STRUCTURE OF ATOM
Sub-Atomic particles
Dalton’s Atomic Theory was able to explain the law of Conservation of mass, law of constant
proportion and law of multiple proportion.
Discovery of Electron/Cathode rays
J.J .Thomson conducted experiments using glass discharge tube. He found some invisible rays
travelling from cathode to anode and produced a greenish glow on the wall opposite to cathode
and called these rays as cathode rays.
Cathode ray discharge tube experiment
Discharge tube is also called crookes tube . It is made of glass containing two thin pieces
of metal called electrodes.
The electrical discharge the gases could be observed only at low pressure and at very
high voltages.
When sufficiently high voltage is applied across the electrodes, the current starts flowing
from negative electrode (cathode) to the positive electrode(anode)
These rays travel in a straight line in the absence of electric or magnetic field.
The behaviour of cathode rays is similar to negatively charged particles in the presence of
an electric or magnetic field.
Properties of Cathode rays
Cathode rays move in straight line from cathode to anode.
Cathode rays are made up of material particles.
When electric and magnetic is applied perpendicular to the direction of cathode
rays, they moves in a direction indicating they are negatively charged.
e/m ratio was constant irrespective of nature of gas or cathode material.
e/m = charge/mass = 1.758820 × 1011 CKg-1
Properties of Anode Rays
Anode rays consists of material particles.
They travel in straight line.
Under the influence of electric field, anode rays are deflected towards the negative plate
showing that they can carry a net positive charge.
e/m ratio of particles in anode rays depend on the nature of the gas taken in the discharge
tube.
Models of an atom
J.J.Thomson model
Postulates
An atom consists of a positively charged sphere and the electrons are embedded
in it.
The negative and positive charge are equal in magnitude. So,the atom as a whole
which is electrically neutral.
Drawbacks
It could not explain the result of the scattering experiment performed by
Rutherford.
It did not have any experimental evidence in its support.
RutherFord model of Atom
Observation
Most of the fast moving α particles passed through the gold foil.
Some of the α particles were deflected by the foil by small angles.
A very few α particles bounced back ie,were deflected by nearly 1800
Postulates
There is a positively charged centre in an atom called the nucleus.
The electrons are revolving around nucleus in a circular path called orbit.
The size of the nucleus is very small as compared to the size of the atom.
Drawbacks
The model is applicable for one electron system.
It doesn’t explain the stability of the atom.
Any particle in a circular orbit would undergo acceleration. During acceleration, charged
particles would radiate energy. The revolving electron would lose energy and finally fall
in to the nucleus. It is impossible.
Rutherford does not give any idea about distribution of electron around nucleus and about
their energies.
Developments leading of the Bohr’s model of Atom
Two developments leading played a major role in the formulation of Bohr’s
model of atom. These are:
Dual nature of radiation
Wave like nature
Particle like nature
Experimental results regarding spectra which can be explained only by
assuming quantized electronic energy levels in atoms.
Wave nature of electromagnetic radiation
When electrically charged particle move under acceleration, alternating electrical
and magnetic fields are produced and transmitted. These fields are transmitted in
the forms of waves or electromagnetic radiations.
Note: Light is supposed to be made of particles called Corpuscles.
Properties of Electromagnetic wave or radiation
The Oscillating electric and magnetic field produced by oscillating charged
particles are perpendicular to each other and both are perpendicular to the
direction of propagation of the wave.
These wave or radiation do not require any material medium
There are many types electromagnetic radiation , which differ from one another in
wavelength or frequency. These is called electromagnetic spectrum.
Different kinds of units are used to represent electromagnetic radiation.
Some important characteristics of Wave
troughs of the wave .It is represented by ⋋(lambda) and is generally measured in
1) Wavelength : -It may be defined as the distance between two neighbouring crests and
Angstrom units (Ao) or nanometers(nm)
1Ao = 10-10m
1nm = 10-9m
2) Frequency:- It is defined as the number of waves that pass a given point in one second. It
is represented by ‘ν’ and is generally measured in Hertz(Hz) or s-1.
3) Velocity: The distance travelled by a wave in one second is called velocity of the wave.
It is denoted by letter’c’.
c= ν⋋
4) Wave number : It may be defined as the number of wavelengths per unit length. Its units
are reciprocal of wavelength unit.ie m-1It is generally expressed as m-1 or cm-1.
ῡ= 1/⋋=ν/c
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Arrangement of electromagnetic radiation in the increasing order of their wavelength or
decreasing order of their frequencies is called electromagnetic spectrum.
Fig 2.7 (a)
Limitation of Wave theory of Radiation
Wave theory of radiation could successfully explain the phenomena of interference and
diffraction, it failed to explain the following phenomena:
(i) Black body radiation ie emission of radiation from hot bodies.
(ii) Photoelectric effect ie ejection of electrons from metal surface when radiation strikes it.
(iii) Variation of heat capacity of solids as a function of temperature
(iv) Line spectra of atoms with special reference to hydrogen.
Particle nature of Electromagnetic radiation- Planck’s Quantum Theory
The failure of the classical electromagnetic theory of radiation to explain the
phenomenon of photoelectric effect led Maxplanck to propose a new theory known as
Quantum theory of radiation.
a) Black body radiation
An ideal body which emits and absorbs radiation of all frequencies is called
a black body and the radiation emitted by such a body is called black body
radiation. This phenomenon could be explained by considering light
behaving as particles.
Each light particle is called a photon.
The energy associated with each photon is called quantum.
Energy of a quantum,E α ν
The main points of this theory are:
(i) Radiant energy is emitted or absorbed not continuously but discontinuously in the
form of small packets of energy called quanta.
(ii) The amount of energy associated with a quantum of radiation is proportional to the
frequency of radiation.
Eαν
E = hν
Where h is a constant known as planck’s constant and is equal to 6.625 × 10-34
The energy of a photon of light in terms of wavelength ‘⋋’ and velocity of light ‘c’is
given as :
E = hν
E =hc/⋋
(iii) A body can emit or absorb energy only in terms of the integral multiples of quantum
ie
E= nhν
Where ‘n’=1,2,3,4….
b) Photoelectric effect
It is a phenomenon in which the surface of alkali metals like K , rubidium, caesium etc
emits electrons, when a beam of light with high frequency is made to fall on them. The
ejected electrons are called photoelectrons.
If hν is the energy of photon and νo is the minimum frequency of metal. hνo is the
minimum energy required to eject electron(threshold energy/work
function) .Photoelectric effect takes place only if hν ˃hνo
hν = h νo + ½mev2 where ‘me’ is the mass of the electron and ‘v’ is the velocity
associated with the ejected electron.
