribonucleic Acid Ribonucleic Acid
Structure Double-stranded helix Single-stranded
Sugar Component Deoxyribose Ribose
Nitrogenous Bases A, T, G, C (Thymine present) A, U, G, C (Uracil instead of Thymine)
Location Mostly in the nucleus Found in nucleus and cytoplasm
Function Stores genetic information Involved in protein synthesis
Stability More stable (due to double helix) Less stable
Types Only one type Three main types: mRNA, tRNA, rRNA

Conclusion:
DNA and RNA differ in structure, sugar type, nitrogen bases, and biological role. DNA is the genetic blueprint, while RNA helps in decoding and expressing that information during
protein synthesis.

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