1

CHAPTER
Resource and
Development

Short Notes

Resources
Technologically accessible, economically feasible and culturally acceptable
Nature

HUMAN
BEINGS

Technology Institution
(Fig-1: Interdependent relationship between nature technology and institutions)
Resource Classification
Resources can be classified in the following ways:
(a) On the basis of origin – biotic and abiotic
(b) On the basis of exhaustibility – renewable and non-renewable
(c) On the basis of ownership – individual, community, national and international
(d) On the basis of status of development – potential, developed stock and reserves
Resources

Natural Human

Renewable Non-Renewable Structures and Quantity and

Institutions Quality
Continuous Biological
or flow e.g. Recyclable Non-Recyclable
wind, water e.g. metals e.g. Fossil fuels
Natural Vegetation wildlife
(Forest)

DEVELOPMENT OF RESOURCES
‰ Resources are vital for human survival as well as for maintaining the quality of life. But Indiscriminate use of resources
led to the following major problems.
  Depletion of resources
 Accumulation of resources in few hands → divided the society into two segments i.e. haves and have nots or rich
and poor
 Global ecological crises such as, global warming, ozone layer depletion, environmental
 Pollution and land degradation.
Solutions:
‰ An equitable distribution of resources
‰ Proper resource planning.
‰ Sustainable development.
Sustainable Development → ‘development should take place without damaging the environment, and development in
the present should not compromise with the needs of the future generations.
Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit, 1992 → Agenda 21 → Sustainable Development

RESOURCE PLANNING
Planning → Judicious use of resources
Regional Inequality in the distribution of Resources → So there is a need for a balanced resource planning at the national,
state, regional and local levels.
Example: Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh are rich in minerals and coal deposits. Arunachal Pradesh has abundance
of water resources but lacks in infrastructural development. The state of Rajasthan is very well endowed with solar and wind
energy but lacks in water resources.

Resource Planning in India

(i) Identification and inventory of resources across the regions of the country → surveying, mapping and qualitative and
quantitative estimation and measurement of the resources.
(ii) Evolving a planning structure endowed with appropriate technology, skill and institutional set up for implementing
resource development plans.
(iii) Matching the resource development plans with overall national development plans.

Conservation of Resources
‰ Gandhiji → “There is enough for everybody’s need and not for any body’s greed.”
‰ At international level → the Club of Rome advocated resource conservation for the first time in a more systematic
‰ Way in 1968.
‰ 1974 → Gandhian philosophy was presented by Schumacher in his book ‘Small is Beautiful’.
‰ Brundtland Commission Report, 1987 → The seminal contribution with respect to resource conservation at the global
‰ level → introduced the concept of ‘Sustainable Development’ → published in a book entitled ‘Our Common Future’.
‰ Earth Summit at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in 1992

LAND RESOURCES:
Land is an asset of a finite magnitude → supports natural vegetation, wild life, human life, economic activities, and
transport and communication systems.
Land Distribution in India
‰ About 43 per cent of the land area → plain → provides facilities for agriculture and industry.
‰ About 30 per cent of the total surface area → Mountain → ensure perennial flow of some rivers; provides facilities for
tourism and ecological aspects.
‰ About 27 per cent of the area of the country → the plateau region → rich reserves of minerals, fossil fuels and forests.

4 CLASS-X SOCIAL SCIENCE PW

LAND UTILISATION
Land resources are used for the following purposes:
1. Forests
2. Land not available for cultivation -
(a) Barren and waste land
(b) Land put to non-agricultural uses, e.g. buildings, roads, factories, etc.
3. Other uncultivated land (excluding fallow land):
(a) Permanent pastures and grazing land,
(b) Land under miscellaneous tree crops groves (not included in net sown area),
(c) Cultivable waste land (left uncultivated for more than 5 agricultural years).
4. Fallow lands:
(a) Current fallow- (left without cultivation for one or less than one agricultural year),
(b) Other than current fallow- (left uncultivated for the past 1 to 5 agricultural years).
5. Net sown area the physical extent of land on which crops are sown harvested is known as net sown area. Area
sown more than once in an agricultural year plus net sown area is known as gross cropped area.

LAND USE PATTERN IN INDIA

‰ Total geographical area of India → 3.28 million sq km.
‰ Land use data available → Only for 93 percent of the total geographical area (because the lands use reporting for most
of the north-east states except Assam have not been done fully.
‰ Some areas of Jammu and Kashmir occupied by Pakistan and China have also not been surveyed.
‰ The pattern of net sown area → varies greatly from one state to another → Over 80 percent of the total area in Punjab
and Haryana → and less than 10 per cent in Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Manipur and Andaman Nicobar Islands.
‰ Forest area in the country → Forest cover far lower than the desired 33 percent of geographical area as per the
National Forest Policy (1952)

General land use categories-1960-61 General land use categories-2014-15

Reporting Area: 100 Per cent

18.11%
45.26% 45.5% 23.3%

12.01% 5.5%

4.95% 8.7%
4.71% 3.3%
1.50% 1%
3.73% 3.50% 6.23% 4.0%
4.9% 3.6%
Net sown area Area under misc. tree crops and groves
Forest Culturable waste land
Barren and unculturable waste land Fallow other than current fallow
Area under non-agricultural uses Current fallow
Permanent pasture and grazing land

Source: Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Ministry of Agriculture, 2017

Resource and Development 5

LAND DEGRADATION AND CONSERVATION MEASURES
‰ 95 percent of our basic needs for food, shelter and clothing are obtained from land.
‰ Human activities → degradation of land & aggravated the pace of natural forces to cause damage to land.
Causes of Land degradation:
‰ Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh and Odisha → mining
‰ Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra → overgrazing
‰ Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh → over irrigation
Ways to solve the problems of land degradation:
‰ Afforestation
‰ Planting of shelter belts of plants
‰ Control on over grazing
‰ Stabilisation of sand dunes by growing thorny bushes

SOIL AS A RESOURCE:
‰ Most important renewable natural resource
‰ Various forces of nature → change in temperature, actions of running water, wind and glaciers, activities of decomposers
etc. → contribute to the formation of soil.
Classification of Soil:
Alluvial Soils:
‰ Most widely spread and important soil.
‰ Consists of various proportions of sand, silt and clay
‰ Very fertile → Adequate proportion of potash, phosphoric acid and lime → ideal for the growth of sugarcane, paddy,
wheat and other cereal and pulse crops.
‰ Soils in the drier areas → more alkaline and can be productive after proper treatment and irrigation.
‰ Entire Northern Plains → deposited by three important Himalayan river systems– the Indus, the Ganga and the
Brahmaputra.
‰ Also extend in Rajasthan and Gujarat through a narrow corridor
‰ Eastern coastal plains particularly in the deltas of the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the Kaveri rivers.
‰ Soils are more common in piedmont plains such as Duars, Chos and Terai.
On the basis of their age:
‰ Bangar → Old alluvial, higher concentration of kanker nodules
‰ Khadar → New alluvial, more fine particles
Black Soil:
‰ Known as regur soils
‰ Suitable for cotton
‰ Deccan trap (Basalt) region spread over northwest Deccan plateau and is made up of lava flows.
‰ Maharashtra, Saurashtra, Malwa, Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh and extend in the south east direction along the
Godavari and the Krishna valleys.
‰ Extremely fine i.e. clayey material
‰ Capacity to hold moisture.
‰ Rich in soil nutrients, such as calcium carbonate, magnesium, potash and lime
‰ Poor in phosphoric contents
‰ Deep cracks in hot weather & sticky when wet

6 CLASS-X SOCIAL SCIENCE PW

Red and Yellow Soils:
‰ Develops on crystalline igneous rocks in areas of low rainfall in the eastern and southern parts of the Deccan plateau
‰ Found in parts of Odisha, Chhattisgarh, southern parts of the middle Ganga plain and along the piedmont zone of the
Western Ghats
‰ Reddish colour due to diffusion of iron in crystalline and metamorphic rocks
‰ Yellow when it occurs in a hydrated form
Laterite Soil:
‰ Derived from the Latin word ‘later’ which means brick
‰ Develops in areas with high temperature and heavy rainfall
‰ Result of intense leaching due to rain
‰ Humus content low (due to most of the microorganisms, particularly the decomposers, like bacteria, get destroyed due
to high temperature)
‰ Suitable for cultivation with adequate doses of manures and fertilizers.
‰ Found in Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh, and the hilly areas of Odisha and Assam
‰ Hilly areas of Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu, → tea and coffee.
‰ Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Kerala → cashew nut
Arid Soils:
‰ From red to brown in colour
‰ Sandy in texture and saline in nature
‰ In some areas the salt content is very high and common salt is obtained by evaporating the water.
‰ Dry climate, high temperature → faster evaporation → lacks humus and moisture.
‰ Lower horizons of the soil are occupied by Kankar
‰ Becomes cultivable in case of western Rajasthan
Forest Soils:
‰ Hilly and mountainous areas where sufficient rain forests are available
‰ Loam and silt in valley side and coarse grain in upper side
‰ In the snow covered areas → Acidic with low humus content
‰ Lower parts of the valleys and alluvial fans → fertile
Soil Erosion:
 Denudation of the soil cover and subsequent washing down → soil erosion
Factors:
‰ Deforestation
‰ Over-grazing
‰ Construction and Mining
‰ Running water running water cuts through the clayey soils and makes deep channels → gullies
‰ Land unfit for cultivation → Badlands → in Chambal such lands are called ravines
‰ Top soil is washed away- Sheet erosion
Soil Conservation:
‰ Contour Ploughing-decrease flow along contour lines
‰ Terrace cultivation-restrict erosion (western and central Himalayas)
‰ Strip cropping-large fields to strips
‰ Shelter belts rows of trees-stabilize sand dunes

Resource and Development 7

 2
CHAPTER
Forest and
Wildlife Resources

Short Notes

Biodiversity or Biological Diversity:

Biodiversity or Biological Diversity → immensely rich in wildlife and cultivated species → diverse in form and
function → but closely integrated in a system through multiple network of interdependencies.

Flora and Fauna in India:

‰ one of the world’s richest countries in terms of its vast array of biological diversity
‰ Nearly 8 per cent of the total number of species in the world (estimated to be 1.6 million).
‰ At least 10 per cent of India’s recorded wild flora and 20 per cent of its mammals are on the threatened list.
‰ Many are categorised as ‘critical’, that is on the verge of extinction like the cheetah, pink-headed duck etc.

Causes of Depletion of the Flora and Fauna:

‰ Human beings transformed nature into a resource obtaining directly and indirectly from the forests and wildlife such as
wood, barks, leaves, rubber, medicines, dyes, food, fuel, fodder, manure, etc. which depleted our forests and wildlife.
‰ The various factors that cause depletion of the flora and fauna are:
 Large-scale developmental projects
 Shifting cultivation
 Mining
 Over-grazing
 Forest fires
 historical reason (colonial rule)

Conservation of Forest and Wildlife in India:

‰ Conservation → Preserves the ecological diversity and our life support systems – water, air and soil.
‰ Due to conservationist’s demand → The Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act -1972 was passed → The aim is to protect
the remaining population of certain endangered species by banning hunting, giving legal protection to their habitats, and
restricting trade in wildlife.
‰ The central and many state governments established national parks and wildlife sanctuaries.
‰ The central government also announced several projects for protecting specific animals, which were gravely threatened,
including the tiger, the one-horned rhinoceros and the Kashmir stag or Hangul, three types of crocodiles – fresh water
crocodile, saltwater crocodile and the Gharial, the Asiatic lion, and others.
‰ 1986, several hundred butterflies, moths, beetles, and one dragonfly have been added to the list of protected species.
‰ In 1991 → for the first time plants were also added to the list, starting with six species.
Project Tiger-1973
‰ Tiger is one of the key wildlife species in the faunal web.
‰ 1973 → The tiger population dwindled to 1,827 from an estimated 55,000 at the turn of the century.
‰ The major threats to tiger population → poaching, shrinking habitat, depletion of prey base species, growing human
population, etc.
‰ The trade of tiger skins and the use of their bones in traditional medicines, especially in the Asian countries left the tiger
population on the verge of extinction.
‰ Since India and Nepal provide habitat to about two-thirds of the surviving tiger population in the world, these two
nations became prime targets for poaching and illegal trading.

Some of The Tiger Reserves of India:

‰ Corbett National Park in Uttarakhand
‰ Sunderbans National Park in West Bengal
‰ Bandhavgarh National Park in Madhya Pradesh
‰ Sariska Wildlife Sanctuary in Rajasthan
‰ Manas Tiger Reserve in Assam
‰ Periyar Tiger Reserve in Kerala

Types and Distribution of Forest and Wildlife Resources:

‰ In India, much of its forest and wildlife resources are either owned or managed by the government through the Forest
Department or other government departments.

The forests are classified under the following categories:

Reserved Forests Protected Forests Unclassed Forests
‰ Covers half of the total forest land. ‰ Almost one-third of the total forest ‰ Other forests and wastelands
‰ Most valuable as far as the area is protected forest, as declared belonging to both government
conservation of forest and wildlife by the Forest apartment. and private individuals and
resources are concerned. ‰ This forest land are protected from communities
any further depletion
‰ Reserved and protected forests → also referred to as permanent forest estates → maintained for the purpose of producing
timber and other forest produce, and for protective reasons.
‰ Madhya Pradesh has the largest area under permanent forests, constituting 75 per cent of its total forest area.

Community and Conservation:

‰ The forests are also home to some of the traditional communities.
‰ Local communities are struggling to conserve these habitats along with government officials to secure their long term
livelihood.
‰ In Sariska Tiger Reserve, Rajasthan, villagers have fought against mining by citing the Wildlife Protection Act.
‰ The famous Chipko movement in the Himalayas has successfully resisted deforestation in several areas.
‰ Farmers and citizen’s groups → The Beej Bachao Andolan in Tehri and Navdanya have shown that adequate
‰ levels of diversified crop production without the use of synthetic chemicals are possible and economically viable.
‰ Joint forest management (JFM) programme introduced in 1988 in the state of Odisha shown good example for involving
local communities in the management and restoration of degraded forests.

16 CLASS-X SOCIAL SCIENCE PW

Sacred groves - a Wealth of Diverse and Rare Species:
‰ Nature worship is an age old tribal belief → based on the premise that all creations of nature have to be protected
→ such beliefs have preserved several virgin forests in pristine form called → Sacred Groves (the forests of Gods and
Goddesses).
‰ These patches of forest or parts of large forests have been left untouched by the local people and any interference with
them is banned.
‰ Certain societies revere a particular tree from time immemorial.
 The Mundas and the Santhal of Chota Nagpur region → worship mahua (Bassia latifolia) and kadamba (Anthocephalus
cadamba) trees
 The tribals of Odisha and Bihar → worship the tamarind (Tamarindus indica) and mango (Mangifera indica) trees
during weddings.
 Peepal and banyan trees are also considered sacred.

Previous Year Questions

3. ‘Forests and wildlife are vital to the quality of life and

Multiple Choice Type Questions environment. Justify the statement by giving three
1. Two statements are given below. They are Assertion reasons. [CBSE 2016]
(A) and Reason (R). Read both the statements and 4. ‘Large-scale development projects have also contributed
choose the correct option. [CBSE 2024]
significantly to the loss of forests. Justify this statement
Assertion (A): We need to protect forests and wildlife. with relevant examples.
Reason (R): Conservation maintains ecological
 [CBSE 2016]
diversity.
5. Explain any three factors responsible for the depletion
(a) (A) is true, but (R) is false.
of flora and fauna in India. [CBSE 2014]
(b) (A) is false, but (R) is true.
(c) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct
explanation of (A). Long Answer Type Questions
(d) Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not the correct
explanation of (A). 6. What is biodiversity? Why is biodiversity important
for human lives? Analyse. [CBSE 2017]
Short Answer Type Questions 7. Analyse any four reasons for the depletion of forest
resources in India. [CBSE 2015]
2. In which year was the ‘Indian Wildlife Protection Act’
implemented in India? Describe the main thrust area 8. Describe the steps taken to conserve the flora and fauna
of this programme. [CBSE 2017] of the country.  [CBSE 2015, 2014]

Forest and Wildlife Resources 17

 3
CHAPTER
Water Resources

Short Notes

Water:
‰ A renewable resource → covers 3/4th of the earth’s surface → but only a small proportion of it accounts for freshwater
→ fit for use.

Some facts and Figures:

‰ 96.5 % of the total volume of world’s water → exist as oceans
‰ Only 2.5 per cent → as freshwater.
‰ India receives nearly 4% of the global precipitation and ranks 133 in the world in terms of water availability per person
per annum.
‰ By 2025 → it is predicted that large parts of India will join countries or regions having absolute water scarcity.

Water Scarcity and Need for Water Conservation and Management:

‰ The lack sufficient water as compared to its demand in a region is known as → Water Scarcity.

Causes of Water Scarcity:

‰ Over- exploitation and mismanagement of water resources
‰ Excessive use and unequal access to water among different social groups
‰ Large & growing population
‰ Irrigated agriculture is the largest consumer of water → so there is a need to revolutionise the agriculture through
developing drought resistant crops and dry farming techniques.
‰ More wells and tube-wells in farms → for irrigation to increase their produce → But may lead to falling groundwater
levels → adversely affecting water availability and food security of the people.
‰ Intensive industrialisation and urbanisation → exerts pressure on existing freshwater resources.
‰ Today, in India hydroelectric power contributes → approximately 22 per cent of the total electricity produced.
‰ More urban areas and dense populations → have further aggravated the problem
Another situation → water is sufficiently available to meet the needs of the people → but the area still suffers from water
scarcity → Reasons may be due to → bad quality of water due to domestic and industrial wastes, chemicals, pesticides and
fertilisers used in agriculture, thus, making it hazardous for human use Government of India has announced the Jal Jeevan
Mission (JJM) → to improve the quality of life and enhance ease of living of people in rural areas.
The Goal of JJM → to enable every rural household get assured supply of potable piped water at a service level of 55
litres per capita per day regularly on long-term basis by ensuring functionality of the tap water connections.
MULTI -PURPOSE RIVER PROJECTS AND INTEGRATED WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT:
‰ From ancient times, sophisticated hydraulic structures like → dams built of stone rubble, reservoirs or lakes, embankments
and canals for irrigation
‰ Evidences of sophisticated irrigation works found in → Kalinga, (Odisha), Nagarjunakonda (Andhra Pradesh), Bennur
(Karnataka), Kolhapur (Maharashtra) etc.

Hydraulic Structures in Ancient India:

In the first century B.C. In the 11th Century In the 14th Century During the time of
↓ ↓ ↓ Chandragupta Maurya
Sringaverapura near Bhopal Lake, one of the The tank in Hauz Khas, 
Allahabad had sophisticated largest artificial lakes of its Delhi was constructed by Dams, lakes and irrigation
water harvesting system time was built. Iltutmish for supplying systems were extensively
channelling the flood water water to Siri Fort area. built.
of the river Ganga.
Dams: Traditionally built to impound rivers and rainwater that could be used later to irrigate agricultural fields → Today,
dams are built not just for irrigation but for electricity generation, water supply for domestic and industrial uses, flood
control, recreation, inland navigation and fish breeding → Hence, dams are now referred to as multi-purpose projects.
For example:
‰ The Sutluj-Beas river basin, the Bhakra – Nangal project → used both for hydel power production and irrigation.
‰ Hirakud project in the Mahanadi basin → integrates conservation of water with flood control.

Advantages & Disadvantages of Multi-Purpose River Projects:

Advantages Disadvantages
‰ Electricity generation ‰ Affects the natural flow of river causing poor sediment flow and
‰ Irrigation excessive sedimentation at the bottom of the reservoir.
‰ Water supply for domestic and industrial ‰ Destroys the habitats for the rivers’ aquatic life.
uses ‰ Submerges the existing vegetation and soil if created on the
‰ Flood control floodplains.
‰ Recreation ‰ Unsuccessful in controlling floods at the time of excessive rainfall.
‰ Inland navigation ‰ These projects induced earthquakes, caused water- borne diseases
‰ Fish breeding and pests and pollution resulting from excessive use of water.

Movements Against Multi-Purpose River Projects:

‰ These projects cause of many new social movements like → the ‘Narmada Bachao Andolan’ and the ‘Tehri Dam
Andolan’ etc. → due to the large-scale displacement of local communities.
‰ From ancient times, sophisticated hydraulic structures like → dams built of stone rubble, reservoirs or lakes, embankments
and canals for irrigation Inter-state water disputes are also becoming common with regard to sharing the costs and
benefits of the multi-purpose project.

Rainwater Harvesting:
‰ From ancient times, sophisticated hydraulic structures like → dams built of stone rubble, reservoirs or lakes, embankments
and canals for irrigation.
‰ Rainwater Harvesting → refers to the practice of storing and using of rainwater from the surface on which it falls.
‰ In hill and mountainous regions → people built diversion channels like the ‘guls’ or ‘kuls’ of the Western Himalayas
for agriculture.

Water Resources 21
‰ In Rajasthan → ‘Rooftop rain water harvesting’ was commonly practised to store drinking water.
‰ It is the most common practice in Shillong, Meghalaya → Nearly 15-25 % of the total water requirement of the household
comes from rooftop water harvesting.
‰ In the flood plains of Bengal → people developed inundation channels to irrigate their fields.
‰ In arid and semi-arid regions → agricultural fields were converted into rain fed storage structures that allowed the water
to stand and moisten the soil.
‰ In the semi-arid and arid regions of Rajasthan → almost all the houses traditionally had underground tanks or tankas for
storing drinking water.

Khadins and Johads in Rajasthan for Rainwater Harvesting:

‰ Johads → small earthen check dams that capture and conserve rainwater, improving percolation and groundwater
recharge → spread across more than 650 villages in Alwar district, Rajasthan. → Khadin → an ingenious construction
designed to harvest surface runoff water for agriculture.

‘Bamboo drip irrigation ‘in Meghalaya:

‰ A 200-year-old system of tapping stream and spring water by using bamboo pipes.
‰ About 18-20 litres of water enters the bamboo pipe system, gets transported over hundreds of metres, and finally reduces
to 20-80 drops per minute at the site of the plant.

How Tankas works?

‰ Tankas were connected to the sloping roofs of the houses through a pipe.
‰ Rain falling on the rooftops would travel down the pipe and was stored in these underground ‘tankas’.

22 CLASS-X SOCIAL SCIENCE PW

 4
CHAPTER
Agriculture

Short Notes

INTRODUCTION:
India → an agriculturally important country → 2/3rd of its population engaged in agricultural activities.

Types of Farming:

‰ ‘Slash and Burn’ agriculture

‰ Done with the help of primitive tools like hoe, dao and digging sticks and family/
Primitive Subsistence
community labour
Farming
‰ It depends upon monsoon, natural fertility of the soil and suitability of other environmental
conditions to the crops grown.
‰ Labour-intensive farming, where high doses of biochemical inputs and irrigation are
Intensive Subsistence used for obtaining higher production.
Farming
‰ This method is commonly done where less land holding is available.
‰ It is done using higher doses of modern inputs, e.g. high yielding variety (HYV) seeds,
chemical fertilisers, insecticides and pesticides to obtain higher productivity.
Commercial Farming
‰ Plantation is also a type of commercial farming.
‰ In this type of farming, a single crop is grown on a large area.

Country Name of Slash & Burn Agriculture

Mexico and Central America Milpa
Venzuela Conuco
Brazil Roca
Central Africa Masole
Indonesia Ladang
Vietnam Ray
Madhya Pradesh Bewar’ or ‘Dahiya
Andhra Pradesh Podu or Penda
Odisha Western Ghats Pama Dabi’ or ‘Koman’ or Bringa Kumari
South-eastern Rajasthan Valre or Waltre
 Jharkhand Kuruwa
Himalayan belt Khil
North-eastern region Jhumming
Cropping Pattern:
INDIA has Three Cropping Seasons
1. RABI ‰ Rabi crops are sown in winter from October to December and harvested in summer from April to June.
‰ Important Rabi crops are wheat, barley, peas, gram and mustard.

2. KHARIFF ‰ Kharif crops are grown with the onset of monsoon in different parts of the country and these are
harvested in September-October. Important crops grown during this season are paddy, maize,
jowar, bajra, tur (arhar), moong, urad, cotton, jute, groundnut and soyabean.
3 ZAID ‰ In between the Rabi and the Kharif seasons, there is a short season during the summer months
known as the Zaid season.
‰ Important crops grown are watermelon, muskmelon, cucumber, vegetables and fodder crops

MAJOR CROPS:
‰ Staple food crop
‰ India is the second largest producer of rice in the world after China.
Rice
‰ It is a kharif crop which requires high temperature, (above 25°C) and high humidity with annual rainfall
above 100 cm.
‰ The second most important cereal crop.
‰ It is the main food crop, in north and north-western part of the country.
Wheat: ‰ This rabi crop requires a cool growing season with 50 to 75 cm of annual rainfall and a bright sunshine
at the time of ripening.
‰ Wheat growing regions are the Ganga-Satluj plains in the north- west and black soil region of the Deccan.
‰ Jowar, bajra and ragi are the important millets grown in India.
Millets
‰ These have very high nutritional value.
‰ India is the largest producer as well as the consumer of pulses in the world.
‰ Major source of protein in a vegetarian diet.
Pulses
‰ These need less moisture and survive even in dry conditions.
‰ Major producing states in India are Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra and Karnataka

FOOD CROPS OTHER THAN GRAINS:

‰ It is a tropical as well as a subtropical crop.
‰ It grows well in hot and humid climate with a temperature of 21°C to 27°C and an annual rainfall
Sugarcane between 75 cm. and 100 cm.
‰ Major producing states are Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh,
Bihar, Punjab and Haryana.
‰ The oil seeds covers approximately 12 % of the total cropped area of the country.
Oil Seeds ‰ These are used as cooking mediums as well as used as raw material in the production of soap,
cosmetics and ointments.

Agriculture 29
 ‰ Tea cultivation is an example of plantation agriculture.
‰ It is an important beverage crop introduced in India initially by the British.
Tea ‰ It requires warm and moist frost-free climate with frequent showers all through the year.
‰ Major producing states are Assam, hills of Darjeeling and Jalpaiguri districts, West Bengal, Tamil
Nadu and Kerala.
‰ Indian coffee is known in the world for its good quality.
Coffee
‰ Its cultivation is confined to the Nilgiri in Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
Horticulture ‰ India is a producer of tropical as well as temperate fruits.
Crops: ‰ India produces about 13 % the world’s vegetables.

NON-FOOD CROPS:
‰ It is an equatorial crop, but under special conditions, it is also grown in tropical and sub-tropical
areas.
Rubber ‰ It requires moist and humid climate with rainfall of more than 200 cm. and temperature above 25°C.
‰ It is mainly grown in Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andaman and Nicobar islands and Garo
hills of Meghalaya.
‰ Cotton, jute, hemp and natural silk are the four major fibre crops grown in India.
Fibre Crops
‰ Rearing of silk worms for the production of silk fibre is known as sericulture

‰ It is a kharif crop grows well in drier parts of the black cotton soil of the Deccan plateau.
‰ It requires high temperature, light rainfall or irrigation, 210 frost-free days and bright sun-shine for
Cotton its growth.
‰ Major producing states are – Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh,
Tamil Nadu, Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh
‰ It grows well on well-drained fertile soils in the flood plains where soils are renewed every year.
Jute ‰ Major jute-producing states West Bengal, Bihar, Assam, Odisha and Meghalaya.
‰ It is used in making gunny bags, mats, ropes, yarn, carpets and other artefacts

Horticulture ‰ India is a producer of tropical as well as temperate fruits.

Crops: ‰ India produces about 13 % of the world’s vegetables.

TECHNOLOGICAL AND INSTITUTIONAL REFORMS:

‰ More than 60 % of India’s population depends on agriculture.
‰ After independence → major institutional reforms → Collectivisation, consolidation of holdings, cooperation and
abolition of zamindari, etc. given priority.
‰ In 1960s and 1970s → Green Revolution and White Revolution introduced → to improve the condition of agriculture.
‰ In 1980s and 1990s → various provisions for crop insurance, establishment of Grameen banks, cooperative societies
and banks for providing loan facilities to the farmers at lower rates of interest.
‰ Kissan Credit Card (KCC), Personal Accident Insurance Scheme (PAIS) are some other schemes introduced by the
Government of India for the benefit of the farmers.
‰ Special weather bulletins and agricultural programmes for farmers were introduced on the radio and television.
‰ Minimum support price, remunerative and procurement prices for important crops to check the exploitation of farmers
by speculators and middlemen.

30 CLASS-X SOCIAL SCIENCE PW

BHOODAN – GRAMDAN:
‰ Mahatma Gandhi declared Vinoba Bhave as his spiritual heir
‰ Vinoba Bhave was one of the votaries of Gandhi’s concept of Gram swarajya.
‰ Vinoba Bhave undertook padyatra to spread Gandhiji’s message covered almost the entire country.
‰ This Bhoodan-Gramdan movement initiated by Vinoba Bhave is also known as the Blood-less Revolution.

Previous Year Questions

7. By which name is specialised cultivation of fruits
Multiple Choice Type Questions and vegetables known? [CBSE 2017]
1. Which of the following is not a characteristic of 8. Describe ‘Jhumming cultivation’ in one sentence.
‘Intensive Subsistence Farming’? [CBSE 2021]  [CBSE 2017]
(a) This is practised in areas of high population. 9. Which factors have helped Punjab and Haryana to
(b) It is an example of labour-intensive farming. grow more and more of rice? [CBSE 2017]
(c) High doses of biochemical inputs are used. 10. How can small and marginal farmers by supported
(d) It is an example of commercial farming. by the government? [CBSE 2017]
2. Identify the crop with the help of the following 11. Which is the leading coffee producing state in India?
information and choose the correct option.
 [CBSE 2016]
 [CBSE 2023]
• This is the second most important Cereal Crop. 12. What is the importance of millets? [CBSE 2016]
• This a Rabi crop. 13. By which other name is ‘slash and burn’ agriculture
• It requires a cool growing season and bright known? [CBSE 2014]
sunshine at the time of ripening. 14. India is the largest producer as well as consumer
• It requires 50 to 75 cm annual rainfall. of which agricultural product in the world?[CBSE
2014]
(a) Wheat (b) Maize
(c) Rice (d) Sugarcane 15. Which crop is the major crop of rabi?[CBSE 2014]

Short Answer Type Questions

Very Short Type Questions
16. Read the following information and identify the
3. Explain any two features of Intensive Subsistence crop.
farming [CBSE 2023] (i) It is the staple food crop of the majority of people
4. Give one example of the main commercial crop in India.
cultivable in laterite soil. [CBSE Delhi 2020] (ii) India is the second largest producer of this crop.
5. Write the temperature requirement of Maize crop. (iii) It is a Kharif crop.
 [CBSE 2020] (iv) It requires high humidity with 100 cm of annual
rainfall.
6. Complete the following table with correct information
Crops: [CBSE 2024]
for A and B: [CBSE 2020]
( ) Ragi (b) Bajra
Sugarcane Annual Climate Temperature
(c) Wheat (d) Rice
crop rainfall required for
required its growth (in 17. Read the given statements and choose the correct
option with regard to the Rabi cropping season from
degrees)
A-? Hot and B-? the following. [CBSE 2024]
Humid (i) Rabi crops are sown in winter

Agriculture 31
 5
CHAPTER
Mineral and
Energy Resources

Short Notes

1. What is a Mineral?
 Mineral → a “homogenous, naturally occurring substance with a definable internal structure.
 Found in varied forms in nature, ranging from the hardest diamond to the softest talc.

2. Mode of Occurrence of Minerals

 Minerals are usually found in ‘ores’→ The accumulation of any mineral mixed with other elements is called
ore.
 Minerals generally occur in these forms:
 In Igneous and metamorphic rocks → minerals may occur in the cracks, crevices, faults or joints. The smaller
occurrences are called veins and the larger are called lodes. Example: tin, copper, zinc and lead etc.
 In Sedimentary rocks → a number of minerals occur in beds or layers. Example: Coal, iron, gypsum, potash
salt, sodium salt etc.
 Minerals also found in the decomposition of surface rocks, and the removal of soluble constituents, leaving a
residual mass of weathered material containing ores. Example: Bauxite.
 Minerals may occur as alluvial deposits in sands of valley floors and the base of hills known as ‘placer
deposits’. Example: Gold, silver, tin and platinum etc.
 The ocean waters contain vast quantities of minerals. Example: Common salt, magnesium and bromine etc.

3. Classification of Minerals
Minerals

Metallic Non-Metallic Energy Minerals

e.g. mica, salt, Coal

Ferrous (containing Non-Ferrous Precious potash, sulphur, Petroleum
iron) e.g. iron ore, e.g. copper, lead, e.g. gold, silver, granite, limestone,
Manganese, nickel tin, bauxite, etc. platinum, etc. Natural gas
marble, sandstone, etc.
cobalt etc.

Metallic Minerals
‰ These minerals contain metals.

Mineral and Energy Resources 37

Ferrous minerals (contain iron)
‰ It accounts for about three- fourths of the total value of the production of metallic minerals.
‰ They provide a strong base for the development of metallurgical industries.

Iron Ore
‰ It is the basic mineral and the backbone of industrial development.
‰ Magnetite is the finest iron ore with a very high content of iron up to 70 %.
‰ Hematite ore is the most important industrial iron ore in terms of the quantity used, but has slightly lower iron content
than magnetite (50-60 %).
‰ India is rich in good quality iron ores.

The major iron ore belts in India are:

‰ Odisha-Jharkhand belt
‰ Durg-Bastar-Chandrapur belt in Chhattisgarh and Maharashtra
‰ Bellary-Chitradurga-Chikmaglur-Tumkur belt in Karnataka
‰ Maharashtra-Goa belt in Goa and Ratnagiri district of Maharashtra

Manganese
‰ Mainly used in the manufacturing of steel and ferro-manganese alloy.
‰ Also used in manufacturing bleaching powder, insecticides and paints.
‰ Orissa is the largest producer of manganese ores in India.

Non-Ferrous Minerals (do not contain iron)

‰ They play role in a number of metallurgical, engineering and electrical industries.
‰ Example of Non-ferrous minerals includes copper, bauxite, lead, zinc and gold.

Copper
‰ Malleable, ductile and a good conductor, therefore, copper is mainly used in electrical cables, electronics and chemical
industries.
‰ The Balaghat mines in Madhya Pradesh, Khetri mines in Rajasthan and Singhbhum district of Jharkhand are leading
producers of copper.

Bauxite
‰ It is a clay-like substance from which alumina and later aluminium is obtained.
‰ Aluminium is an important metal because it combines the strength of metals such as iron, with extreme lightness and
also with good conductivity and great malleability.
‰ In India, mainly found in the Amarkantak plateau, Maikal hills and the plateau region of Bilaspur-Katni.

Non-Metallic Minerals (do not contain metal)

Mica
‰ Made up of a series of plates or leaves.
‰ It can be clear, black, green, red yellow or brown.
‰ One of the most indispensable minerals used in electric and electronic industries due to its excellent di-electric strength,
low power loss factor, insulating properties and resistance to high voltage,

38 CLASS-X SOCIAL SCIENCE PW

‰ Leading producers → northern edge of the Chota Nagpur plateau, Koderma, Gaya, Hazaribagh belt of Jharkhand.
‰ Also produced in Ajmer, Rajasthan, and Nellore mica belt of Andhra Pradesh.

Rock Mineral
Limestone
‰ Found in association with rocks composed of calcium carbonates or calcium and magnesium carbonates.
‰ The basic raw material for the cement industry and essential for smelting iron ore in the blast furnace.

Conservation of Minerals
Why to conserve minerals?
‰ Mineral deposits are present in very less quantity in the world i.e. 1 % of the earth’s crust.
‰ The geological processes of mineral formation are so slow while the consumption rate is very fast. Therefore mineral
resources are finite and non-renewable.
‰ So, we have to conserve minerals so that it is available for future generation.
How to conserve minerals?
‰ A joint effort has to be made in order to use our mineral resources in a planned and sustainable manner.
‰ Improved technologies need to be constantly evolved to allow use of low grade ores at low costs.
‰ Recycling of metals, using scrap metals and other substitutes.

Energy Resources
‰ Energy is needed to cook, to provide light and heat, to propel vehicles and to drive machinery in industries.
‰ It can be generated from fuel minerals like coal, petroleum, natural gas, uranium and from electricity.
Energy resources can be classified as:
‰ Conventional sources: include firewood; cattle dung cake, coal, petroleum, natural gas and electricity
‰ Non-conventional sources: include solar, wind, tidal, geothermal, biogas and atomic energy.

Conventional sources of Energy

Coal
‰ Most abundantly available fossil fuel.
‰ Used for power generation, to supply energy to industry as well as for domestic needs.
‰ Formed due the compression of plant material over millions of years.
There are various types of coals (on the degrees of compression and the depth and time of burial):
‰ Peat: Low carbon and high moisture contents and low heating capacity
‰ Lignite: Low grade brown coal, which is soft with high moisture content
‰ Bituminous: Buried deep and subjected to increased temperatures. Most popular coal in commercial use
‰ Anthracite: Highest quality hard coal
In India, coal occurs in Gondwana and tertiary rock stages. The major resources of Gondwana coal are located in:
‰ Damodar valley (West Bengal-Jharkhand)
‰ Jharia, Raniganj, Bokaro
‰ The Godavari, Mahanadi, Son and Wardha valleys.
‰ Tertiary coals occur in the north eastern states of Meghalaya, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh and Nagaland.

Mineral and Energy Resources 39

Petroleum
‰ It provides fuel for heat and lighting, lubricants for machinery and raw materials for manufacturing industries.
‰ Petroleum refineries act as a “nodal industry” for synthetic textile, fertiliser and numerous chemical industries.
‰ About 63 % of India’s petroleum production is from Mumbai High, 18 per cent from Gujarat and 16 % from Assam.
Natural Gas
‰ It is used as a source of energy as well as an industrial raw material in the petrochemical industry.
‰ It is considered an environment friendly fuel because of low carbon dioxide emissions.
‰ Natural gas have been discovered in the Krishna- Godavari basin, Mumbai High and allied fields, Gulf of Cambay,
Andaman and Nicobar islands.
Electricity
‰ It has a wide range of applications in today’s world.
‰ Electricity is generated mainly in two ways:
 by running water which drives hydro turbines to generate hydro electricity
 by burning other fuels such as coal, petroleum and natural gas to drive turbines to produce thermal power.
‰ Hydro electricity is generated by fast flowing water.
 It is a renewable resource.
 Multi-purpose projects like the Bhakra Nangal, Damodar Valley Corporation, the Kopili Hydel Project etc. produce
hydroelectricity.
‰ Thermal electricity is generated by using coal, petroleum and natural gas.
‰ Thermal power stations use non-renewable fossil fuels for generating electricity.

Non-Conventional Sources of Energy

Nuclear or Atomic Energy
‰ Obtained by altering the structure of atoms.
‰ Used to generate electric power.
‰ Uranium and Thorium are available in Jharkhand and the Aravalli ranges of Rajasthan.
‰ The Monazite sands of Kerala is also rich in Thorium.
Solar Energy
‰ India is a tropical country; so it has enormous possibilities of tapping solar energy.
‰ Photovoltaic technology converts sunlight directly into electricity.
‰ Solar energy is fast becoming popular in rural and remote areas which help in minimising the dependence of rural
households on firewood and dung cakes that will contribute to environmental conservation and adequate supply of
manure in agriculture.
Wind Power
‰ India has great potential of wind power.
‰ Largest wind farm cluster is located in Tamil Nadu from Nagarcoil to Madurai.
‰ Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat, Kerala, Maharashtra and Lakshadweep have important wind farms.
‰ Nagarcoil and Jaisalmer are well known for effective use of wind energy in the country.
Biogas
‰ Shrubs, farm waste, animal and human waste are used to produce biogas for domestic consumption in rural areas.
‰ Biogas plants using cattle dung are known as ‘Gobar gas plants’ in rural India.
‰ Biogas provide twin benefits to the farmer in the form of energy and improved quality of manure.

40 CLASS-X SOCIAL SCIENCE PW

Tidal Energy
‰ Oceanic tides can be used to generate electricity.
‰ In India the Gulf of Khambhat, the Gulf of Kachchh in Gujarat on the western coast and Gangetic delta in Sunderban
regions of West Bengal provide ideal conditions for utilising tidal energy.
Geo Thermal Energy
‰ The heat and electricity produced by using the heat from the interior of the Earth is called Geo thermal Energy.
‰ Groundwater in high temperatures area absorbs heat from the rocks and becomes hot.
 It is so hot that when it rises to the earth’s surface, it turns into steam.
 This steam is used to drive turbines and generate electricity.
‰ Two experimental projects have been set up in India to utilize geothermal energy:
 Parvati valley near Manikarn in Himachal Pradesh
 Puga Valley, Ladakh.
Conservation of Resources
‰ Energy is a basic requirement for economic development.
‰ There is an urgent need to develop a sustainable path of energy development.
There are two ways for adopting the path of sustainable development of energy:
‰ Promotion of energy conservation.
‰ increased use of renewable energy sources.

Some Steps in This Direction are:

‰ Using public transport systems instead of individual vehicles.
‰ Switching off electricity when not in use.
‰ Using power-saving devices.
‰ Using non-conventional sources of energy.

Mineral and Energy Resources 41

 6
CHAPTER
Manufacturing Industries

Short Notes

Introduction
‰ Production of goods in large quantities after processing from raw materials to more valuable products is called
manufacturing → comes in secondary sector
‰ The economic strength is measured by the development of manufacturing industries.

Importance of Manufacturing
‰ Helps in modernising agriculture, which forms the backbone of our economy.
‰ Reduce the heavy dependence of people on agricultural income by providing them jobs in secondary and tertiary sectors.
‰ Export of manufactured goods brings foreign exchange.

Agriculture and Industry

‰ Agriculture and industry are dependent on each other.
‰ Industries give a boost to agriculture by raising its productivity by providing their tools and products such as fertilisers etc.
‰ Industry depends on agriculture for raw materials and sell their products such as irrigation pumps, fertilisers, insecticides,
pesticides etc.

Classification of Industry
1. On the basis of source of raw materials used:
 Agro based: cotton, woollen, jute, silk textile, rubber and sugar, tea, coffee, edible oil.
 Mineral based: iron and steel, cement, aluminium, machine tools, petrochemicals
2. According to their main role:
 Basic or key industries → which supply their products or raw materials to manufacture other goods e.g. iron and
steel and copper smelting.
 Consumer industries → that produce goods for direct use by consumers – sugar, toothpaste.
3. On the basis of capital investment:
 Small scale industry: Such industry which requires the maximum investment up to 1 crore rupees. It employs a small
number of labourers.
 Large scale industry: Investment is more than 1 crore
4. On the basis of ownership:
 Public sector: owned and operated by government agencies – BHEL, SAIL etc.
 Private sector: Industries owned and operated by individuals or a group of individuals –TISCO, Bajaj Auto Ltd.,
Dabur Industries.
 Joint sector: Jointly run by the State and Private sector.
 Cooperative sector: owned and operated by the producers or suppliers of raw materials, workers or both.
5. Based on the bulk and weight of raw material and finished goods:
 Heavy industries → Iron and steel
 Light industries → use light raw materials and produce light goods such as electrical industries.
Agro Based Industries
Cotton, jute, silk, woollen textiles, sugar and edible oil, etc. industries are based on agricultural raw materials.

Textile Industry
‰ Contributes significantly to industrial production, employment generation and foreign exchange earnings.
‰ Only industry in the country, which is self-reliant and complete in the value chain i.e., from raw material to the highest
value added products.

Cotton Textiles
‰ In ancient India, cotton textiles were produced with hand spinning and handloom weaving techniques.
‰ After 18th century, power -looms came into use.
‰ The first successful textile mill was established in Mumbai in 1854.

Jute Textiles
‰ India is the largest producer of raw jute and jute goods and stands at second place as an Exporter after Bangladesh.
‰ The first jute mill was set up near Kolkata in 1855 at Rishra.

Sugar Industry
‰ India is the second largest producer of sugar in the world and largest producer of gur and khandsari.
‰ 60% mills are in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.

Mineral Based Industries

Industries that use minerals and metals as raw materials are called mineral based industries.

Iron and Steel Industry

‰ Basic industry: it provides all types of machinery to run all the other industries.
‰ Often regarded as the index of a country’s development.
‰ Chhota nagpur plateau region has the maximum concentration of iron and steel industries.

Aluminium Smelting
‰ Second most important metallurgical industry in India.
‰ The raw material used in the smelters is called Bauxite.
‰ It is light, resistant to corrosion, a good conductor of heat, malleable and becomes strong when it is mixed with other
metals.
‰ Used to manufacture aircraft, utensils and wires.
‰ Located in Odisha, West Bengal, Kerala, Uttar Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu.

Chemical Industries
‰ This Industry in India is fast growing and diversifying.
‰ Comprises both large and small scale manufacturing units.
‰ Organic chemicals include petrochemicals (used for manufacturing of synthetic fibers, synthetic rubber, plastics, dye-
stuffs, drugs and pharmaceuticals).
‰ Inorganic chemicals include sulphuric acid (used to manufacture fertilisers, synthetic fibres, plastics, adhesives, paints,
dye-stuffs), nitric acid, alkalies, soda ash (used to make glass, soaps and detergents, paper) and caustic soda.

Fertiliser Industry
‰ This industry is centred on the production of nitrogenous fertilizers (mainly urea), phosphatic fertilizers and ammonium
phosphate (DAP) and complex fertilizers which have a combination of nitrogen (N), phosphate (P), and potash (K).

Manufacturing Industries 49
‰ The potash is entirely imported as the country does not have any reserves of commercially usable potash or potassium
compounds in any form.
‰ Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab and Kerala contribute towards half of the fertilizer production.

Cement Industry
‰ Used for construction activity such as building houses, factories, bridges, roads, airports, dams and for other commercial
establishments.
‰ This industry requires bulky and heavy raw materials like limestone, silica, alumina and gypsum.
‰ The industry has strategically located plants in Gujarat.

Automobile Industry
‰ This industry provides vehicles for quick transport of good services and passengers.
‰ Foreign Direct Investment brought in new technology and aligned the industry with global developments.
‰ The industry is located around Delhi, Gurugram, Mumbai, Pune, Chennai, Kolkata, Lucknow, Indore, Hyderabad,
Jamshedpur and Bengaluru

Information Technology and Electronics Industry

‰ The electronics industry covers a wide range of products from transistor sets to Television, telephones, cellular telecom,
pagers, telephone exchange, radars, computers and many other equipments required by the telecommunication industry.
‰ Bengaluru has emerged as the electronic capital of India.
‰ Other important centres for electronic goods are Mumbai, Delhi, Hyderabad, Pune, Chennai, Kolkata, Lucknow and
Coimbatore

Industrial Pollution and Environmental Degradation

The growth of industries contribute significantly to India’s economic growth and development but also causes serious
problem, the increase in pollution of land, water, air, noise and resulting degradation of the environment.
Air pollution:
‰ Caused by the presence of high proportion of undesirable gases, such as sulphur dioxide and carbon monoxide.
‰ Smoke is emitted by chemical and paper factories, brick kilns, refineries and smelting plants, and burning of fossil fuels
in big and small factories that ignore pollution norms.
‰ Adversely affects human health, animals, plants, buildings and the atmosphere as a whole.
Water Pollution:
‰ Caused by organic and inorganic industrial wastes and effluents discharged into rivers.
‰ Fly ash, phospo-gypsum and iron and steel slags are the major solid wastes in India.
Thermal pollution:
‰ It occurs when hot water from factories and thermal plants is drained into rivers and ponds before cooling.
Noise pollution:
‰ Industrial and construction activities, machinery, factory equipment, generators, and electric drills also make a lot of
noise.
‰ It causes hearing impairment, increased heart rate and blood pressure among other physiological effects.

Control of Environmental Degradation

Some suggestion to reduce the industrial pollution of fresh water:
‰ minimising use water for processing by reusing and recycling it in two or more successive stages
‰ harvesting of rainwater to meet water requirements
‰ treating hot water and effluents before releasing them in rivers and ponds.

50 CLASS-X SOCIAL SCIENCE PW

Measures to Control Air Pollution:
‰ Particulate matter in the air can be reduced by fitting smoke stacks to factories with electrostatic precipitators, fabric
filters, scrubbers and inertial separators.
‰ Smoke can be reduced by using oil or gas instead of coal in factories.

Measures to Control Noise Pollution:

‰ Machinery and equipment can be used and generators should be fitted with silencers.
‰ Noise absorbing material may be used apart from personal use of earplugs and earphones.

Previous Year Questions

India. [CBSE 2016]

Multiple Choice Type Questions
11. Why has the ‘National Manufacturing Competitiveness
1. Which of the following industries use bauxite as a Council’ been set-up? [CBSE 2015]
raw material? [CBSE 2020 C] 12. Why is the ‘least cost’ known as decision making
(a) Cement (b) Aluminium smelting factor for ideal location of an industry? [CBSE
(c) Iron and steel (d) Chemical 2014]

Very Short Type Questions Short Answer Type Questions

2. Differentiate between the Public and Private Sector. 13. Manufacturing Industries are considered the
 [CBSE 2024] backbone of economic development. Justify the
statement.
3. Why does the textile industry occupy unique position
 [CBSE 2024]
in the Indian economy. Explain. [CBSE 2023]
14. Read the case given below carefully and answer the
4. Explain any three ways through which industrial
questions that follow:
pollution can be reduced. [CBSE 2023]
NTPC shows the way
5. Why is the iron and steel industry called as the ‘basic
industry? Explain. [CBSE 2021-22C]
NTPC is a major power providing corporation in
India. It has ISO certification for EMS (Environment
6. Explain the importance of ‘cement’ industry. 
Management System) 14001. The corporation has
 [CBSE 2021-22 C] a pro-active approach for preserving the natural
7. Fill in the blank: environment and resources like water, oil, gas and
_______ industry is used for manufacturing aircraft, fuels in places where it is setting up power plants.
utensils and wires. [CBSE Delhi 2020] This has been possible through [CBSE 2021-22]
(a) Optimum utilisation of equipment adopting latest
8. Limestone, silica, alumina and gypsum are the raw
techniques and upgrading existing equipment.
materials of. industry. [CBSE 2020]
(b) Minimising waste generation by maximising ash
9. Suggest any one measure to promote handspun khadi utilisation.
in India. [CBSE Delhi 2020] (c) Providing green belts for nurturing ecological
10. Suggest any three steps to minimise the environmental balance and addressing the question of special
degradation caused by the industrial development in purpose vehicles for afforestation.

Manufacturing Industries 51
 7
CHAPTER
Lifelines of
National Economy

Short Notes

Introduction
‰ The movement of goods and services from their supply locations to demand locations → necessitates the need for
transport.
‰ The pace of development of a country depends upon the production of Goods and services as well as their movement
over space.
‰ Movement of these goods and services can be over three important domains of our earth i.e. land, water and air. Based
on these, transport can also be classified into land, water and air transport.
Means of Transport

Land Water Air

Roadways Railways Pipelines Inland Overseas Domestic International

Airways Airways

TRANSPORT
Roadways
‰ India has second largest road networks in the world, aggregating to about 62.16 lakh km (2020–21).
The growing importance of road transport vis-à-vis rail transport is rooted in the following reasons:
(a) Construction cost of roads is much lower than that of railway lines,
(b) Roads can traverse comparatively more dissected and undulating topography.
(c) Roads can negotiate higher gradients of slopes and as such can traverse mountains such as the Himalayas.
(d) Road transport is economical in transportation of few persons and relatively smaller amount of goods over short
distances.
(e) It also provides door - to-door service, thus the cost of loading and unloading is much lower.
(f ) Road transport is also used as a feeder to other modes of transport such as they provide a link between railway stations,
air and sea ports.
In India, roads are classified in the following six classes according to their capacity.
Golden Quadrilateral Super Highways:
‰ The government has launched a major road development project linking Delhi-Kolkata-Chennai-Mumbai by six-lane
Super Highways.
‰ The North-South corridors linking Srinagar (Jammu & Kashmir) and Kanniyakumari (Tamil Nadu), and East-West
Corridor connecting Silchar (Assam) and Porbander (Gujarat) are part of this project.
‰ These highway projects are being implemented by the National Highway Authority of India (NHAI)
National Highways
‰ National Highways link extreme parts of the country. These are the primary road systems. A number of major National
Highways run in North-South and East-West directions.
State Highways
‰ Roads linking a state capital with different district headquarters are known as State Highways.
District Roads
‰ These roads connect the district headquarters with other places of the district.
‰ These roads are maintained by the Zila Parishad.
Other Roads
‰ Rural roads, which link rural areas and villages with towns, are classified under this category.
‰ These roads received special impetus under the Pradhan Mantri Grameen Sadak Yojana.
Border Roads
‰ Border Roads Organisation constructs and maintains roads in the bordering areas of the country.
‰ This organisation was established in 1960 for the development of the roads of strategic importance in the northern and
north-eastern border areas.
Metalled and unmetalled roads
‰ Roads can also be classified on the basis of the type of material used for their construction such as metalled and
unmetalled roads.
‰ Metalled roads may be made of cement, concrete or even bitumen of coal, therefore, and narrow. However, in recent
years fast development of road network has taken place in different parts of the country.
Railways
‰ Railways are the principal mode of transportation for freight and passengers in India.
‰ Railways in India bind the economic life of the country as well as accelerate the development of the industry.
‰ The Indian Railways is the largest public Sector undertaking in the country.
‰ The first Train steamed off from Mumbai to Thane in 1853, covering a distance of 34 km.
‰ The Indian Railway is now reorganised into 16 zones.
The distribution pattern of the Railway network in the country has been largely influenced by physiographic, economic
and administrative factors:
‰ The northern plains with their vast level land, high population density and rich agricultural resources provided the most
favourable condition for their growth
‰ A large number of rivers requiring construction of bridges across their wide beds posed some obstacles.
‰ In the hilly terrains of the peninsular region, railway tracks are laid through low hills, gaps or tunnels.
‰ The Himalayan mountains regions are unfavourable for the construction of railway lines due to high relief, sparse
population & each of economic opportunities.
‰ It is difficult to lay railway lines on sandy plains of western Rajasthan, swamps Of Gujarat, forested tracks of Madhya
Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha and Jharkhand.
‰ In recent times, the development of the Konkan railway along the west coast has facilitated the movement of passengers
and goods in this most important economic region of India.
Pipelines
‰ Pipeline transport network is a new arrival on the transportation map of India.
‰ In the past, these were used to transport water to cities and industries.

58 CLASS-X SOCIAL SCIENCE PW

‰ Now, these are used for transporting crude oil, petroleum products and natural gas from oil and natural gas fields to
refineries, fertilizer factories and big thermal power plants.
‰ Solids can also be transported through a pipeline when converted into slurry
‰ Three important networks of pipeline transportation in the country:
‰ From oil field in upper Assam to Kanpur (Uttar Pradesh), via Guwahati, Barauni and Allahabad. It has branches from
Barauni to Haldia, via Rajbandh, Rajbandh to Maurigram and Guwahati to Siliguri.
‰ From Salaya in Gujarat to Jalandhar in Punjab, via Viramgam, Mathura, Delhi and Sonipat. It has branches to connect
Koyali (near Vadodara, Gujarat) Chakshu and Other places.
‰ Gas pipeline from Hazira in Gujarat connects Jagdishpur in Uttar Pradesh, via Vijaipur in Madhya Pradesh. It has
branches to Kota in Rajasthan, Shahajahanpur, Babrala and Other places in Uttar Pradesh.
Waterways
‰ Waterways are the cheapest means of transport. They are most suitable for carrying heavy and bulky goods. It is a fuel-
efficient and environment-friendly.
‰ India has inland navigation Waterways of 14,500 km in length. Out of These only 5685 km are navigable by Mechanised
vessels.
 N.W. No.1 – The Ganga river between Allahabad and Haldia (1620 km).
 N.W. No.2 – The Brahmaputra river between Sadiya and Dhubri (891 km).
 N.W. No.3 – The West-Coast Canal in Kerala (Kottapurma-Kollam, Udyogamandal and Champakara canals-205 km).
 N.W. No.4 – Specified stretches of Godavari and Krishna rivers along with Kakinada Puducherry stretch of canals
(1078 km).
 N.W. No.5 – Specified stretches of river Brahmani along with Matai river, delta channels of Mahanadi and Brahmani
rivers and East Coast Canal (588 km).
 Other Inland waterways in India are Mandavi, Zuari and Cumberjua, Sunderbans, Barak and backwaters of Kerala
through which transportation takes place.
Major Sea Ports
‰ India’s trade with foreign countries is carried from the ports. 95% of the country’s Trade volume (68% in terms of value)
is moved by sea.
‰ With a long coastline of 7,516.6 km, India is dotted with 12 major and 200 notified nonmajors (minor/intermediate)
ports. Major ports handle 95% of India’s Foreign trade.

List of Major Ports in India

Kandla Port
‰ It was the first port to be developed after independence in Kachchh → to replace the Karachi port and to reduce the
burden from the Mumbai port.
‰ It is also known as the Deendayal Port.
Mumbai Port:− It is the biggest port with a spacious natural and well-sheltered harbour.
The Jawaharlal Nehru port:− was planned with A view to decongest the Mumbai port and Serve as a hub port for this
region.
Marmagao port (Goa):- is the premier iron ore exporting port of India. This port accounts for about 50 % of India’s
iron ore export.
Mangalore port:- located in Karnataka caters to the export of iron ore from Kudremukh mines.
Kochi is the extreme south-western port, located at the entrance of a lagoon with a natural harbour.
Tuticorin, in Tamil Nadu: This port has a natural harbour. It trades a large variety of cargoes to our neighbouring
countries like Sri Lanka, Maldives, etc.
Chennai:- It is one of the oldest artificial ports of the country. It is ranked next to Mumbai in terms of the volume of
trade and cargo.

Lifelines of National Economy 59

Vishakhapatnam:- It is the deepest landlocked and well-protected port. This port was developed as a port for iron ore
exports.
Paradip port:- It is located in Odisha. It specialises in the export of iron ore.
Kolkata: It is an inland riverine port. This port serves a very large and rich hinterland of Ganga- Brahmaputra basin.
Being a tidal port, it requires constant dredging of Hoogly River.
Haldia port: It was developed as a subsidiary port, in order to relieve growing pressure on the Kolkata port.

Airways
‰ The airway is the fastest, most comfortable and prestigious mode of transport.
‰ Air travel has made access easier to the terrain areas like high mountains, dreary deserts, dense forests and long oceans.
‰ The air transport was nationalised in 1953. Air India provides domestic and international air services.
‰ Pawan hans Helicopters Ltd. Provides helicopter services to Oil and Natural Gas Corporation in its off-shore operations,
to inaccessible areas and difficult terrains.

COMMUNICATION
‰ Personal communication and mass communication including television, radio, press, films, etc. are the major means of
communication in the country.
‰ The Indian postal network is the largest in the world. It handles parcels as well as personal written communications.
‰ First class mail: Cards and envelopes are airlifted between stations covering both land and air.
‰ Second class mail: includes book packets, registered newspapers and periodicals. They are carried by surface mail,
covering land and water transport.
‰ To facilitate quick delivery of mails in large towns and cities, six mail channels have been introduced recently. Rajdhani
Channel, Metro Channel, Green Channel, Business Channel, Bulk Mail Channel and Periodical Channel.
‰ India has one of the largest telecom networks in Asia. 2/3rd villages in India have been covered with Subscriber Trunk
Dialling or STD telephone facility. There is a uniform rate of STD facilities all over India.
‰ All India Radio Channel (Akashwani) & Doordarshran broadcasts a variety of programmes from entertainment,
Educational to sports, etc. For people of Different age groups.
‰ The newspaper in India has a massive number with a hundred languages worldwide. Largest number of newspapers
Published in the country are in Hindi, followed By English and Urdu.
‰ India is the largest Producer of feature films in the world. The Central Board of Film Certification is the authority to
certify both Indian and foreign films.

International Trade
‰ The exchange of goods among people, states and countries is referred to as trade.
‰ Trade between two countries is called international trade. It is considered as the economic barometer for a country.
‰ Exports and imports are the components of trade. The balance of a trade of a country is the difference between its export
and import.
‰ When the value of export exceeds the value of imports, it is called a favourable balance of trade. If the value of imports
exceeds the value of exports, it is termed as an unfavourable balance of trade.
‰ Products exported from India to other countries include precious stones and jewellery, chemicals and related products,
agriculture and related products.
‰ Products imported into India include crude oil and products, gemstones and jewellery, chemicals, base metals, electronic
goods, machinery, agriculture and related products.
‰ India has emerged as a software giant at the International level and it is earning large Foreign exchange through the
export of Information technology.

60 CLASS-X SOCIAL SCIENCE PW

Tourism as a Trade
‰ Tourism in India has grown over the last three decades. More than 15 million people are directly engaged in this industry.
‰ Tourism also promotes national integration,
‰ It provides support to local handicrafts and cultural pursuits.
‰ It also helps in the development of international understanding about our culture and heritage.
‰ Foreign tourists visit India for heritage tourism, eco-tourism, adventure tourism, cultural tourism, medical tourism and
business tourism.
‰ There is a vast potential for development of tourism in all parts of the country. Efforts are being made to promote
different types of Tourism for this upcoming industry.

Previous Year Questions

The Indian Railway network

Multiple Choice Type Questions
Total
Route Running
Gauge in Meters Track
1. Match the following and select the correct option: (Km) Track (Km)
(Km.)
 [CBSE 2021 C]
Broad Gauge (1.676 63,491 89,521 1,17,560
Sea Port State Meter Gauge (1.000) 3,200 3,462 3.775
I. Kandla 1. West Bengal Narrow Gauge 1.751 1,752 1,901
II. Tuticorin 2. Odisha (0.762 and 0.610)
III. Paradwip 3. Tamil Nadu Total 68,442 94,735 1,23,236
IV Haldia 4. Gujarat
(i) Which gauge covers maximum of track length in
I II III IV
hilly areas in India?
(a) 1 2 3 4
(ii) Which gauge has the highest length in India?
(b) 2 3 1 4
 [CBSE Term-11, 2021-22]
(c) 4 3 2 1
(d) 4 3 1 2 5. Which is the oldest artificial sea port of India?
 [CBSE Delhi 2020]
2. Which of the following is a source of ‘mass
communication’? [CBSE 2021 C] 6. Name the first major sea port developed soon after
Independence on the Western Coast. [CBSE 2020]
(a) Book (b) Telephone
(c) Personal letter (d) Parcel 7. Name the inland riverine major sea port of India.
 [CBSE 2020]
3. National Waterway No. 1 is navigable between
which of the following places? [CBSE 2014] 8. Which is the deepest, landlocked and well protected
(a) Sadiya and Dhubri sea port of India? [CBSE Delhi 2020]
(b) Allahabad arid Haldia 9. Which organisation is responsible for constructing
(c) Udyogamandal and Champakkara and maintaining State Highways in India?
(d) Kottapuram and Komman  [CBSE 2020 C]
10. Name the orgnisation that constructs and maintains
Very Short Type Questions the District Roads. [CBSE 2020 C]
11. Suggest any one way to enhance pilgrimage tourism
4. Read the following table and answer the question through Indian Railways. [CBSE Delhi 2020]
that follow: 12. Suggest any one way to improve the postal system

Lifelines of National Economy 61

 1
CHAPTER
Development

Short Notes

INTRODUCTION:
‰ Growth → Increase in real national Income/national output
‰ Economic Development → Improvement in quality of life and living standards, e.g. measures of literacy, life- expectancy
& healthcare
‰ Different people have different developmental goals
‰ What is development for one might not be development for another.

WHAT DEVELOPMENT PROMISES — DIFFERENT PEOPLE, DIFFERENT GOALS:

Category of Person Developmental Goals/Aspirations
Landless rural labourers More wages, more days of work
Prosperous farmers from Punjab High family Income, higher support prices
Urban unemployed youth Employment
Gets as much freedom as her brother and is able to decide what she
A girl from a rich urban family
wants to do in life. She is able to pursue her Studies abroad.
An adivasi from Narmada Valley Improving socio-economic status, education & healthcare facilities

Mixed Goals of Development:

‰ High Income
‰ Freedom
‰ Sense of security
‰ Equal treatment
‰ Respect
‰ Safe working Environment

National Development:
‰ Capacity of a Country to improve lives of citizens, fulfils aspirations of its people
‰ Increase in GDP and improvement in standards of health & education
‰ Participation of all in governance system of the country

COMPARE DIFFERENT COUNTRIES OR STATES:

‰ For comparison → Per capita Income/ Average Income is considered= Total income of the country/total population
‰ World development Report-2019 → Classification of Countries on the basis of Per capita income in USD
 Rich Countries Low- Income countries
49,300 per annum and above 2500 or less
‰ India → Lower middle income country → per capita income in 2019 was just US$ 6700 per annum

Other Indicators of Development:

‰ Infant Mortality Rate (or IMR) → the number of children that die before the age of one year as a proportion of 1000 live
children born in that particular year
‰ Literacy Rate → the proportion of literate population in the 7 and above age group
‰ Net Attendance Ratio → the total number of children of age group 14 and 15 years attending school as a percentage of
total number of children in the same age group
‰ Public facilities → money in your pocket cannot buy all the goods and services → pollution-free environment,
unadulterated medicines
‰ Proper functioning of Public Distribution System
‰ Example → Kerala has a low Infant Mortality Rate because it has adequate provision of basic health and educational facilities.

HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT → Published by UNDP:

‰ HDI ( Human Development Index) → published in Human Development Report(HDR)
‰ Components of HDI:

1. Long & Healthy Life → Life Expectancy at birth

2. Educational attainment → Mean years of Schooling and Expected years of schooling
3. A decent standard of living → GNI per capita (PPP USD)

SOME DATA REGARDING INDIA AND ITS NEIGHBOURS FOR 2021

Table: Some Data Regarding India and Its Neighbours for 2021

Mean Years of Schooling

Gross National Income (GNI) Life Expectancy HDI Rank in the World
Country of People Aged 25 and
Per Capita (2017 PPP $) at Birth (2021-22)
Above
Sri Lanka 12578 76.4 10.8 73
India 6590 67.2 6.7 132
Myanmar 3851 65.7 6.4 149
Pakistan 4624 66.1 4.5 161
Nepal 3877 68.4 5.1 143
Bangladesh 5472 72.4 7.4 129

SUSTAINABILITY OF DEVELOPMENT:
‰ Sustainability → Sustainability means recognizing that we have not inherited the world from our forefathers; rather, we
have borrowed it from our children. Therefore, preserving nature for the future is our responsibility
‰ Groundwater → Renewable resource → replenished by nature
‰ More usage of Crude oil → Less stock left → cannot be replenished
‰ Non-renewable → Fixed stock → cannot be replenished

4 Class-X SOCIAL SCIENCE PW

 2
CHAPTER
Sectors of
the Indian Economy
Short Notes

SECTORS OF ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES:

‰ Activities which generates some income are known as economic activities.

Division of Economic Activities:

‰ Primary sectors → directly exploiting natural resources → Agriculture and related sector
‰ Secondary sectors → natural products are changed into other forms through ways of manufacturing → also called
Industrial Sector → e.g. using cotton fibre from the plant, we spin yarn and weave cloth
‰ Tertiary sector → provide support to other two sectors → Transport, storage, communication, banking

COMPARISON OF THREE SECTORS OF THE ECONOMY:

‰ Not every good (or service) that is produced and sold needs to be counted
‰ It makes sense only to include the final goods and services
‰ Intermediate goods are used up in producing final goods and services

Gross Domestic Product (GDP):

‰ The value of final goods and services produced in all three sectors during a particular year provides the total production
of the sector for that year → is called the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of a country.
‰ More the GDP → bigger the economy of the country is.

Historical Changes in sectors:

‰ Initial stages of development → Primary sector was the most important of economic activity in a country.
‰ With the innovation in farming methods → Agriculture sector began to produce much more food than before → resulted
in the increase of craft-persons and traders → buying and selling activities increased many times
‰ Over a long time and because of new methods of manufacturing → factories came up and started expanding → People
started working in industries → some people also get involved in transportation.
‰ In the past 100 years → a further shift from secondary to tertiary sector in developed countries → The service sector has
become the most important sector in terms of total production and started employing more people.

PRIMARY, SECONDARY AND TERTIARY SECTORS IN INDIA:

‰ 1973-74 → the primary sector contributed maximum to the GDP
‰ But in 2013-14 → tertiary sector has contributed maximum to the GDP.

Rising Importance of the Tertiary Sector in Production:

Why is the tertiary sector becoming so important in India?
Several reasons:

Sectors of the Indian Economy 15

 1. Requirement of several basic services → such as hospitals, educational institutions, post and telegraph services, police
stations, courts, municipal corporations, defence, transport, banks, insurance companies, etc.
2. The development of agriculture and industry → leads to the development of services → transport, trade, storage, and
banking.
3. Income levels rise → increase in demand for more services → like eating out, tourism, shopping, private hospitals,
private schools, professional training etc.
4. over the past decade → certain new services → rise in services based on information and communication technology
have become important and essential
Where are most of the people employed?
Graph 01: Share of Sectors in GDP (%) Share of Sectors in Employment (%)
100% 100%
90% 90% 18
31
80% 80% 11
70% 70%
60% 60% 25
50% 50% 71
40% 40%
30% 30% 44
20% 20%
10% 10%
0% 0%
1973 - 74 2013 - 14 1977 - 78 2017 - 18
Primary Secondary Tertiary Primary Secondary Tertiary

Share of Sectors in GDP (%)

Year Primary Secondary Tertiary
1973-74 40 12 48
2013-14 12 21 67
Share of Sectors in Employment (%)
Year Primary Secondary Tertiary
1977-78 71 11 18
2017-18 44 25 31

Disguised Unemployment:
‰ More people engaged in agriculture than the necessity → This kind of underemployment is hidden in contrast to someone
who does not have a job and is clearly visible as unemployed → it is also called disguised unemployment.
How to create more employment?
‰ Govt. can spend some money or bank can provide loans at lower interest
‰ Investing in infrastructure such as building a dam at suitable place.
‰ Increasing efficiency of transportation and Storage.
‰ Promoting small scale Industries such as mills, honey collection centres.
‰ Emphasis on Education and training centres.
‰ Identifying Potential of an area. For example, an area can be developed as tourist site.
‰ Government Welfare Schemes like making well or pump near farms, providing electricity, building hospitals.

MGNREGA:
‰ The central government in India made a law → implementing the Right to Work in 625 districts → called Mahatma
Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act 2005 known as MGNREGA 2005.

16 Class-X SOCIAL SCIENCE PW

Under MGNREGA 2005:
‰ In rural areas, all those who are able to, and are in need of work are guaranteed 100 days of employment in a year by
the government.
‰ If the government fails in its duty to provide employment, it will give unemployment allowances to the people.

DIVISION OF SECTORS AS ORGANISED AND UNORGANISED

Organised Sectors Unorganised Sectors
‰ Registered by the government ‰ Largely outside the control of the government
‰ Follow its rules and regulations of Govt. ‰ No job security
‰ Enjoy security of employment ‰ No pay for overtime working
‰ Work only a fixed number of hours ‰ No such benefits are given
‰ Get paid leave, payment during holidays, provident ‰ Home tutors, person working in small general stores
fund, gratuity, medical benefits etc.
Examples: Government employees, banks
How to Protect Workers in the Unorganised Sector?
Since the 1990s → large number of workers losing their jobs in the organised sector → forced to take up jobs in
the unorganised sector with low earnings → so there is also a need for protection and support of the workers in the
unorganised sector.
Who are these vulnerable people who need protection?
Vulnerable People in Rural Area Vulnerable People in Urban Area
‰ Landless agricultural labourers ‰ Workers in small-scale industry, casual workers in
‰ Small and marginal farmers Sharecroppers and construction, trade and transport etc., and those who
artisans (such as weavers, blacksmiths, carpenters and work as street vendors, head load workers, garment
goldsmiths) makers, rag pickers etc.
‰ These farmers need to be supported for timely delivery ‰ Small-scale industry also needs government’s support
of seeds, agricultural inputs, credit, storage facilities for procuring raw material and marketing of output
and marketing outlets

SECTORS IN TERMS OF OWNERSHIP: PUBLIC AND PRIVATE SECTORS:

Public Sector Private Sector
‰ The government owns most of the assets and provides ‰ Ownership of assets and delivery of services is in the
all the services. hands of private individuals or companies.
‰ Example: Railways or post office ‰ Example: Tata Iron and Steel Company Limited
‰ The government must provide basic services like health (TISCO) or Reliance Industries Limited (RIL).
and education facilities for all.
‰ The government spends in Infrastructure-development
 construction of roads, bridges, railways, harbours,
generating electricity, providing irrigation through
dams etc.
‰ Government also needs to pay attention to aspects
of human development such as availability of safe
drinking water, housing facilities for the poor and food
and nutrition.

Sectors of the Indian Economy 17

 3
CHAPTER
Money and Credit

Short Notes

MONEY AS A MEDIUM OF EXCHANGE

‰ Money acts as an intermediate in the exchange process & it is called Medium of exchange.
‰ In A BARTER SYSTEM, goods are directly exchanged without the use of money.
‰ Double coincidence of wants is an essential feature of barter system.
‰ Double coincidence of wants → what a person desires to sell is exactly what the other wishes to buy.

MODERN FORM OF MONEY

‰ During early ages, i.e., before introducing coins or currency notes → a variety of objects were used for exchange and
settlement of transactions. In India → grains and cattle were used as money.
‰ After that, metallic coins → gold, silver & copper coins that lasted till the last century.

Currency
‰ In the Modern forms of currency → paper notes and coins are used as a medium of exchange.
‰ Money is accepted as a medium of exchange → because the currency is authorized by the government of the country.
‰ In India, the Reserve Bank of India issues currency notes on behalf of the central government
‰ According to the law no one can refuse payment made in rupees to settling transactions. Rupee is widely accepted as a
medium of exchange.

Deposits with Banks:

‰ The other form in which people hold Money is as deposits with banks. Bank deposits are also a form of the modern
economy.
‰ In this, people can open a bank account and deposit their extra cash with the Bank and Banks accept the deposits and
also pay an amount as interest on the deposits.
‰ The deposits in the bank accounts can be withdrawn on demand; these deposits are called demand deposits.
‰ Demand deposits offer another interesting facility → The payments being made by cheques instead of cash.
‰ A cheque is a paper instructing the bank to pay a specific amount from the person’s account to the person in whose name
the cheque has been issued
‰ The facility of cheque against demand deposits makes it possible to directly settle payments without the use of cash.

Money and Credit 29

Loan Activities of Bank
‰ The majority of people deposit their money in banks. The banks only keep a small portion of these deposits with
themselves. It is used when the depositors come to withdraw their money.
‰ Banks in India these days hold about 15 per cent of their deposits as cash. This is kept as provision to pay the depositors
who might come to withdraw money from the bank on any given day.
‰ The other major portion of the deposits is used to offer loans to borrowers. People need loans for various economic
activities like buying a house, vehicles etc.
‰ Thus, Banks act as a mediator between the depositors (those who have surplus funds) and Borrowers (those who need
funds).
‰ These banks charge a higher rate of interest on the loans than what they offer on deposits.
‰ The difference between what is charged from borrowers and what is paid to depositors is their main source of income.

Two Different Credit Situations

‰ Credit (Loan): It is an agreement in which a borrower receives money, goods, or services from a lender for now and
promises to return the resources or repay the lender in the future.
First Situation: A person (manufacturer) obtains credit to meet the working capital needs of production. The credit helps
him to meet the on-going expenses of production, complete production on time, and thereby increase his earnings. Credit
therefore plays a vital and positive role in this situation.
Second Situation: A person obtains credit for producing goods. For example, in rural areas, the main demand for credit
is for crop production → involves considerable costs on seeds, fertilisers, pesticides, water, electricity, repair of equipment,
etc.
There is a minimum of 3 to 4 months gap between the sowing and harvesting. Farmers usually take crop loans at the
beginning of the season and repay the loan after harvest. Repayment of the loan is crucially dependent on the income
from farming.
In case of the failure of the crop, loan repayment is impossible. One has to sell part of the land to repay the loan. Credit,
instead of helping to improve one’s earnings, leaves oneself worse off. This is an example of what is commonly called
debt-trap. Credit in this case pushes the borrower into a situation from which recovery is very painful.

Terms of Credit
‰ Every loan agreement specifies an interest rate which the borrower must pay to the lender along with the repayment of
the principal. In addition, lenders also demand collateral (security) against loans.
‰ Collateral is an asset that the borrower owns (such as land, building, vehicle, livestock, deposits with banks) and given
to the lender as a guarantee until the loan is repaid.
‰ If the borrower is unable to repay the loan then the lender has the right to sell it and get the money back.
‰ Interest rate, collateral and documentation requirement and the mode of repayment, together is called the terms of credit.

FORMAL SECTOR CREDIT IN INDIA

We have seen that people obtain loans from various sources. These sources can be grouped as Formal sector loans and
Informal sector loans.
Formal sector loans:
‰ These are the loans from banks and cooperatives.

30 Class-X SOCIAL SCIENCE PW

‰ Need proper documents and collateral before lending
‰ Loans are provided at Low rate of interest
‰ Supervised by Reserve Bank of India (RBI)

Reserve Bank of India:

‰ Reserve Bank of India supervises the activities of formal sector and keeps the track of their activities but there is no one
supervises the functioning of informal sector.
‰ The RBI assures that banks provide loans to small cultivators, small-scale industries, etc., at cheap rates and not only to
profit-making businesses and traders.
‰ The banks must periodically submit data about their interest rate, borrowers’ information, etc., to the RBI.

Informal sector loans:

a. The informal lenders include moneylenders, traders, employers, relatives and friends, etc.
b. There is no need of documents and collateral for loans
c. In this loans are provided at very High rate of interest
d. There is No organisation supervises these credit activities like RBI in formal sector
Formal and Informal Credit: Who gets what?
‰ 85% of the loans taken by poor households in the urban areas are from informal sources.
‰ Urban households take only 10% of their loans are from informal sources, while 90% are from formal sources.
‰ The formal sector still meets only about half of the total credit needs of the rural people. The remaining credit needs are
met from informal sources.
‰ Because of this reason, the banks and cooperatives must make provisions to provide loans at cheaper rates in rural areas,
which would enable people to set their own businesses, new industries, grow more crops, etc.
‰ It is important that the formal credit is distributed more equality so that the poor can benefit from the cheaper loans.
‰ The formal sector also needs to expand, and it should be accessible to everyone. Cheap and affordable credit is crucial
for the development of the country.

SELF HELP GROUPS FOR THE POOR

‰ Poor households are majorly dependent on informal sector credits. This is because Banks are not available in rural areas.
‰ Banks require proper documentation and collateral for lending a loan. The absence of collateral prevents the poor from
getting a loan.
‰ On the other hand, moneylenders willing to give loans to the poor at a much higher rate without any collateral. They
keep no data of the transactions and harass the poor.
‰ To overcome these problems → Self Help Groups (SHGs) were created.
‰ SHGs are small groups of poor people which promote small savings among their members.
‰ A typical SHG has 15-20 members, usually belonging to one neighbourhood, who meet and save regularly → Saving
per member varies from Rs. 25 to Rs. 100 or more.
‰ The group lends loans to its members at a comparatively low-interest rate than the moneylender without collateral.
‰ If the group is regular in savings, it becomes eligible to receive a loan from banks.
‰ Loan is sanctioned in the name of the group and is meant to create self-employment opportunities for the members.

Money and Credit 31

‰ Most of the important decisions regarding the savings and loan activities are taken by the group members → the purpose,
amount, interest to be charged, repayment schedule etc.
‰ Any case of non-repayment of loan by any one member is followed up seriously by other members in the group. Because
of this feature, banks are willing to lend to the poor women when organised in SHGs, even though they have no collateral
as such.
‰ SHGs are the building blocks of organisation of the rural poor. It helps women to become financially self-reliant.

Previous Year Questions

(b) The difference of amount of interest between what

Multiple Choice Type Questions is charged from borrowers and what is paid to
depositors.
1. Suppose, the monthly income of the family members
is as follows respectively: [CBSE 2024] (c) The difference of interest rate between what is
charged from borrowers and what is charged from
z Mother - Rs. 50,000/- depositor.
z Father - Rs. 40,000/- (d) The difference between the amount deposited by
z Son - Rs. 20,000/- the depositor and borrowed by the borrower.

z Daughter - Rs. 20,000/- 4. The exchange of goods with a commodity is known

as: [CBSE 2021]

The average income of the family would be:
(a) Double coincidence of wants
(a) Rs. 32,000/- (b) Rs. 30,000/-
(b) Local trade
(c) Rs. 32,500/- (d) Rs. 33,000/- (c) Domestic trade
2. Why do lenders often require collateral before lending (d) Foreign trade.
loan? Choose the most suitable option from the
5. Which one of the following mediums of exchange
following. [CBSE 2024] is convenient? [CBSE 2021]
(a) To lower interest rates for borrowers. (a) Money (b) Commodity
(b) To establish personal relations. (c) Gold (d) Silver
(c) To increase their profit margins.
6. Which of the following authorities of India
(d) To mitigate the risk of loan default. issues currency notes on behalf of the Central
3. Look at the given picture carefully and infer the income Government? [CBSE 2021]
of the bank. [CBSE 2024] (a) The State Bank of India
(b) The Reserve Bank of India
(c) The Allahabad Bank
(d) The Punjab National Bank
7. Read the information given below and select the
correct option.
Rohan has taken a loan of Rs.5 lakhs from the bank

Choose the correct option from the following.
to purchase a house on 12% rate of interest. He has
(a) The difference between the amount deposited and to submit papers of new house and salary record to
borrowed by the bank to Reserve Bank of India. the bank. What is this process called as?

32 Class-X SOCIAL SCIENCE PW

 4
CHAPTER
Globalisation and
Indian Economy
Short Notes

PRODUCTION ACROSS COUNTRIES:

‰ Until the middle of the 20th century, production was largely organised within countries.
‰ India exported raw materials and food stuff and imported finished goods. Trade was the main channel connecting distant
countries. This was before large companies called Multinational corporations (MNCs) emerged on the scene.
‰ An MNC is a company that owns or controls production in more than one nation.
‰ MNCs set up offices and factories for production in regions where they can get cheap labour and other resources so that
the company can earn greater profits.
‰ MNCs are not only selling its finished products globally but more important, the goods and services are produced
globally.
‰ China provides the advantage of being a cheap manufacturing location.
‰ Mexico and Eastern Europe are useful for their closeness to the markets in the US and Europe.
‰ India has highly skilled engineers who can understand the technical aspects of production. It also has educated English
speaking youth who can provide customer care services.

INTERLINKING PRODUCTION ACROSS COUNTRIES

‰ MNCs set up production where it is close to the markets; where there is skilled and unskilled labour available at low
costs; and where the availability of other factories of production is assured.
‰ The money that is spent to buy assets such as land, building, machines and other equipment is called investment.
‰ An investment made by MNCs is called Foreign investment. MNCs are exerting a strong influence on production at
these distant locations.
‰ MNCs set up production jointly with some of the local companies of these countries. The benefit to the local company of
such joint production is two-fold. First, MNCs can provide money for additional investments, like buying new machines
for faster production. Second, MNCs might bring with them the latest technology for production.
‰ But the most common route for MNC investments is to buy up local companies and then to expand production. MNCs
with huge wealth can quite easily do so

FOREIGN TRADE AND INTEGRATION OF MARKETS

‰ Foreign trade creates an opportunity for the producers to reach beyond the domestic markets.
‰ Producers can sell their products not only in markets located within the country but can also compete in markets located
in other countries of the world.
‰ Foreign trade or international trade is the exchange (import and export) of capital, goods, and services across international
borders or territories.
‰ For the buyers, import of goods produced in another country is one way of expanding the choice of goods beyond what
is domestically produced.

Globalisation and Indian Economy 43

‰ With the beginning of trade, goods move from one market to another, and goods’ choice increases. Thus, the competition
rises, and prices of similar goods in the two markets become equal.
‰ Foreign trade results in connecting the markets or integration of markets in different countries.

WHAT IS GLOBALISATION?
‰ Globalisation is the process of rapid integration or interconnection between countries.
‰ MNCs are playing a major role in the globalisation process. More and more goods and services, investments and
technology are moving between countries.
‰ Besides the movements of goods, services, investments and technology, there is one more way in which the countries
can be connected. This is through the movement of people between countries

Factors that have enabled Globalisation

Technology
‰ Rapid improvement in technology has been one major factor that has stimulated the globalisation process.
‰ This has made possible much faster delivery of goods across long distances at lower costs.
‰ Even more remarkable have been the development of information and communication technology.
‰ Technologies in the areas of telecommunications, computers, and internet have been changing rapidly.

Liberalisation of Foreign Trade and Foreign Investment Policy

‰ Trade barriers are some restrictions that have been set up by governments.
‰ The government can use trade barriers to increase or decrease (regulate) foreign trade and to decide what kinds of goods
and how much of each, should come into the country. Tax on imports is an example of trade barrier.
‰ The Indian government, after Independence, had put barriers to foreign investment. This was considered necessary to
protect the producers within the country from foreign competition.
‰ In the 1990s, changes were made to this policy in India → Removing barriers or restrictions set by the government
on trade, is known as liberalisation.

WORLD TRADE ORGANISATION

‰ World Trade Organisation (WTO) is one such organisation whose aim is to liberalise international trade.
‰ It establishes rules regarding international trade, and sees that these rules are obeyed.
‰ About 160 countries of the world are currently members of the WTO.
‰ It allows free trade for all, in practice, it is seen that the developed countries have unfairly retained trade barriers. On the
other hand, WTO rules have forced the developing countries to remove trade barriers.

Impact of Globalisation in India

‰ Globalisation has created greater competition among producers – both local and foreign producers.
‰ There is greater choice before these consumers who now enjoy improved quality and lower prices for several products
→ As a result, these people today, enjoy much higher standards of living than was possible earlier.
‰ Among producers and workers, the impact of globalisation has not been uniform:
‰ MNCs have been interested in industries such as cell phones, automobiles, electronics, soft drinks, fast food or services
such as banking in urban areas → these products have a large number of well-off buyers. In these industries and services,
new jobs have been created. Also, local companies supplying raw materials, etc. to these industries have prospered.
‰ Several of the top Indian companies have been able to benefit from the increased competition. They have invested in
newer technology and production methods and raised their production standards.

44 Class-X SOCIAL SCIENCE PW

‰ Some have gained from successful collaborations with foreign companies. Moreover, globalisation has enabled some
large Indian companies to emerge as multinationals themselves! Some Indian companies → like Tata Motors, Infosys,
Ranbaxy, and Asian Paints are spreading their operations worldwide.

Steps to attract Foreign Investment

‰ To attract foreign investments in India, the Central and State governments have set up Industrial zones called Special
Economic Zones (SEZ).
‰ SEZs are facilitated with all the amenities such as electricity, water, roads, transport, storage, recreational and educational
facilities.
‰ Government has also allowed Flexibility in the labour laws to attract foreign investment. The companies can hire
workers for shorter periods when there is intense pressure work.

Rising Competition and Uncertain Employment

‰ The benefits of globalization have not been distributed equally to small producers and workers.
‰ The benefits of globalization have not been distributed equally to small producers and workers.
‰ The local companies have faced huge losses and subsequently have shut down their small-scale industries rendering
many workers jobless.
‰ Because of growing competition and the motive to earn more profits, employers prefer to employ labourers flexibly.
‰ The workers have no secure jobs, must work in long shifts without extra wages, and under much pressure.

The Struggle for a Fair Globalisation

‰ The benefits of globalization are not equally distributed to all the people.
‰ Fair globalization would create opportunities and would be beneficial to all.
‰ The government can play a major role in making this possible. Its policies must protect the interests, not only of rich and
the powerful but all the people in the country.
‰ The government should make provisions to support small scale industries until they are ready to face competition with
foreign companies.
‰ The government can use trade and investment barriers. It can negotiate at the WTO for ‘fairer rules’.
‰ The government should make an ally with other developing countries having the same interest to fight against the
supremacy of developed countries in the WTO.
‰ People can also play a significant role in the struggle for fair globalization through their campaign and representation
relating to trade and WTO.

Globalisation and Indian Economy 45

 1
CHAPTER
The Rise of
Nationalism in Europe

Short Notes

INTRODUCTION
U 19th Century → Nationalism emerged as a force → brought sweeping changes in the political and mental world of
Europe → resulted in emergence of nation-state in place of multi-national dynastic empires of Europe.
 A Nation - state was one in which the majority of its citizens, and not only its rulers, came to develop a sense of
common identity and shared history or descent.
 Nation - A nation is the culmination of a long past of endeavours, sacrifice and devotion. A heroic past, great men,
glory that is social capital upon which one bases a national idea. Its existence is a daily plebiscite (direct vote to
accept or reject proposal)

FRENCH REVOLUTION AND THE IDEA OF THE NATION

U The first clear expression of nationalism came with the French Revolution in 1789 → Transfer from monarchy to body
of French citizens → People constitute nation and shape dynasty
 The idea of la patrie (the fatherland) and le citoyen (citizen) emphasized the notion of a united community enjoying
equal rights
 New French tricolour flag to replace former royal standard
 Estates General was elected and renamed as National Assembly
 Centralized administrative system with uniform laws for citizens within territory
 Abolish internal custom duties
 Formulate uniform system of weights and measures
 French became a common language and regional dialects were discouraged
 Aim to liberate people of Europe from despotism
 Establishment of Jacobin clubs-French army moved into Holland, Belgium, Switzerland and Italy in 1970s.
U The Civil Code of 1804 (Napoleonic Code):
 Did away with privileges based on birth, established equality and secured right to property;
 Abolished feudal system and freed peasants from serfdom;
 In the towns too, guild restrictions were removed and improved transportation.
 Uniform laws, standardised weights and measures, and a common national currency
U Initially French armies were welcomed in Brussels, Mainz and Warsaw, Holland and Switzerland as harbinger of liberty
but later turned hostiles as there was increased taxation, censorship and forced conscription.

MAKING OF NATIONALISM IN EUROPE: IMPORTANT TIMELINES

U 1797 → Napoleonic Wars begin
U 1814-1815 → Fall of Napoleon
U 1821→ Greek struggle for independence
U 1848 → Revolution in Europe → demand for Nation-States by Italians, Germans, Magyars, poles, Czechs
U 1859-1870 → Unification of Italy
U 1866-1871 → Unification of Germany
U 1905 → Slav nationalism in Habsburg & Ottoman
The Habsburg Empire → (Austria-Hungary and many different regions and people)
U Alpine regions-– Tyrol, Austria and the Sudetenland
U Bohemia-the aristocracy was predominantly German-speaking.
U Italian-speaking provinces of Lombardy and Venetia.
U Hungary, half of the population spoke Magyar while the other half spoke a variety of dialects.
U In Galicia, the aristocracy spoke Polish
U Peasants- Bohemians and Slovenes in Carniola, Croats to the south and Roumans to the east in Transylvania
The Aristocracy and the New Middle Class
U Dominant class → Landed aristocracy → united by common way of life, owned estates and town houses, spoke French
for diplomacy, connected by marriage ties but was small in number
U Majority population was peasantry
U West Europe- Farming by tenants and small owners
U East & Central Europe- vast estates cultivate by serfs
U West & central Europe: growth of industrial production, emergence of commercial class
U 2nd half of 18th century → Beginning of industrialization in England & in 19th Century → in French & German States.
What did Liberal Nationalism Stand for?
Liberal Nationalism:
U ‘Liberalism’ derives from the Latin root liber, meaning free
U Liberalism stood for freedom for the individual and equality of all before the law.
In Political sphere:
U It emphasised the concept of government by consent
U The end of autocracy and clerical privileges, a constitution and representative government through parliament
U Universal Suffrage in France → initially only property owned man had right to vote. Under Jacobins, right was given
to all adult males. Under Napoleon, rights were limited and reduced for women. Later opposition movements began.
Economic sphere:
U Liberalism stood for the freedom of markets and the abolition of state-imposed restrictions on the movement of goods
and capital.
Napoleon’s administrative measures:
U Confederation of 39 states with own currency, weights, and measures. Merchant had to pass numerous custom barriers
and pay custom duties on all.
U A merchant travelling in 1833 from Hamburg to Nuremberg to sell his goods would have had to pass through 11 customs
barriers and pay a customs duty of about 5 per cent at each one of them.
U Duties were often levied according to the weight or measurement of the goods.
U Elle → (Measurement For Cloth) - In Frankfurt was 54.7 cm of cloth, in Mainz it was 55.1 cm, in Nuremberg it was
65.6 cm, in Freiburg, it was 53.5 cm.
U 1n 1834 → a custom union or zollverein was formed at the initiative of Prussia and joined by most of the German
states. The Union abolished tariff barriers and reduced the number of currencies from more than 30 to 2. Idea is to bind
economically, protect external interest and stimulate productivity.
A New Conservatism after 1815

4 Class-X SOCIAL SCIENCE PW

U After the defeat of Napoleon in 1815 → European governments driven by a spirit of conservatism.
 Traditional institutions of state and society should be preserved;
 Modernisation could in fact strengthen traditional institutions like the monarchy; A modern army, an efficient
bureaucracy,
 A dynamic economy, the abolition of feudalism and serfdom could strengthen the autocratic monarchies of Europe.
U In 1815, representatives of the European powers – Britain, Russia, Prussia and Austria – who had collectively defeated
Napoleon, met at Vienna to draw up Treaty of Vienna of 1815 with the object of undoing most of the changes that had
come about in Europe during the Napoleonic wars.
U The Bourbon dynasty (deposed during the French Revolution) → was restored to power, and France lost the territories
(annexed under Napoleon).
U A series of states were set up on the boundaries of France to prevent French expansion in future
 Kingdom of the Netherlands, which included Belgium, was set up in the north and Genoa was added to Piedmont
in the south.
 Prussia was given important new territories on its western frontiers, while Austria was given control of northern Italy.
U But the German confederation of 39 states that had been set up by Napoleon was left untouched.
U In the east, Russia was given part of Poland while Prussia was given a portion of Saxony → main intention was to restore
the monarchies that had been overthrown by Napoleon, and create a new conservative order in Europe.
U Conservative regimes set up in 1815 were autocratic. They did not tolerate criticism and dissent, and sought to curb
activities that questioned the legitimacy of autocratic governments.
The Revolutionaries
U Secret Societies sprang up to train revolutionaries and spread ideas, oppose monarchy after Vienna congress and fight
for liberty and freedom.
Giuseppe Mazzini:
U Born in Genoa in 1805 & became member of Carbonari secret society.
U Was exiled in 1831 for revolution in Liguria.
U Formed 2 Societies as ‘Young Italy’ (1831) in Marseilles & ‘Young Europe’ in Berne (1834).
U Explained God has intended nations to be natural units of mankind. So Italy must be forged with single unified republic.
U Metternich described him as “the most dangerous enemy of our social order.

AGE OF REVOLUTIONS: 1830-1848

U Revolutionaries → educated middle class elite, professors, school teachers, clerks and commercial middle classes.
U France upheaval in 1830 → Bourbon kings restored to power were overthrown by liberal Louis Philippe.
U Matternich said → ‘When France sneezes, the rest of Europe catches cold’
U July revolution → uprising in Brussels → led to Belgium away from UK of Netherlands.
U Greek war of Independence → Greece was part of Ottoman Empire since 15th century & struggle began in 1821.
Nationalist in Greece got support from Greece living in exile. Lord Byron organized funds and later went to fight in the
war, where he died of fever in 1824.
U Treaty of Constantinople of 1832 → recognizes Greece as an independent nation.
The Romantic Imagination and National Feeling
U Culture played a crucial role in spreading the idea of the nation → art and poetry, stories and music helped express and
shape nationalist feelings.
U Romanticism → Criticised the glorification of reason and science and focused instead on emotions, intuition and mystical
feelings.
U German philosopher Johann Gottfried Herder (1744-1803) → claimed that true German culture was to be discovered
among the common people – das volk.

The Rise of Nationalism in Europe 5

  After Poland was partitioned by Great Powers (Russia, Britain & Austria) → the Polish language was forced out of
schools and the Russian language was imposed everywhere.
 Members of the clergy in Poland → began to use language as a weapon of national resistane. Polish → for church
gatherings & seen as a symbol of struggle against Russian dominance.
 After Poland was partitioned by Great Powers (Russia, Britain & Austria) → the Polish language was forced out of
schools and the Russian language was imposed everywhere.
 Members of the clergy in Poland → began to use language as a weapon of national resistance. Polish → for church
gatherings & seen as a symbol of struggle against Russian dominance.
 Karol Kurpinski, for example, celebrated the national struggle through his operas and music, turning folk dances like
the polonaise and mazurka into nationalist symbols.
Hunger, Hardship and Popular Revolt:
U 1830s → years of great economic hardship in Europe.
U 1st half of 19th century → increase in population in Europe → Population migration to urban areas and increasing slums
U Stiff competition from cheap machine made imports.
U Peasants struggled under burden of feudal dues and obligations where aristocracy was in power.
U Rise of food prices and years of bad harvest aggravated the issue.
U 1848 - widespread food shortage, unemployment in Paris & Louis Phillipe was forced to flee. National assembly
proclaimed a republic and granted suffrage to all men above 21 years and guaranteed right to work.
U 1845-weavers in Silesia led revolt against contractors who supplied them raw material and gave orders for finished
product but drastically reduced payments.
1848 : Revolution of Liberals:1
U Brought abdication of monarch and republic based on universal male suffrage.
U Germany, Italy, Poland and the Austro-Hungarian Empire-men and women of the liberal middle class combined their
demands for constitutionalism with national unification-Constitution, freedom of press and freedom of association
U In Germany, German National Assembly was formed on 18th May 1848 (831 elected representatives) → drafted a
constitution for German nations to be headed by monarchy → Friedrich Wilhelm IV, King of Prussia, rejected it and
joined other monarchs to oppose the elected assembly.
U Parliament was dominated by middle class who resisted workers’ demands. Assembly was disbanded and troops were
called in.
U Women formed political associations, founded newspapers and took part in political meetings but were denied suffrage
rights. In Frankfurt parliament in the Church of St Paul, women were admitted only as observers to stand in the visitors’
gallery
U Louise Otto-Peters was a political activist who founded a women’s journal and subsequently a feminist political
association
U After 1848 → The autocratic monarchies of Central and Eastern Europe introduced the changes that had already taken
place in Western Europe before 1815 → serfdom and bonded labour were abolished both in the Habsburg dominions
and in Russia → The Habsburg rulers granted more autonomy to the Hungarians in 1867.

MAKING OF GERMANY & ITALY

Germany – Can the Army be the Architect of a Nation?
U Liberal initiatives to nation-building in Germany was repressed by monarchy and military & supported by the large
landowners called → Junkers of Prussia.
U Prussia took leadership for national unification with Otto von Bismarck as the architect.
U 3 wars over 7years with Austria, Denmark and France → ended in Prussia victory and unification.

6 Class-X SOCIAL SCIENCE PW

U In January 1871 → the Prussian King, William I → was proclaimed German Emperor in a ceremony in Hall of Mirrors
at Versailles.
U New state emphasized modernization of currency, banking, legal and judicial systems in Germany.
Italy Unified:
U Italy had scattered dynasties and Habsburg Empire → mid-19th century → it was divided in 7 states of which Sardinia
= Piedmont was ruled by Italian princely house.
U North was under Austrian Habsburgs, the centre was ruled by the Pope and the southern regions were under the
domination of Bourbon kings of Spain.
U 1830s → Giuseppe Mazzine
 A coherent programme for a Unitary Italian Republic
 Formed a secret society- Young Italy for the dissemination of his goals.
U Failure of uprisings in 1831 and 1848 → mantle now fell on Sardinia-Piedmont under its ruler King Victor Emmanuel
II to unify Italy states for war → in the eyes of ruling elites → Unified Italy gave possibility for economic development
and political dominance.
U Chief Minister Cavour → led the movement to unify the regions of Italy was neither a revolutionary nor a democrat.
→ spoke French much better than Italian.
U Through a tactful diplomatic alliance with France engineered by Cavour → Sardinia-Piedmont succeeded in defeating
the Austrian forces in 1859.
U 1860 → Garibaldi marched to South Italy and Kingdom of Two Sicillies and removed Spanish rulers.
U 1861 → Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed king of united Italy. Much of Italy was Illiterate and unaware of liberal-
nationalist ideology. Supporter of Garibaldi had never heard about Italia and thought “La Talia” was wife of Emmanuel.
U Garibaldi
 was a sailor Joined Young Italy movement in 1834 with Mazzini.
 lived in exile till 1848 in South America.
 In 1860, Garibaldi led the Expedition of the Thousand to south Italy. Volunteers joined and were known as Red Shirts.
 In 1867, Garibaldi led an army of volunteers to Rome to fight the last obstacle to the unification of Italy, the Papal
States where a French garrison was stationed.
U In 1870, French withdrew forces from Rome and Papal States joined to Italy.
The Strong Case of Britain
U In Britain → the formation of the nation-state was not the result of a sudden upheaval or revolution, but was the result
of a long-drawn-out process.
U There was no British nation prior to the eighteenth century → the primary identities of the people who inhabited the
British Isles were ethnic ones → such as English, Welsh, Scot or Irish.
U The English parliament seized power from the monarchy in 1688.
U The Act of Union (1707) between England and Scotland that resulted in the formation of the ‘United Kingdom of Great
Britain → England was able to impose its influence on Scotland.
U The British parliament was dominated by its English members. Scotland’s distinctive culture and political institutions
were systematically suppressed.
U The Scottish Highlanders were forbidden to speak their Gaelic language or wear their national dress, and large numbers
were forcibly driven out of their homeland.
U Ireland suffered a similar fate → deeply divided between Catholics and Protestants. The English helped the Protestants
of Ireland to establish their dominance over a largely Catholic country.
U Catholic revolts led by Wolfe Tone and his United Irishmen (1798) were suppressed → Ireland was forcibly incorporated
into the United Kingdom in 1801.
U A new ‘British nation’ was created with a dominant English culture.
U The symbols of the New Britain → the British flag (Union Jack), the national anthem (God Save Our Noble King), the
English language – were actively promoted.

The Rise of Nationalism in Europe 7

VISUALISING THE NATION:
U Nations → then portrayed as female figures → female figure became an allegory of the nation.
U During the French Revolution → artists used the female allegory to portray ideas such as Liberty, Justice and the
Republic → The attributes of Liberty are the red cap, or the broken chain, while Justice is generally a blindfolded woman
carrying a pair of weighing scales.
U In France ‘Marianne’, a popular Christian name → underlined the idea of a people’s nation → characteristics were drawn
from those of Liberty and the Republic – the red cap, the tricolour, the cockade.
U Statues of Marianne were erected in public squares to remind the public of the national symbol of unity and to persuade
them to identify with it. Marianne images were marked on coins and stamps.
U Germania became the allegory of the German nation → Germania wears a crown of oak leaves, as the German oak
stands for heroism.

NATIONALISM AND IMPERIALISM:

U By the last quarter of the nineteenth century → nationalism no longer retained its idealistic liberal-democratic sentiment
of the first half of the century, but became a narrow creed with limited ends.
U The most serious source of nationalist tension in Europe after 1871 was the area called the Balkans.
U The Balkans → a region of geographical and ethnic variation → modern-day Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece,
Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro whose inhabitants were broadly known as
the Slavs.
U A large part of the Balkans was under the control of the Ottoman Empire. The spread of the ideas of romantic nationalism
in the Balkans together with the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire made this region very explosive.
U The Balkan peoples based their claims for independence or political rights on nationality and used history to prove it.
U In Balkan → Intense rivalry among European powers over trade and colonies as well as naval and military.
U Russia, Germany, England, Austro-Hungary → was keen on countering the hold of other powers over the Balkans →
Led to a series of wars in the region → finally the First World War.
U Nationalism + imperialism → led Europe to disaster in 1914.
U But meanwhile, many countries colonised by the European powers in the nineteenth century opposed imperial domination
→ The anti-imperial movements developed everywhere → they all struggled to form independent nation-states, and
were inspired by a sense of collective national unity, forged in confrontation with Imperialism.

MEANING OF NEW WORDS:

U Suffrage – The right to vote
U Conservatism – A political philosophy that stressed the importance of tradition, established institutions and customs,
and preferred gradual development to quick change
U Absolutist – Literally, a government or system of rule that has no restraints on the power exercised. In history, the term
refers to a form of monarchical government that was centralised, militarised and repressive
U Utopian – A vision of a society that is so ideal that it is unlikely to actually exist
U Feminist – Awareness of women’s rights and interests based on the belief of the social, economic and political equality
of the genders
U Ideology – System of ideas reflecting a particular social and political vision
U Ethnic – Relates to a common racial, tribal, or cultural origin or background that a community identifies with or claims
U Allegory – When an abstract idea (for instance, greed, envy, freedom, liberty) is expressed through a person or a thing.
An allegorical story has two meanings, one literal and one symbolic.

8 Class-X SOCIAL SCIENCE PW

Meanings of the Symbols:
Attribute Significance
Broken chains Being freed
Breastplate with eagle Symbol of the German empire - Strength
Crown of oak leaves Heroism
Sword Readiness of fight
Olive branch around the sword Willingness to make peace
Black, red and gold tricolour Flag of the liberal-nationalists in 1848, banned by the
Dukes of German states
Rays of the rising sun Beginning of a new era

The Rise of Nationalism in Europe 9

 2
CHAPTER
Nationalism in India

Short Notes

Introduction:
U Modern nationalism → was associated with the formation of nation-states.
U In India like many other colonies → the growth of modern nationalism is connected to the anti-colonial movement.
U People discovered unity in the process of their struggle with colonialism

The First World War, Khilafat and Non-Cooperation:

U In the years after 1919 → National movement spreading to new areas → incorporating new social groups and developing
new modes of struggle.
U The First World War → created a new economic and political situation
U India faced various problems during war period:
U Increase in defence expenditure
U Increase in income tax
U Prices increased through the war years
U Forced recruitment in rural areas
U During 1918-19 and 1920-21, crops failure in many parts of India
U Hardships did not end after the war was over.
The Idea of Satyagraha:
U A novel way of fighting the colonial rule in India
U A non-aggressive, peaceful mass agitation against oppression and injustice.
U It means insistence on truth.
U It is a moral force, not passive resistance.
U In January 1915 → Mahatma Gandhi returned to India.
U Gandhiji organised Satyagraha Movements → in Champaran, Bihar (1917), Kheda district of Gujarat (1918) and
amongst cotton mill workers in Ahmedabad (1918).
The Rowlatt Act (1919):
U This act gave the government enormous powers → to repress political activities and allowed detention of political
prisoners without trial for two years.
Jallianwala Bagh massacre:
U On 13th April 1919 → a huge crowd gathered in the enclosed ground of Jallianwalla Bagh.
U Dyer entered the area → blocked the exit points → opened fire on the crowd, killing hundreds.
U As the news spread, strikes, clashes with the police and attacks on government buildings started.
U The government responded with brutal repression.
U Gandhi called off the Rowlatt satyagraha as the violence spread.
Khilafat Movement:
U Khilafat Movement was led by two brothers Shaukat Ali and Muhammad Ali.
U Khilafat Committee → formed in Bombay in March 1919 → to defend the Khalifa’s temporal powers.
U Calcutta session of the Congress in September 1920 → Gandhiji convinced the Congress to join hands with the Khilafat
Movement and start a Non-Cooperation movement in support of Khilafat as well as for swaraj.
Why Non-cooperation?
U Hind Swaraj (1909) → Mahatma Gandhi declared → British rule established in India with the cooperation of Indians
U December 1920 → Congress session, Nagpur → the Non-Cooperation programme was adopted.
U Gandhiji proposed → the movement should unfold in stages → should begin with the surrender of titles that the
government awarded, and a boycott of civil services, army, police, courts and legislative councils, schools, and foreign
goods → Then, in case the government used repression → a full civil disobedience campaign would be launched.

Differing Strands Within the Movement:

U The Non-Cooperation-Khilafat Movement began in January 1921 → various social groups participated with its own
specific aspiration → All responded to the call of Swaraj → but the term meant different things to different people.
The Movement in the Towns:
U It started with middle class participation in cities.
U Students, teachers, lawyers gave up studies, jobs, legal practices and joined movements.
U Council elections were boycotted.
U Foreign goods were boycotted.
U Liquor shops were picketed.
But the movement failed in towns, because → (a) Khadi being expensive could not be afforded by the poor. (b) Indian
institutions were slow to come up → so people returned back to the British institutions
Rebellion in the Countryside:
U Peasants and tribal took over the struggle which turned violent gradually.
U Peasant Movement in Awadh
 The peasants were led by → Baba Ramchandra in Awadh against landlords and talukdars.
 1920 → the Oudh Kisan Sabha was set up → headed by Jawaharlal Nehru, Baba Ramchandra and a few others.
U Movement of Tribals in Andhra Pradesh
 Alluri Sitaram Raju → led the guerrilla warfare in the Gudem Hills of Andhra Pradesh → The rebels attacked police
stations → Raju was captured and executed in 1924.
Swaraj in the Plantations:
U For the plantation workers → Swaraj means moving freely.
U They protested against the Inland Emigration Act (1859) → which prevented them from leaving the plantation without
permission.

Nationalism in India 25
U Each group interpreted the term swaraj in their own ways.

Towards Civil Disobedience:

U February 1922 → Chauri Chaura in Gorakhpur → a peaceful demonstration in a bazaar turned into a violent clash with
the police → after the incident, Mahatma Gandhi called a halt to the Non-Cooperation Movement → felt the movement
was turning violent in many places and satyagrahis needed to be properly trained before they would be ready for mass
struggles.
U Many leaders such as → C. R. Das and Motilal Nehru → formed the Swaraj Party within the Congress → to argue for
a return to council politics → but Younger leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose pressed for more
radical mass agitation and for full independence.
Factors that shaped Indian politics towards the late 1920s:
U The Worldwide Economic Depression
 Agricultural prices collapsed after 1930 as the demand for agricultural goods fell and exports declined.
U Simon Commission
 It was constituted by the Tory government of Britain to look into the demands of the nationalists and suggest changes
in the constitutional structure of India.
 The Commission arrived in India in 1928.
 The Congress protested against this commission.
U In December, 1929 → under the presidency of Jawaharlal Nehru, → the Lahore session of Congress formalized the
demand of → Purna Swaraj

The Salt March and the Civil Disobedience Movement:

U Gandhiji chose → Salt as the medium → that could unite the nation as it is consumed by all the sections of the society.
Salt March:
U March 12, 1930 → Salt or Dandi March began from Sabarmati Ashram
U 6th April 1930 → Gandhiji reached Dandi → a village in Gujarat → and broke the Salt Law by boiling water and
manufacturing salt → Thus, began the Civil Disobedience Movement.
U Different from Non-Cooperation Movement → as people were now asked not only to refuse cooperation but also to
break colonial laws.
U Boycott of foreign goods, non-payment of taxes, breaking forest laws were its main features.
U The British Government followed a policy of brutal repression.
U British government arrested all the leaders including Gandhiji and Nehru.
U Mahatma Gandhi called off the movement.
Gandhi-Irwin Pact:
U 5th March 1931 → Lord Irwin, then Viceroy, signed a pact with Gandhi.
U December 1931→ Gandhiji went to London for the Second Round Table Conference but returned disappointed.
U Gandhi launched the Civil Disobedience Movement → but by 1934 it lost its momentum.
How Participants saw the Movement?
U Rich peasants → expected the revenue demand to be reduced → when the British refused to do so → they joined the
movement → They did not re-join the movement as the movement was called without revising the revenue rates.

26 Class-X SOCIAL SCIENCE PW

U Poor Peasants → wanted rents of lands to be remitted → The Congress was unwilling to support the “no rent” campaigns
due to the fear of upsetting the rich peasants and landlords.
U Business Classes → after the war → their huge profits were reduced → wanted protection against import of foreign
goods → To organise business interests → they formed the Indian Industrial and Commercial Congress in 1920 and the
Federation of the Indian Chamber of Commerce and Industries (FICCI) in 1927
U Women → also participated in protest marches, manufactured salt, and picketed foreign cloth and liquor shops
→ Congress was reluctant to allow women to hold any position of authority within the organisation.
Limits of Civil Disobedience:
U The Dalits or the Untouchables did not actively participate in the movement → they demanded reservation of seats,
separate electorates.
U Dr B.R. Ambedkar → the leader of the Dalits. → Formed an association in 1930 → called the Depressed Classes
Association.
U Poona Pact → between the Gandhiji and B.R. Ambedkar (1932) → gave reserved seats in Provincial and Central
Councils but were voted by general electorate.
U The leader of the Muslim League M.A. Jinnah wanted reserved seats for Muslims in Central Assembly.
U Large sections of Muslims did not participate in the Civil disobedience movement.

The Sense of Collective Belonging:

U The sense of collective belonging came partly through the experience of united struggles.
U History and fiction, folklore and songs, popular prints and symbols → all played a part in the making of nationalism.
U By 1921 → Gandhiji had designed the Swaraj flag → was again a tricolour (red, green and white) and had a spinning
wheel in the centre.

Nationalism in India 27
 3
CHAPTER
The Making of
Global World

Short Notes

THE PRE-MODERN WORLD

Globalisation
U Refers to an economic system associated with the free movement of goods, technology, ideas and people across the
globe.
U Around 3000 BCE coastal trade linked the Indus valley civilisations with present-day West Asia.
U Cowries or cowdi or seashells, used as a form of currency
Silk Routes Link the World:
U The silk routes are a good example of vibrant pre-modern trade and cultural links between distant parts of the world
U The name ‘silk routes’ points to the importance of West-bound Chinese silk cargoes along this route.
U There are several silk routes, over land and by sea, knitting together vast regions of Asia, and linking Asia with Europe
and northern Africa.
Food Travels: Spaghetti and Potato:
U Noodles travelled west from China to become spaghetti.
U Arab traders took pasta to 5th century Sicily, an island now in Italy
U Common foods such as potatoes, soya, groundnuts, maize, tomatoes, chillies, sweet potatoes were only introduced in
Europe and Asia after Christopher Columbus discovered Americas.
Conquest, Disease and Trade:
U Precious metals from mines of Peru and Mexico enhanced European trade with Asia.
U Many expeditions set off in search of El Dorado → the fabled city of gold. The Spanish conquerors used the germs of
smallpox in the conquest of America.

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY (1815-1914)

U The world changed profoundly in the nineteenth century.
U Economists identify three types of movement or ‘flows’ within international economic exchanges.
 The first is the flow of trade which in the 19th century referred largely to trade in goods (e.g. cloth or wheat).
 The second is the flow of labour – the migration of people in search of employment.
 The third is the movement of capital for short-term or long-term investments over long distances
 All 3 flows were closely interwoven and affected peoples’ lives more deeply now than ever before.
A World Economy Takes Shape
U In 19th century Britain, self-sufficiency in food meant lower living standards and social conflict.
U In the late 18th century, growth in the population increased the demand for food grains in Britain.
U Under pressure from landed groups, the government also restricted the import of corn. The laws allowing the government
to do this were commonly known as the ‘Corn Laws’

The Making of Global World 43

U Unhappy with high food prices, Industrialists and urban dwellers forced the abolition of the Corn Laws.
U After the Corn Laws were scrapped→ Imported food in Britain became cheaper than it could be produced within the
country
U From the mid-19th century, faster industrial growth in Britain also led to higher incomes, and therefore more food
imports.
U Around the world – in Eastern Europe, Russia, America and Australia – lands were cleared and food production expanded
to meet the British demand.
U Nearly 50 million people emigrated from Europe to America and Australia in the nineteenth century
Role of Technology
U The railways, steamships, the telegraph were important inventions that transformed nineteenth-century world.
U After the introduction of new technology, namely, refrigerated ships which enabled the transport of perishable foods
over long distances.
U Now animals were slaughtered for food at the starting point – in America, Australia or New Zealand – and then transported
to Europe as frozen meat. This reduced shipping costs and lowered meat prices in Europe.
Late nineteenth-century Colonialism
U Trade flourished and markets expanded in the late 19th century.
U European conquests of Asia and Africa as colonies.
U Belgium and Germany became new colonial powers.
U The US became a colonial power in the late 1890s by taking over some colonies earlier held by Spain.
U There was a darker side to this process. In many parts of the world, the expansion of trade and a closer relationship with
the world economy also meant a loss of freedoms and livelihoods
Rinderpest, or the Cattle Plague
U Rinderpest is a fast spreading cattle plague which hit Africa in the 1890s.
U It was carried by infected cattle imported from British Asia to feed the Italian soldiers invading Eritrea in East Africa.
U Entering Africa in the east, Rinderpest moved west ‘like forest fire’, reaching Africa’s Atlantic coast in 1892. It reached
the Cape (Africa’s southernmost tip) five years later. Along the way Rinderpest killed 90 % of the cattle.
U The colonial governments now strengthen their power and to force Africans into the labour market.
Indentured Labour Migration from India
U Indentured Labour was a bonded labourer under contract to work for an employer for a specific amount of time, to pay
off his passage to a new country or home.
U In the nineteenth century, thousands of Indian and Chinese labourers went to work on plantations, in mines, and in road
and railway construction projects around the world.
U Recruitment was done by agents by providing false information about the work and location.
U On arrival at the plantations, labourers found living and working conditions harsh. It was abolished in 1921.
Indian Entrepreneurs Abroad
U Indian entrepreneurs, some bankers like Nattukottai and Chettiars financed export of agriculture to Central and South-
East Asia.
U Indian traders and moneylenders also followed European colonisers into Africa.
U Hyderabadi Sindhi traders, however, ventured beyond European colonies.
U Industrial Revolution in England changed the balance of trade between England and India.
U Indian handicraft and agriculture were destroyed and Britain enjoyed a trade surplus with India.
U Their exports increased and imports decreased.
Indian Trade, Colonialism and the Global System
U Historically, fine cottons produced in India were exported to Europe.
U With industrialisation, British cotton manufacture began to expand & import of Indian cottons restricted

44 Class-X SOCIAL SCIENCE PW

U Tariffs were imposed on cloth imports into Britain. Consequently, the inflow of fine Indian cotton began to decline.
U Exports from India, we see a steady decline of the share of cotton textiles from some 30 per cent around 1800 to 15 per
cent by 1815.
U By the 1870s this proportion had dropped to below 3 per cent.

The Inter-war Economy

U The First World War (1914-18) was mainly fought in Europe. But its impact was felt around the world.
U On the one side were the Allies – Britain, France and Russia (later joined by the US); and on the opposite side were
the Central Powers – Germany, Austria-Hungary and Ottoman Turkey.
U The First World War was the first modern industrial war. It saw the use of machine guns, tanks, aircraft, chemical
weapons, etc. on a massive scale.
U The scale of death and destruction – 9 million dead and 20 million injured – was unthinkable before the industrial age,
without the use of industrial arms.
U The war transformed the US from being an international debtor to an international creditor.
Post-war Recovery
U Post-war economic recovery proved difficult.
U Britain faced a prolonged crisis.
U While Britain was preoccupied with war, industries had developed in India and Japan industries had developed in India
and Japan.
U The war had led to an economic boom, that is, to a large increase in demand, production and employment. When the war
boom ended, production contracted and unemployment increased
Rise of Mass Production and Consumption
U In the US, war recovery was quicker.
U ‘Assembly line’ method introduced by Henry Ford soon spread to the US and were also widely copied in Europe in the
1920s.
U Mass production lowered the costs and prices of engineered goods.
U There was a housing and consumer boom in the 1920s, which ultimately led to the Great Depression of 1929.
U Markets crashed in 1929 and led to the failure of banks and the crisis affected other countries.
U By 1933, over 4000 banks closed and between 1929-32 about 110,000 companies collapsed.
India and the Great Depression
U India was also affected by the Great Depression.
U Indian exports and imports declined extensively, prices fell.
U Bengal jute growers suffered the most.
U Large scale migration took place from villages to towns and cities.

Rebuilding a World Economy: The Post-war Era

U The Second World War broke out two decades after the end of the First World War and once again, it led to destruction.
U Fought between the Axis powers (mainly Nazi Germany, Japan and Italy) and the Allies (Britain, France, the Soviet
Union and the US.
U Once again death and destruction was enormous. At least 60 million people, or about 3 % of the world’s 1939 population,
are believed to have been killed, directly or indirectly, as a result of the war.
U Two crucial influences shaped post-war reconstruction:
 The first was the US’s emergence as the dominant economic, political and military power in the Western world.
 The second was the dominance of the Soviet Union
Post-war Settlement and the Bretton Woods Institutions

The Making of Global World 45

U To ensure a stable economy a framework was agreed upon at the United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference
held at Bretton Woods in New Hampshire, USA.
U It established:
 International Monetary Fund (IMF) to deal with external surpluses and deficits of its member nations
 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (known as the World Bank) was set up to finance post-
war reconstruction.
U The IMF and the World Bank are referred to as the Bretton Woods institutions or Bretton Woods twins.
U The IMF and the World Bank commenced financial operations in 1947.
U Bretton Woods System was based on a fixed exchange rate.
U National currencies were pegged to the American dollar at a fixed rate.
U Decision-making in these institutions is controlled by the Western industrial powers largely by the US.
The Early Post-war Years
U World trade grew annually at over 8 per cent between 1950 and 1970 and incomes at nearly 5 per cent.
U For much of this period the unemployment rate, for example, averaged less than 5 per cent in most industrial countries.
U These decades also saw the worldwide spread of technology and enterprise
Decolonisation and Independence
U After Second World War, Many countries in Asia and Africa became independent nations.
U Group of 77 or G-77 was organised by developing countries to demand a new international economic order (NIEO)
which would give these countries real control over their national resources, raw materials, manufactured goods in their
markets.
U MNCs or multinational companies were established in the 1950s and 1960s and operated in several countries.
End of Bretton Woods and the Beginning of ‘Globalisation’
U From the 1960s the rising costs of its overseas involvements weakened the US’s finances and competitive strength.
U The US dollar now no longer commanded confidence as the world’s principal currency.
U It could not maintain its value in relation to gold.
U This eventually led to the collapse of the system of fixed exchange rates and the introduction of a system of floating
exchange rates.
U The industrial world was also hit by unemployment that began rising from the mid-1970s and remained high until the
early 1990s.
U From the late 1970s MNCs also began to shift production operations to low-wage Asian countries.
U Wages were relatively low in countries like China. Thus they became attractive destinations for investment by foreign
MNCs competing to capture world market.

46 Class-X SOCIAL SCIENCE PW

 4
CHAPTER
The Age of
Industrialisation

Short Notes

BEFORE THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

U Proto-industrialisation → A phase when there was large-scale industrial production for an international market which
was not based on factories.
U Proto-industrial system was part of a network of commercial exchanges.
U In 17th & 18th centuries → merchants from the towns in Europe began moving to the countryside → supplying money
to peasants and artisans → persuading them to produce for an international market
U With the expansion of world trade and the acquisition of colonies in different parts of the world → the demand for goods
increased → but merchants could not expand production within towns → because urban crafts and trade guilds were
powerful.
U The relationship developed between the town and the countryside → Merchants were based in towns but the work was
done mostly in the countryside.
U A merchant clothier in England purchased wool from a wool stapler → and carried it to the spinners the yarn (thread)
that was spun was taken in subsequent stages of production to weavers, fullers, and then to dyers.
U The finishing was done in London before the export merchant sold the cloth in the international market. London in fact
came to be known as a finishing centre.
The Coming Up of the Factory
U By the 1730s → the earliest factories in England came up.
U The first symbol of the new era was cotton → Its production boomed in the late 19th century.
U In 1760 Britain was importing 2.5 million pounds of raw cotton to feed its cotton industry. By 1787 this import soared
to 22 million pounds.
U A series of inventions in the 18th century increased the efficacy of each step of the production process.
U Richard Arkwright created the cotton mill

The Pace of Industrial Change

How rapid was the process of industrialisation?
1. The most dynamic industries in Britain were clearly cotton and metals.
 Cotton was the leading sectors up to the 1840s → after that the iron and steel industry led the way.
 With the expansion of railways → the demand for iron and steel increased rapidly
 By 1873 Britain was exporting iron and steel worth about £ 77 million, double the value of its cotton export
2. The new industries could not easily displace traditional industries.
 At the end of 19th century, less than 20 % of the total workforce was employed in technologically advanced industrial
sector.

The Age of Industrialisation 55

  Textiles was a dynamic sector, but a large portion of the output was produced not within factories, but outside, within
domestic units.
3. The pace of change in the ‘traditional’ industries was not set by steam-powered cotton or metal industries, but they did
not remain entirely stagnant either.
4. Technological changes occurred slowly because:
 The New technology was expensive.
 The machines often broke down and repair was costly.
 They were not as effective as their inventors and manufacturers claimed.

HAND LABOUR AND STEAM POWER

U In Victorian Britain → there was no shortage of human labour → Hence Industrialists did not want to introduce machines
which required large capital investment.
U In many industries the demand for labour was seasonal.
U In Victorian Britain, the upper classes – the aristocrats and the bourgeoisie – preferred things produced by hand →
handmade goods came to symbolize refinement and class
U In countries with labour shortage → industrialists were keen on using mechanical power so that the need for human
labour can be minimised. In 19th -century America. Britain, however, had no problem hiring human hands.
Life of the Workers
U Labours were available in abundance in the market which affected the lives of workers.
U The actual possibility of getting a job depended on existing networks of friendship and kin relations.
U Seasonality of work in many industries meant prolonged periods without work. After the busy season was over, workers
became jobless.
U In the early 19th century → wages increased but the prices rose sharply.
U In periods of economic slump → like the 1830s, the proportion of unemployed went up to anything between 35 % and
75 % in different regions.
U Spinning Jenny – Devised by James Hargreaves in 1764, this machine speeded up the spinning process and reduced
labour demand.
U After the 1840s → building activity intensified in the cities, opening up greater opportunities of employment. Roads
were widened, new railway stations came up, railway lines were extended, tunnels dug, drainage and sewers laid, rivers
embanked.
U The number of workers employed in the transport industry doubled in the 1840s, and doubled again in the subsequent
30 years

INDUSTRIALISATION IN THE COLONIES

The Age of Indian Textiles
U Before the age of machine industries, silk and cotton goods from India dominated the international market in textiles.
U A vibrant sea trade operated through the main pre-colonial ports.
U Surat on the Gujarat coast connected India to the Gulf and Red Sea Ports.
U Masulipatam on the Coromandel Coast and Hooghly in Bengal had trade links with Southeast Asian ports.
U The European companies gradually gained power – first securing a variety of concessions from local courts, then the
monopoly rights to trade.
U This resulted in a decline of the old ports of Surat and Hooghly through which local merchants had operated.
U Exports from these ports fell dramatically, the credit that had financed the earlier trade began drying up, and the local
bankers slowly went bankrupt.

56 Class-X SOCIAL SCIENCE PW

U In the last years of the 17th century, the gross value of trade that passed through Surat had been Rs 16 million. By the
1740s ithad slumped to Rs 3 million
What Happened to Weavers?
U After the East India Company established political power, they tried to eliminate the existing traders and brokers and
establish a more direct control over the weaver.
U It appointed a paid servant called the gomastha to supervise weavers, collect supplies, and examine the quality of cloth.
U Loans were provided for purchasing raw material for production.
U The produced cloth was to be handed over to the gomastha.
U In many weaving villages there were reports of clashes between weavers and gomasthas because:
 The new gomasthas were outsiders, with no long-term social link with the village.
 The price weavers received from the Company was miserably low.
Manchester Comes to India
U As cotton industries developed in England, industrial groups pressurised the government to impose import duties on
cotton textiles so that Manchester goods could sell in Britain without competition.
U Also, they persuaded the East India Company to sell British manufactures in Indian markets as well.
U Thus, cotton weavers in India faced two problems at the same time → Their export market collapsed as market overloaded
with Manchester imports → Availability of lower cost cotton goods produced by machines.
U By the end of the nineteenth century, factories in India began production, flooding the market with machine-made goods
which created a problem of weavers.

FACTORIES COME UP
YEAR FACTORIES
1854 first cotton mill in Bombay
1855 first jute mill in Bengal
By 1862 four cotton mills
1862 another jute mill came up
1860s the Elgin mill was started in Kanpur
1861 the first cotton mill of Ahmadabad was set up
1874 the first spinning and weaving mill of Madras began production
The Early Entrepreneurs
U In Bengal, Dwarkanath Tagore made his fortune in the China trade.
U In Bombay, Parsis like Dinshaw Petit and Jamsetjee Nusserwanjee Tata who built huge industrial empires in India.
U After colonial power came in power, Indian businessmen were barred from trading with Europe in manufactured goods.
Where Did the Workers Come From?
U In 1901, there were 584,000 workers in Indian factories. By 1946 the number was over 2,436, 000.
U In most industrial regions workers came from the districts around.
U Peasants and artisans who found no work in the village went to the industrial centres in search of work.
U Over 50 per cent workers in the Bombay cotton industries in 1911 came from the neighbouring district of Ratnagiri,
while the mills of Kanpur got most of their textile hands from the villages within the district of Kanpur.
U Most often millworkers moved between the village and the city, returning to their village homes during harvests and
festivals.
U Industrialists usually employed a jobber to get new recruits.

The Age of Industrialisation 57

THE PECULIARITIES OF INDUSTRIAL GROWTH
U European Managing Agencies established tea and coffee plantations, acquiring land at cheap rates from the colonial
government.
U By the first decade of the twentieth century, the swadeshi movement promoted Indian industries.
U From 1906, moreover, the export of Indian yarn to China declined since produce from Chinese and Japanese mills
flooded the Chinese market.
U During the First World War, British mills busy with war production to meet the needs of the army, Manchester imports
into India declined.
U After the war, Manchester could never recapture its old position in the Indian market.

Market for Goods

U New consumers are created is through advertisements.
U Advertisements appear in newspapers, magazines, hoardings, street walls, television screens.
U Advertisements → became a vehicle of the nationalist message of Swadeshi.
U Example: Manchester industrialists put labels on the cloth bundles → as a mark of quality. When buyers saw ‘MADE
IN MANCHESTER’ written in bold on the label → they were expected to feel confident about buying the cloth.

Figure: Gripe Water Calender of 1928 by M.V. Figure: An Indian Mill Cloth Label.
Dhurandhar The Goddess is Shown Offering Cloth
Produced in an Ahmedabad Mill, and
The image of baby Krishna was most commonly
asking People to use things Made in
used to popularise baby products India

58 Class-X SOCIAL SCIENCE PW

 Figure: (a) Figure: (b)
Fig (a): Manchester labels, early twentieth century. Images of numerous Indian gods and goddesses – Kartika, Lakshmi,
Saraswati – are shown in imported cloth labels approving the quality of the product being marketed.
Fig (b): Maharaja Ranjit Singh on a Manchester label. Historic figures are used to create respect for the product.

The Age of Industrialisation 59

 5
CHAPTER
Print Culture and the
Modern World

Short Notes

Introduction
U Print has become a very integral part of our modern lives.
U Before the invention of Printing Press → writing of books was purely manual affair.
U Calligraphy (the art of beautiful and stylish writing) → developed as an art during that era
U Hand printing was the initial form of painting → practised in China, Japan and Korea.

The First Printed Books

Print in China
U The earliest print technology was developed in China, Japan and Korea.
U By the 17th century, as urban culture bloomed in China, the uses of print diversified.
U In the late 19th century, western printing techniques and mechanical presses were imported as Western powers established
their outposts in China.
U Shanghai became the hub of the new print culture.
Print in Japan
Around AD 768-770, Buddhist missionaries from China introduced hand-printing technology into Japan.
U The Buddhist Diamond Sutra was the oldest Japanese book which was printed in AD 868.

Print Comes to Europe

U In the 11th century, Chinese paper reached Europe via the silk route.
U In 1295 → Marco Polo, a great explorer, returned to Italy from China and brought printing knowledge back with him.
U Italians began producing books with woodblocks, and soon the technology spread to other parts of Europe.
U As the demand for books increased → booksellers all over Europe began exporting books to many different countries.
U But the production of handwritten manuscripts could not satisfy the ever-increasing demand for books because:
 Copying was an expensive, laborious and time-consuming business.
 Manuscripts were fragile, awkward to handle.
U In the 1430s → Johann Gutenberg invented new printing technology by developing first-known printing press at
Strasbourg, Germany.
Gutenberg and the Printing Press
U Gutenberg learned the art of polishing stones, became a master goldsmith, and also acquired the expertise to create lead
moulds used for making trinkets.
U Based on this knowledge, Gutenberg adapted existing technology to design his innovation.
U By 1448, Gutenberg perfected the system.
U The first book he printed was the Bible.
U With his invention was able to produce 180 copies of the The Reading Mania
Bible in three years. This was a fast production method
U By the end of the 18th century → in some parts of Europe
during those times
literacy rates were as high as 60 to 80 %.
U Between 1450 and 1550, printing presses were set up in
most countries of Europe. U In England → Penny chapbooks were carried by petty
pedlars known as chapmen and sold for a penny.
The Print Revolution and Its Impact
U In France → the ‘Biliotheque Bleue’ - low priced small
A New Reading Public books printed on poor quality paper and bound in cheap
U Access to books created a new culture of reading. blue covers.
U However, the rates of literacy in most European
U The ideas of famous scientists such as Issac Newton or
countries were very low till the twentieth century which
was a major hurdle in spreading of this culture. the thinkers like Thomas Paine, Jean Jacques Rousseau
were now widely printed and read.
U So printers began publishing popular ballads and folk
tales, and such books would be profusely illustrated U Newspapers and journals carried information about
with pictures. wars and trade, as well as news of developments in
Religious Debates and the Fear of Print other places.
U It was feared that if there was no control over what was
printed and read then rebellious and irreligious thoughts Tremble, Therefore, Tyrants of the World!
might spread. U By the mid-18th century, there was a common conviction
U In 1517 → the religious reformer Martin Luther wrote that books were a means of spreading progress and
‘Ninety Five Theses’ criticising many of the practices enlightenment.
and rituals of the Roman Catholic Church.
U People start believing that books can bring a positive
U This led to a division within the Church and to the
change to the world.
beginning of the Protestant Reformation.
U Louise Sebastian Mercier, a novelist in France declared
U Martin Luther’s work spread like a forest fire, leading to
the sale of 5000 copies in the first few weeks. that print is the most powerful engine of progress.
U Luther was thankful to the technique of printing and U Mercier proclaimed: ‘Tremble, therefore, tyrants of the
stated Print as “the ultimate gift of God and the greatest world! Tremble before the virtual writer!’
one”.
Print Culture and the French Revolution
Print and Dissent 1. Print culture created the conditions within which
U The printing of popular religious literature sometimes French Revolution occurred.
led to the distinctive interpretation of religion by the 2. Print popularized the ideas of the Enlightenment
various individuals. thinkers.
U Menocchio → a miller in Italy interpreted the Bible in 3. Print created a new culture of dialogue and debate.
his own way and formulated a view of God and Creation 4. By the 1780s, literature mocked the royalty and
of Roman Catholic Church, which was different from criticized their morality were large in number.
the point of view of the Church.
U Menocchio was dragged up publicly twice and then The Nineteenth Century
executed. This was done to set an example to those who Children, Women and Workers
questioned and criticized the Roman Catholic Church’s
U In 1857, in France, a children’s press, devoted to
ways.
literature for children alone was set up.
U From 1558 → the Church began to maintain Prohibited
U Women became important as readers as well as writers.
Books’ Index to gain control over publishers and
U Penny Magazines were especially meant for women,
booksellers.
manuals teaching proper behaviors and housekeeping.

68 Class-X SOCIAL SCIENCE PW

U In the nineteenth century, lending libraries in England U A Gujrati newspaper was also published named Bombay
became a medium for educating white-collar workers, Samachar.
artisans and lower-middle-class people. U In 1810, the first printed edition of the Ramcharitmanas
Further Innovations of Tulsidas → published in Calcutta.
U By mid 19th Century, Richard M. Hoe perfected the New Forms of Publication
power-driven cylindrical press.
U The novel, a literary firm which had developed in Europe
U In the late 19th century, offset press was developed that soon acquired distinctively Indian forms and styles.
can print up to six colours at a time. U Other new literary forms such as lyrics, short stories,
U By the 20th century, electrically operated presses essays about social and political matters also entered the
accelerated printing operations. world of reading.
U Painters like Raja Ravi Varma produced visual images
India and the World of Print for mass circulation.
Manuscripts before the Age of Print
U Preserving information through manuscripts had been Women and Print
an ancient practice in India. U Liberal husbands and fathers began educating their
U They were written in various languages – Sanskrit, womenfolk at home.
Arabic and Persian, and local languages. U Conservative Hindus believed that a literate girl would
U In India, manuscripts were copied on palm leaves or on be widowed.
handmade paper. U Muslims feared that educated women would be
corrupted by reading Urdu romances.
Print Comes to India U Rashsundari Debi was a young married girl of Bengal
U In the mid-16th century→ the printing press first came who learnt to read in her house. Later she wrote her
to Goa with Portuguese missionaries. autobiography named Amar Jiban → the first full-length
U By 1674 → About 50 books had been printed in Konkani autobiography, published in 1876.
and in Karana languages. U Kailashbashini Debi, a Bengali woman, wrote about
U Cochin, 1579 → Catholic priests printed the first Tamil women’s experiences in her house: about the hard
book labour they were forced to do, treat as inferiority, kept
U In 1713 → Catholic priests printed the first Malayalam
in the confines in the house, and many more.
book U Tarabai Shinde and Pandita Rambai wrote about the
U By 1710 → Dutch Protestant missionaries had printed
miserable lives of upper-caste Hindu women, especially
32 Tamil texts the widows.
U Hindi literature gained popularity from the 1870s.
U From 1780 → James Augustus Hickey began editing
the Bengal Gazette, a weekly magazine. U In Punjab, books were published for women as well.
Ram Chaddha published a book named Istri Dharm
Religious Reform and Public Debates Vichar to teach women to be obedient.
U From the early 19th century → there were intense debates U In Bengal, Battala a central area in Calcutta was popular
around religious issues. for printing popular books. They used to publish cheap
U Different groups offered a variety of new interpretations editions of religious tracts and scriptures.
of the beliefs of different religions.
Print and the Poor People
U In 1821, Rammohun Roy published the Sambad
U In the 19th century, very cheap and small books were
Kaumudi → To counteract his ideas, Hindu orthodoxy
brought to markets.
published Samachar Chandrika.
U From the late 19th century, issues of caste discrimination
U Two Persian newspapers- Jam-i-Jahan Nama and
began to be written about in many printed tracts and
Samshul Akhbar → were published.
essays.

Print Culture and the Modern World 69

U Jyotiba Phule → who is famous as Maratha pioneer of U By the 1930s Bangalore cotton mill workers set up
‘low caste’ protest movement wrote about the bearings libraries to educate themselves following the footsteps
of low caste in his famous book ‘ghulamgiri’ (1871). of Bombay mill workers.
U R. Ambedkar and E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker also wrote
against the caste system, and such were read by a lot Print and Censorship
of people, bringing to light the plights of people which U Before 1798, the colonial state under the East India
were ignored by people through the ages. Company was not much concerned about censorship.
U Mill-workers and labourers also engaged themselves U By 1820s, the Calcutta Supreme Court passed certain
in reading and learning to express their feelings and regulations to control press freedom.
experiences. U After the revolt of 1857, the attitude to freedom of the
U Kashibaba, a Kanpur worker, published Chhote Aur press changed.
Bade ka Sawaal where he defined the difference between U In 1878, the Vernacular Press Act was passed which
upper and lower class people and about exploiting the provided the government with extensive rights to censor
people working in the industries and factories. reports and editorials in the vernacular press.
U A mill worker under the name Sudarshan wrote many U Despite repressive measures, nationalist newspapers
poems. These poems were compiled as a collection and grew in numbers in all parts of India.
published as Sacchi Kavitayan.

70 Class-X SOCIAL SCIENCE PW

 1
CHAPTER
Power-Sharing

Short Notes

Belgium
U A small country in Europe → smaller in area than the state of Haryana.
U Borders with France, Netherlands, Germany & Luxembourg
U Population of little over one crore → about half the population of Haryana
U Complex Ethnic Composition:
 59 % in the Flemish region speaks Dutch;
 40 % in the Wallonia region speak French &
 Remaining 1 % speaks German.
U Capital city Brussels → 80 per cent French & 20 per cent Dutch speaking
U Minority French-speaking community → relatively rich and powerful → led to tensions b/w Dutch and French during
the 1950s and 1960
U Dutch-speaking people → majority in the country, but a minority in the capital → More acute tension between the two
communities

Accommodation in Belgium
U Between 1970 and 1993 they amended constitution 4 times so that everyone could live together within the same country.

Some Elements of The Belgian Model:

U Number of Dutch and French-speaking ministers shall be equal in the central government.
U Many powers of the central government have been given to state governments of the two regions of the
U Country → The state governments are not subordinate to the Central Government.
U Brussels has a separate government in which both the communities have equal representation → The French speaking
people accepted equal representation in Brussels because the Dutch-speaking community has accepted equal representation
in the Central Government.
U Community government is elected by people belonging to one language community → Dutch, French & German speaking
U It had power regarding cultural, educational & language related issues.
U They avoided civil strife between two communities and possible division on linguistic lines.
U When EU was formed, Brussels was chosen as headquarters.
U Leaders realized that unity is possible only by respecting feelings and interests of others.
SRI LANKA:
U An island nation, just a few kilometres off the southern coast of Tamil Nadu.
U Population → about two crore, same as in Haryana
U The Major Social Groups:
 74 percent → the Sinhala-speakers
 18 percent → Tamil-speakers (Hindus or Muslims)
 7 percent → Christians
U 2 Subgroups of Tamils:
 Tamil natives of the country called ‘Sri Lankan Tamils’ (13 per cent).
 The rest, whose forefathers came from India as plantation workers during colonial period, are called ‘Indian Tamils’.

Majoritarianism in Sri Lanka

U Independence in 1948.
U Sinhala community → secure dominance over government by virtue of their majority → the democratically elected
government adopted a series of majoritarian measures to establish Sinhala supremacy.
U 1956 - Sinhalese as official language
U Preferential policies → favoured Sinhala applicants for university positions and government jobs
U Protected Buddhism
U Increased feeling of alienation amongst Srilankan Tamils → felt that constitution denied equal political rights;
discrimination in jobs and ignored interests
U Srilankan Tamils wanted Tamil as an official language → for regional autonomy, equality of opportunity in securing
education and jobs
U In 1980s demand for separate Tamil Eelam (State)-led to Civil war → Killing communities and forcing people as
refugees → it caused setback to economic, health and social life → The civil war ended in 2009.
Why power sharing is desirable?
U First → Prudential reasons → stress that power sharing will bring out better outcomes.
 It helps to reduce the possibility of conflict between social groups.
 Good way to ensure the stability of political order.
U Second → Moral reasons → emphasise the very act of power sharing as valuable.
 Power sharing is the very spirit of democracy.
 People have a right to be consulted on how they are to be governed.
 A legitimate government is one where citizens, through participation, acquire a stake in the system.

Forms of Power Sharing:

U Horizontal distribution of power: Power is shared among different organs of government, such as the legislature,
executive and judiciary → ensure that none of the organs can exercise unlimited power. Each organ checks the others.
This results in a balance of power → Checks & Balances
U Federal Government → Vertical distribution of power
 Power can be shared among governments at different levels – a general government for the entire country and
governments at the provincial or regional level.

4 Class-X SOCIAL SCIENCE PW

  In India - Central or Union Government & State Governments
U Community government → Power sharing among social groups
 Power may also be shared among different social groups such as the religious and linguistic groups.
 ‘Community government’ in Belgium is a good example of this arrangement.

Power Sharing Among Different - Political Parties - Pressure groups - Movement Groups
U Represent different ideologies and social groups
U Power sharing arrangements can also be seen in the way political parties, pressure groups and movements control or
influence those in power.
U Two or more parties form an alliance to contest elections → If their alliance is elected → they form a coalition government.
 Pressure groups:
 Organisations that attempt to influence government policies.
 Do not aim to directly control or share political power.
 These organisations are formed when people with common occupation, interest, aspirations or opinions come
together in order to achieve a common objective.
Example: BAMCEF (Backward and Minority Community Employees Federation) is a Pressure group
 Movement Groups → Groups that aim to achieve a specific goal in a short period of time or a wide goal over a long
period of time.

Power-Sharing 5
 Short Notes

WHAT IS FEDERALISM?
Federalism is a system of government → in which power is divided between a central authority and various constituent
units of the country.

Key Features of Federalism:

z There are 2 or more levels (tiers) of government.
z Different tiers of government govern the same citizens → but each but each tier has its own jurisdiction in specific
matters of legislation, taxation and administration → authority of each tier of government is constitutionally
guaranteed.
z The fundamental provisions of the constitution cannot be unilaterally changed by one level of government.
z Courts have the power to interpret the constitution and the powers of different levels of government → the highest
court acts as an umpire if disputes arise between different levels of government.
z Sources of revenue for each level of government are clearly specified to ensure its financial autonomy.
z The federal system thus has dual objectives → to safeguard and promote unity of the country, while at the same
time accommodate regional diversity.

Kinds of Federations:
z ‘Coming together’ Federations: The independent States coming together on their own to form a bigger unit.
z ‘Holding together’ Federations: A large country decides to divide its power between the constituent States and the
national government.
WHAT MAKES INDIA A FEDERAL COUNTRY?
z Constitution → originally provided for a two-tier system of government:

1.Central Government → the Union of India

2.The State governments
z Later, the third tier of federalism was added in the form of Panchayats and Municipalities.

z The Constitution divides powers between the Union Government and the State Governments within three lists:

 Union List → subjects of national importance.

 State List → subjects of State and local importance.
 Concurrent List → subjects of common interest to both the Union Government as well as the State Governments,
such as education, forest, trade unions, marriage, adoption and succession.
 Residuary subjects → which are not mentioned in any of the three lists or any other matter that arise with passage of
time → Union Parliament has power to legislate on matters related to residuary list.

Features of Indian Federation

z All states of India do not have equal powers.
z The Parliament cannot on its own change power sharing. These changes need the approval of both the Houses of
Parliament with at least two-thirds majority.
z The judiciary oversee the implementation of constitutional provisions and procedures.
HOW IS FEDERALISM PRACTISED?

Power-Sharing 13
Linguistic States:
1947 → the boundaries of several old States of India were changed in order to create new States:
z On the basis of language

z On the basis of culture

Language Policy:
z Our Constitution → has not made any language the national language of India.
z Hindi → was identified as the official language.
z Besides Hindi → there are 21 other languages recognised as scheduled languages by the Constitution.
z States too have their own official languages.
z English along with Hindi used for official purposes.

Centre-State relations:
z The sharing of powers between Centre and States → has also strengthened federalism in India.
z After 1990 → many regional political parties rise in many States of the country which started an era of ‘coalition
governments’ at the Centre which make it difficult for the Central Government to dismiss state governments in
non-democratic manner.

DECENTRALISATION IN INDIA
z When power is taken away from Central and State governments and given to local government → it is called
decentralisation.
z Before 1992, the local bodies were directly under the state governments.
 Regular elections were not held.
 The local bodies did not have any resources or powers of their own.
z After 1992, the Constitution was amended to make the third-tier of democracy more powerful and effective. The
steps taken are:
 Mandatory to hold regular elections to local government bodies.
 Seats are reserved for the Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Other Backward Classes.
 At least one-third of all positions are reserved for women.
 An independent institution called the State Election Commission has been created in each State.
 The State governments are required to share some powers and revenue with local government bodies.

Rural Local Government:

z Popularly known as Panchayati raj
 Gram Panchayat → It is the decision-making body for the entire village.
 Panchayat Samiti → A few gram Panchayats are grouped together to form what is usually called a Panchayat samiti
or Block or Mandal.
 Zilla Parishad → All the Panchayat samitis or Mandals in a district together form the Zilla parishad.

Urban Local Government:

 In larger urban areas → Municipal Corporations
 In smaller urban areas → Municipal Council

14 Class-X SOCIAL SCIENCE PW

 3
CHAPTER
Gender Religion
and Caste

Short Notes

GENDER AND POLITICS

Gender Division
z A form of hierarchical social division seen everywhere, but is rarely recognised in the study of politics. The gender
division tends to be understood as natural and unchangeable.
z This belief is not based on biology but on social and expectations and stereotypes.

Public/private division
z Boys and girls are brought up to believe that the main responsibility of women is housework and bringing up
children.
z Sexual division of labour: women do all work inside the home such as cooking, cleaning, washing clothes,
tailoring, looking after children, etc., and men do all the work outside the home.
z Although women constitute half of the humanity, their role in public life, especially politics, is minimal in most
societies.
z Earlier, only men were allowed to participate in public affairs, vote and contest for public offices. Gradually the
gender issue was raised in politics.
z Women in different parts of the world organised and agitated for equal right

z There were agitations demanded enhancing the political and legal status of women and improving their educational
and career opportunities.
z More radical women’s movements aimed at equality in personal and family life as well → These movements are
called feminist movements.
z Political expression of gender division and political mobilisation → helped to improve women’s role in public life.

z In some parts of the world, for example in Scandinavian countries, such as Sweden, Norway and Finland → the
participation of women in public life is very high.
z In our country, women still lag much behind men despite some improvement since Independence. Ours is still a
male-dominated → patriarchal society.
z The literacy rate among women is only 54 per cent compared with 76 per cent among men.
z The Equal Remuneration Act, 1976 provides that equal wages should be paid to equal work.
z In many parts of India, parents prefer to have sons and find ways to have the girl child aborted before she is born.
Such sex-selective abortion led to a decline in child sex ratio (number of girl children per thousand boys) in the
country to merely 919. ratio has fallen below 850 or even 800 in some States.
z There are reports of various kinds of harassment, exploitation and violence against women. Urban areas have
become particularly unsafe for women.

22 Class-X SOCIAL SCIENCE PW

WOMEN’S POLITICAL REPRESENTATION
Women’s Oppression in various ways
z Literacy Rate: As of recent data, the literacy rate among women is only 65.46% compared with 82.14% among
men.
z Jobs: There is very low percentage of women in the high paid and high value jobs as just a few girls are encouraged
to take up higher education.
z Wages: Despite the Equal Wages Act, women in all areas are paid lesser than men, be it sports, cinema, agriculture
or construction works.
z Sex Ratio: Most parents prefer boy children to girl children. Female infanticide and feticide are common in our
country. This has resulted in unfavourable sex ratio.
z Social Evil: Society in general and urban centres in particular, is not safe for women. Dowry harassment, physical
abuse, sexual harassment are routine tales.
Women’s political representation
z Political representation of women in India is very low.

z For example, the percentage of elected women members in Lok Sabha has touched 14.36 per cent of its total
strength for the first time in 2019.
z Their share in the state assemblies is less than 5 per cent.
z India is behind the averages for several developing countries of Africa and Latin America.
z One way to solve this problem → 1/3rd of seats in local government bodies – in Panchayats and Municipalities –
are now reserved for women. Now there are more than 10 lakh elected women representatives in rural and urban
local bodies

RELIGION, COMMUNALISM AND POLITICS

Religious Differences in Politics
z Gandhiji said → Religion can never be separated from politics. Religion was not any particular religion like
Hinduism or Islam but moral values. He believed that politics must be guided by ethics drawn from religion.
z Human rights groups in our country have argued that most of the victims of communal riots in our country are
people from religious minorities. They have demanded that the government take special steps to protect religious
minorities.
z Women’s movement has argued that family laws of all religions discriminate against women. So they have
demanded that government should change these laws to make them more equitable
Communalism
z Extreme and partisan attachment to one’s own religion is called Communalism.

z Communal politics is based on the idea that religion is the principal basis of social community.
z Communalism involves thinking → The followers of a particular religion must belong to one community.
Communalism can take various forms in politics:
z The most common expression of communalism is in everyday beliefs → These involve religious prejudices,
stereotypes of religious communities and belief in the superiority of one’s religion over other religions.
z A communal mind often leads to a quest for political dominance of one’s own religious community.
z Political mobilisation on religious lines is another frequent form of communalism. → This involves the use of
sacred symbols, religious leaders, emotional appeal and plain fear in order to bring the followers of one religion
together in the political arena.
z In electoral politics, this often involves special appeal to the interests or emotions of voters of one religion in
preference to others.

Gender Religion and Caste 23

 z Sometimes communalism takes its most ugly form of communal violence, riots and massacre. → India and Pakistan
suffered some of the worst communal riots at the time of the Partition
Secular state
The makers of our Constitution chose the model of a secular state. This choice was reflected in several constitutional
provisions:
z There is no official religion for the Indian state. Unlike the status of Buddhism in Sri Lanka, that of Islam in
Pakistan and that of Christianity in England, our Constitution does not give a special status to any religion.
z The Constitution provides to all individuals and communities freedom to profess, practice and propagate any
religion, or not to follow any.
z The Constitution prohibits discrimination on grounds of religion.
z At the same time, the Constitution allows the state to intervene in the matters of religion in order to ensure equality
within religious communities. For example, it bans untouchability.

CASTE AND POLITICS

Caste Inequalities
z Caste division is special to India. All societies have some kind of social inequality and some form of division of
labour.
z In most societies, occupations are passed on from one generation to another.
z Members of the same caste group were supposed to form a social community that practiced the same or similar
occupation, married within the caste group and did not eat with members from other caste groups.
z Caste system was based on exclusion of and discrimination against the ‘outcaste’ groups.
z Due to efforts of political leaders and social reformers like Jotiba Phule, Gandhiji, B.R. Ambedkar and Periyar
Ramaswami Naicker and partly due to other socio-economic changes → castes and caste system in modern India
have undergone great changes.
z With economic development, large scale urbanisation, growth of literacy and education, occupational mobility and
the weakening of the position of landlords in the villages, the old notions of caste hierarchy are breaking down.
Caste in politics
z Casteism is rooted in the belief that caste is the sole basis of social community.

z Caste can take various forms in politics:

 When parties choose candidates in elections → they keep in mind the caste composition of the electorate and
nominate candidates from different castes so as to muster necessary support to win elections.
 Political parties and candidates in elections make appeals to caste sentiment to muster support.
 Universal adult franchise and the principle of one-person-one-vote compelled political leaders to gear up to the task
of mobilising and securing political support.
The focus on caste in politics can sometimes give an impression that elections are all about caste and nothing else. That
is far from true. Just consider these:
z No parliamentary constituency in the country has a clear majority of one single caste. So, every candidate and party
needs to win the confidence of more than one caste and community to win elections.
z No party wins the votes of all the voters of a caste or community. When people say that a caste is a ‘vote bank’ of
one party, it usually means that a large proportion of the voters from that caste vote for that party.
z Many political parties may put up candidates from the same caste. Some voters have more than one candidate from
their caste while many voters have no candidate from their caste.
z The ruling party and the sitting MP or MLA frequently lose elections in our country. That could not have happened
if all castes and communities were frozen in their political preferences.

24 Class-X SOCIAL SCIENCE PW

Politics in caste
It is not politics that gets caste-ridden; it is the caste that gets politicised. This takes several forms:
z Each caste group tries to become bigger by incorporating within it neighbouring castes or sub-castes which were
earlier excluded from it.
z Various caste groups are required to enter into a coalition with other castes or communities and thus enter into a
dialogue and negotiation.
z New kinds of caste groups have come up in the political arena like ‘backward’ and ‘forward’ caste groups.
Positives
Thus, caste plays different kinds of roles in politics. In some situations, expression of caste differences in politics gives
many disadvantaged communities the space to demand their share of power. In this sense, caste politics has helped people
from Dalits and OBC castes to gain better access to decision making.
Negatives
At the same time, exclusive attention to caste can produce negative results as well. As in the case of religion, politics
based on caste identity alone is not very healthy in a democracy. It can divert attention from other pressing issues like
poverty, development and corruption. In some cases, caste division leads to tensions, conflict and even violence.

Previous Year Questions

2. Which one of the following laws was enacted by the

Multiple Choice Type Questions Government of India in October 2005?[CBSE 2014]
(a) The Right to Property Act
1. Two statements are given below as Assertion (A) (b) The Right to Education Act
and Reason (R). Read the statements and choose the
(c) The Consumer Protection Act
appropriate option.
(d) The Right to Information Act
Assertion (A): Women in different parts of the world
3. Which one of the following matters do not deal with
organised themselves and agitated for equal rights.
the ‘Family Laws?” [CBSE 2023]
Reason (R): Women’s movement aimed at equality in (a) Marriage (b) Adoption
personal and family life as well. (c) Inheritance (d) Finance
 [CBSE 2023]
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct
Very Short Type Questions
explanation of (A).
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not the correct 4. “Women face discrimination in various ways in our
explanation of (A). society.” Explain any two ways. [CBSE 2023]
(c) (A) is true but (R) is false. 5. How has caste system in modern India undergone
(d) (A) is false, but (R) is true. great change? Explain. [CBSE 2023]

Gender Religion and Caste 25

 4
CHAPTER
Political Parties

Short Notes

WHY DO WE NEED POLITICAL PARTIES?

z Political parties are easily one of the most visible institutions in a democracy. For most ordinary citizens →
democracy is equal to political parties.

Meaning of Political Parties

z A political party is a group of people who come together to contest elections and hold power in the government.
z They agree on some policies and programmes for the society with a view to promote the collective good.
z They agree on some policies and programs for the society with a view to promoting the collective good.
z PARTISANSHIP:- Parties reflect fundamental political divisions in a society. Parties are a part of the society and
thus involve partisanship. Thus, a party is known by which part it stands for, which policies it supports and whose
interests it upholds.
z A political party has three components: The leaders, The active members and The followers

Functions
z Parties contest elections. In India, top party leaders choose candidates for contesting elections.
z Parties put forward different policies and programmes and the voters choose from them.
z Parties play a decisive role in making laws for a country who debate and get the bills passed through the
legislature to make the laws.
z Parties form and run governments. Parties recruit leaders, train them and then make them ministers to run the
government in the way they want.
z Those parties that lose in the elections play the role of opposition to the parties in power, by voicing different
views and criticising government for its failures or wrong policies.
z Parties shape public opinion. They raise and highlight issues.
z Parties provide people access to government machinery and welfare schemes implemented by governments

Necessity
z They help in representing different views on various issues to the government.
z They bring various representatives together so that a responsible government could be formed.
z They work as a mechanism to support or restrain the government, make policies, justify or oppose them.
z Political parties fulfil the needs that every representative government has.
HOW MANY PARTIES SHOULD WE HAVE?
z In a democracy, any group of citizens is free to form the political party.
z More than 750 parties are registered with the Election Commission of India.
 z In some countries, only one party is allowed to control and run the government. These are called one-party system.
e.g. – China
z We cannot consider one party system as a good option because this is not a democratic option.
z In some countries:- Power usually changes between the two main parties. Such a party system is called a two-party
system. e.g.: The USA and the UK.
z When more than two parties are allowed to come in power on their strength or in an alliance with other parties, it
is called The Multi-Party System. Ex- India.
z When several parties in a multi-party system join hands for the purpose of contesting elections and winning power,
it is called an alliance or a front. e.g-, in India, 3 major alliances in 2004 parliamentary elections– the National
Democratic Alliance, the United Progressive Alliance and the Left Front.
z No system is ideal for all countries and all situations. Therefore, a Party System has to be chosen as per own needs
and circumstances.
NATIONAL PARTIES
z A party that secures at least 6 per cent of the total votes in Lok Sabha elections or Assembly Elections in four States
and wins at least four seats in the Lok Sabha, is recognised as a ‘National party’.
z According to this classification, there were seven recognised national parties in the country in 2019
All India Trinamool Congress (AITC)
z Launched on 1 January 1998 under the leadership of Mamata Banerjee. Received recognition as a national party
in 2016.
z The party’s symbol is flowers and grass. Committed to secularism and federalism.
z Has been in power in West Bengal since 2011 and has a presence in Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur and Tripura.
z In the General Elections held in 2019, it got 4.07 per cent Votes and won 22 seats, making it the Fourth largest
party in the Lok Sabha.
Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP)
z Formed in 1984 under the leadership of Kanshi Ram.
z Seeks to represent and secure power for the Bahujan samaj which includes the Dalits, Adivasis, OBCs and religious
minorities.
z Stands for the cause of securing the interests and welfare of the Dalits and oppressed people.
z Main Base in Uttar Pradesh’s state and substantial presence in neighbouring states like Madhya Pradesh,
Chhattisgarh, Uttarakhand, Delhi and Punjab.
Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP)
z Founded in 1980 by reviving the erstwhile Bharatiya Jana Sangh, formed by Syama Prasad Mukherjee in 1951.
z Follow the footsteps of Deendayal Upadhyaya and his ideas of integral humanism and Antyodaya.
z Cultural nationalism (or ‘Hindutva’) is an important element in its conception of Indian nationhood and politics.
z Earlier limited to north and west and to urban areas, the party expanded its support in the south, east, the north-east
and to rural areas.
z Came to power in 1998 as the National Democratic Alliance (NDA) including several regional parties.
z Came as the largest Party with 303 members in the 2019 Lok Sabha elections.
z Currently acting as the ruling Party, i.e., NDA government at the Centre.
Communist Party of India (CPI)
z Formed in 1925. Believes in Marxism-Leninism, secularism and democracy.

z They are opposing the forces of secessionism and communalism.

Political Parties 35
 z Accepts parliamentary democracy as a means of promoting the interests of the working class, farmers and the poor.
z Significant presence in the states of Kerala, West Bengal, Punjab, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
z Its support base had gradually declined over the years. It secured less than 1 per cent votes and 2 Seats in the 2019
Lok Sabha elections.
Communist Party of India – Marxist (CPI-M)
z Founded in 1964. Believes in Marxism-Leninism. Supports socialism, secularism and democracy and opposes
imperialism and communalism.
z Accepts democratic elections as a useful and helpful means for securing the objective of socio-economic justice
in India.
z Enjoys strong support in West Bengal, Kerala and Tripura, especially Among the poor, factory workers, farmers,
Agricultural labourers and the intelligentsia.
z The party was in power in West Bengal without a break for 34 years.
z In the 2019 Lok Sabha elections, it won about 1.75 per cent of votes and 3 seats
Indian National Congress (INC)
z Popularly known as the Congress Party. One of the oldest parties of the world. Founded in 1885 and has experienced
many splits.
z Under the leadership of Jawaharlal Nehru, the party sought to build a modern secular democratic republic in India.
z The ruling party at the centre till 1977 and then from 1980 to 1989. After 1989, its support declined, but it continues
to be present throughout the country.
z A centrist Party (neither rightist nor leftist) the party’s main idea is to promote secularism and welfare of weaker
sections and minorities.
z Leader of the United Progressive Alliance (UPA) government from 2004 to 2019. In the 2019 Lok Sabha election
it won 19.5% votes and 52 seats.
Nationalist Congress Party (NCP)
z Formed in 1999 following a split in the Congress party.
z Supports democracy, Gandhian secularism, equity, social justice and federalism.
z A major party in Maharashtra and has a significant presence in Meghalaya, Manipur and Assam.
z A coalition partner in the state of Maharashtra in alliance with the Congress. Since 2004, a member of the United
Progressive Alliance.
z In 2019 Lok Sabha election it won 1.4% votes and 5 seats.

STATE PARTIES
z The Election Commission has classified some of the major parties of the country as “State parties”.
z Over the last three decades, the Number and strength of these parties has Expanded.
z Since 1996, nearly every one Of the State parties has got an Opportunity to be a part of one or the other national
level coalition government.
Challenges to Political Parties
z Lack of internal democracy within parties:- Parties do not keep membership registers, do not hold organisational
meetings, and do not conduct internal elections regularly.
z Dynastic succession:- most political parties do not practice open and transparent procedures for their functioning,
in many parties, the top positions are always controlled by members of one family.

36 Class-X SOCIAL SCIENCE PW

 z Growing role of money and muscle power in parties, especially during elections. Since parties are focused only
on winning elections, they tend to use short-cuts to win elections. In some cases, parties support criminals who
can win elections.
z People do not find parties to be a meaningful choice for their votes. Sometimes people cannot even elect very
different leaders either, because the same set of leaders keep shifting from one party to another.

CHALLENGES TO POLITICAL PARTIES

1. The first challenge is lack of internal democracy within parties. All over the world there is a tendency in political parties
towards the concentration of power in one or few leaders at the top. Parties do not keep membership registers, do not
hold organisational meetings, and do not conduct internal elections regularly
2. The second challenge of dynastic succession is related to the first one. Since most political parties do not practice open
and transparent procedures for their functioning, there are very few ways for an ordinary worker to rise to the top in a
party. Those who happen to be the leaders are in a position of unfair advantage to favour people close to them or even
their family members.
3. The third challenge is about the growing role of money and muscle power in parties, especially during elections.
4. The fourth challenge is that very often parties do not seem to offer a meaningful choice to the voters. In order to offer
meaningful choice, parties must be significantly different. In recent years, there has been a decline in the ideological
differences among parties in most parts of the world. For example, the difference between the Labour Party and the
Conservative Party in Britain is very little. They agree on more fundamental aspects but differ only in details on how
policies are to be framed and implemented.
HOW CAN PARTIES BE REFORMED?
z In a democracy final decision is made by political leaders who represent their Political Parties. People can replace
them only using elections with another set of political leaders.
z The Constitution was amended to prevent elected MLAs and MPs from changing parties. This was done because
many elected representatives were indulging in Defection
z Defection: Changing Party allegiance from The party on which a Person got elected (to a Legislative body) to a
Different party
z The Supreme Court passed an order to reduce the influence of money and criminals. It is mandatory for every
candidate who contests elections to file an Affidavit giving details of his property and criminal cases pending
against him.
z The Election Commission passed an order making it necessary for political parties to hold their organisational
elections and file their income tax returns.
Other suggestions to reform political parties
z A law should be made to regulate the internal affairs of political parties, Open Elections to higher Posts in Political
Parties.
z It should be made mandatory for political parties to give a minimum number of tickets, about one-third, to women
candidates.
z There should be state funding of elections. The government should give parties money to support their election
expenses like paper, petrol, vehicles, telephone, etc.
There are also two other ways to reform such political parties:
z People can put pressure on political parties by way of filing petitions, publicity and agitations.
z Political parties can improve if the quality of democracy depends on the degree of public participation. It is difficult
to reform politics if ordinary citizens do not take part in it.

Political Parties 37
 5
CHAPTER
Outcomes of Democracy

Short Notes

HOW DO WE ASSESS DEMOCRACY’S OUTCOMES?

Democracy is considered a better form of government when compared with dictatorship or any other alternate form of
government because:
U Promotes equality amongst citizens.
U Enhances the dignity of the individual.
U Improves the quality of decision making.
U Provides a method to resolve conflicts.
U Allows room to correct mistakes.

Dilemma of Democracy
U Democracy is seen to be good in principle but felt to be not so good in its practice. This dilemma invites us to think
about the outcomes of democracy.
U Our interest in & fascination for democracy often pushes us into taking a Position that democracy can address all socio-
economic and political problems. If some of our expectations are not met, we start blaming the idea of democracy.
U The first step towards thinking carefully about the outcomes of democracy is to recognize that democracy is just a form
of government.
U It can only create conditions for achieving something. The citizens have to take advantage of those conditions and
achieve those goals.

ACCOUNTABLE, RESPONSIVE AND LEGITIMATE GOVERNMENT

U People should have the right to choose their rulers as well as control them.
U People should be involved in decision making wherever possible.
U Therefore, the most basic outcome of democracy should be that → it produces a government that is accountable to the
citizens, and responsive to the needs and expectations of the citizens
U Democracy is based on the idea of deliberation and negotiation.
U A democratic government will take more time to follow procedures before arriving at a decision. But because it has
followed procedures, its decisions may be both more acceptable to the people and more effective.
U Democracy ensures that decision-making will be based on norms and procedures. The right and the means to examine
the process of decision-making known as transparency.
U Democracy must be a government that is attentive to the needs and demands of the people and is largely free of
corruption. However, it does not fair very well on these two fronts.

46 Class-X SOCIAL SCIENCE PW

U A democratic government is the people’s own government. People wish to be ruled by representatives elected by them.

ECONOMIC GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

U Economic development depends on several factors → the country’s population size, global situation, cooperation from
other countries, economic priorities adopted by the country, etc.
U If we compare all democracies and all dictatorships between 1950 and 2000, dictatorships have slightly higher rate of
economic growth.
U But, the difference in the rates of economic development between less developed countries with dictatorships and
democracies is negligible.
U Democracy is not a guarantee of economic development. But we can expect democracy not to lag behind dictatorship
on this front.
U There can be a very high degree of economic inequalities within democracies but it is better to prefer democracy as it
has several other positive outcomes.

REDUCTION OF INEQUALITY AND POVERTY

U Democratic governments shouldn’t focus on growing economically but on reducing economic disparities that exist
between rich and poor.
U Democracies are based on Political equality. Every citizen has an equal right to elect their representatives.
U It is seen that ultra-rich people enjoy a highly disproportionate share of wealth and income. And on the other side, Poor
have struggles even to meet their necessities of life, such as food, clothing, shelter, etc.
U In actual life, democracies do not appear to be very successful in reducing economic inequalities. Democracies like India
and Bangladesh are examples of glaring inequality.

ACCOMMODATION OF SOCIAL DIVERSITY

U It’s fairly expected that Democracy would lead to a harmonious social life.
U No society can fully and permanently resolve conflicts among different groups. However, we can learn to respect these
differences.
U Democracy is best suited to produce this outcome. Ability to handle social differences, divisions and conflicts is a plus
point of democratic regimes.
U For Example, Belgium’s Democratic government has successfully negotiated differences amongst ethnic populations.
U But the example of Sri Lanka Reminds us that a democracy must fulfil few conditions in order to achieve this Outcome
U The majority and minority, both should work together. Opinions of both must be respected for the smooth functioning
of the government.
U It is also necessary that rule by the majority does not become rule by majority community in terms of religion or race
or linguistic groups.
U If someone is barred from being in majority on the basis of birth, then the democratic rule ceases to be accommodative
for that person or group.

DIGNITY AND FREEDOM OF THE CITIZENS

U Democracy stands much superior to any other form of government in promoting dignity and freedom of the individual.
U The passion for respect and freedom are the basis of democracy. This has been achieved in various degrees in various
democracies.
U Most societies across the world were historically male dominated societies.
U Long struggles by women have created some sensitivity today that respect to and equal treatment of women are necessary
ingredients of a democratic society.

Outcomes of Democracy 47
U Democracy in India has strengthened the claims of the disadvantaged and discriminated castes for equal status and equal
opportunity.
U Expectations from democracy also function as the criteria for judging and democratic country.
U As people get some benefits of democracy, they ask for more and want to make democracy even better.
U Most individuals today believe that their vote makes a difference to the way the government is run and to their own
self-interest.

Previous Year Questions

(c) Autocracy
Multiple Choice Type Questions
(d) Aristocracy
1. Read the following statements regarding democracy 5. Which one of the following is a foundational challenge
and choose the correct option. [CBSE 2024] of democracy? [CBSE Foreign 2017]
(i) Promotes equality among citizens (a) Empowering women
(ii) Government by few individuals (b) Keeping military away from controlling government
(iii) Protection of human rights (c) Ensuring greater power to local governments
(iv) Ensures checks and balance system (d) Empowering minority groups
Options: 6. Which one of the following is an example of outcomes
(a) (i), (ii) and (iii) (b) (ii) (iii) and (iv) of a democracy that produces an accountable
government? [CBSE Delhi 2014]
(c) (i), (iii) and (iv) (d) (i), (ii) and (iv)
(a) Open to public debates on major policies and
2. Which one of the following is the most popular form legislation
of government in the contemporary world? (b) Open in promoting economic development
 [CBSE 2023, Al 2014] (c) Open in reducing economic inequalities
(a) Dictatorial Government (d) Open to rulers elected by the people
(b) Constitutional Monarchy
(c) Military Government Very Short Type Questions
(d) Democratic Government
7. “Democracies are based on political equality.”
3. Which type of government is likely to be more Examine the statement.[CBSE Term-II, 2021-22 C]
acceptable to the people in the world? [CBSE 2023]
8. Mention the two conditions that democracy must
(a) Democratic fulfill in order to achieve a harmonious social life.
(b) Military  [CBSE 2021-22]
(c) Dictatorship 9. Explain the meaning of democracy. [CBSE 2017]
(d) Theocratic 10. Explain the meaning of ‘sectional interest group.
 [CBSE Foreign 2017]
4. Which one of the following types of government
promotes equality among citizens? [CBSE 2021C] 11. What is meant by economic inequality? [CBSE 2016]
(a) Democracy 12. In which area does democracy fail to achieve the same
(b) Dictatorship results as in dictatorship? [CBSE 2016]
13. Name any two sectional interest groups. [CBSE 2016]

48 Class-X SOCIAL SCIENCE PW