Functions 1

“The word function (or its Latin equivalent) seems

to have been introduced into mathematics by Leibnitz
in 1694. The concept now dominates much of
mathematics and is indispensable in sciences”
− E.T. Bell

Introduction

All the scientists use mathematics essentially to study

relationships. Physicists, Chemists, Engineers, Biologists and
Social Scientists, all seek to discern connection among the
various elements of their chosen fields and so to arrive at a
clear understanding of why these elements behave the way
they do. A function is a special case of a relation.
Dirichlet
The famous mathematician Lejeune Dirichlet (1805 - (1805 - 1859 )
1859) defined a function as follows. A variable is a symbol Johann Peter Gustav Lejeune
which represents any one of a set of numbers; if two variables Dirichlet was a German
x and y are so related that whenever a value is assigned to x mathematician credited with the
there is automatically assigned, by some rule or modern “formal” definition of
correspondence, a value to y, then we say y is a (single a function. He was a student of
valued) function of x, the permissible values that x may Gauss. After Gauss’s death in
assume constitute the domain of definition of the function, 1855, he was appointed as
and the values taken on by y constitute the range of values Gauss’s successor at Gottingen.
of the function.
 2 Mathematics - IA

The above definition is a very broad one and does not imply anything regarding
the possibility of expressing the relationship between x and y by some kind of analytic expression. It
stresses the basic idea of a relationship between two sets. Set theory has naturally extended the concept of
function to embrace relationships between any two sets of elements.
In this chapter we focus our attention on a special type of relation, a function,
that plays an important role in mathematics and its many applications. Here we study its basic properties and
then discuss several special types of functions. In order to have various important applications of functions
later, it is essential to get a good grasp of the concepts in this chapter.

1.0 Ordered pairs

Let A and B be sets. If a ∈ A and b ∈ B then (a, b) is an ordered pair. ‘a’ is called the first
component (coordinate) and ‘b’ is called the second component (coordinate) of the ordered pair (a, b).
For example, the coordinates of a point in a plane are ordered pairs of real numbers. If (a1 , b1 ) and (a2 , b2 )
are ordered pairs, then
( a1 , b1 ) = ( a2 , b2 ) ⇔ a1 = a2 and b1 = b2 .
1.0.1 Definition (Cartesian product)
Let A and B be two sets. Then {( a, b)| a ∈ A, b ∈ B} is called the Cartesian product of
A and B, and is denoted by A × B (to be read as A cross B).

1.0.2 Examples
If A = {1, 2, 3} , B = {x, y} then
A×B = {(1, x), (1, y), (2, x), (2, y), (3, x), (3, y)}
B× A = {(x, 1), (x, 2), (x, 3), (y, 1), (y, 2), (y, 3)}
A×A = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 3)}
B× B = {(x, x), (x, y), (y, x), (y, y)}
1.0.3 Note
1. If A and B are distinct non-empty sets then A× B ≠ B× A .
2. If one of the sets A and B is empty, then A× B is also empty.
3. Some particular notations
¡ or R : set of all real numbers
R+ : set of all positive real numbers : {x| x ∈ R , x > 0}
Q : set of all rational numbers
Q+ : set of all positive rational numbers
N : set of all natural numbers
Z : set of all integers
 Functions 3

If a, b ∈ R , a < b then
(a, b) = {x ∈ R | a < x < b}
(a, b] = {x ∈ R | a < x ≤ b}
[a, b) = {x ∈ R | a ≤ x < b}
[a, b] = {x ∈ R | a ≤ x ≤ b}
[a, ∞ ) = {x ∈ R | a ≤ x}
(a, ∞ ) = {x ∈ R | a < x}
(− ∞ , a) = {x ∈ R | x < a}
(− ∞ , a] = {x ∈ R | x ≤ a}

1.0.4 Definition (Relation)

If A and B are non-empty sets, then any subset of A × B is called a relation from A
to B. In particular, any relation from A to A is called a binary relation on A.

1.0.5 Examples
If A = {1, 2, 3} , B = {α , β } then

A×B = {(1, α ) , (1, β ) , (2, α ) , (2, β ) , (3, α ) , (3, β ) }

(i) f = {(1, α ) , (2, β ) , (3, α )} is a relation from A to B.
(ii) g = {(1, α ) , (1, β )} is a relation from A to B.
In fact we can define 26 = 64 relations from A to B because the number of elements in A × B is
6 hence there are 26 subsets of A × B.

1.1 Types of Functions - Definitions

1.1.1Definition (Function)
Let A and B be non-empty sets and f be a relation from A to B. If for each element
a ∈ A , there exists a unique b ∈ B such that ( a, b ) ∈ f , then f is called a function (or
mapping) from A to B (or A into B). It is denoted by f : A → B . The set A is called the
domain of f and B is called the co-domain of f.

A function f can also be seen in the following way, which takes an input x and returns an output
f (x).
 4 Mathematics - IA

↓ x

↓
f (x)
For example, if f : A → B is a function defined as f(x) = x + 1 and A = {1, 2, 3}, then
f (A) = {2, 3, 4}.
↓ x∈A

f (x) = x + 1

↓
f(A)

1.1.2 Note
A relation f from A to B (i.e. f ⊆ A × B) is a function from A to B if for each a ∈ A , there
exists exactly one b ∈ B such that (a, b) ∈ f and this 'b' will be denoted by f ( a ) . In other words, for each
a ∈ A , there exists a unique element f (a ) ∈ B such that ( a, f (a) ) ∈ f .

1.1.3 Definition (Image, Pre-Image)

If f : A → B is a function and if f ( a ) = b , then ' b ' is called the image of ' a ' under f or
the f-image of a. The element ' a ' is called a pre-image or an inverse image of b under f and
is denoted by f −1(b) . More generally if E ⊆ B, f −1(E) = {x| x ∈ A, f (x) ∈ E} is called the
inverse image of E under f. Then f −1(b) = f −1({b}) if b ∈ B.

1.1.4 Examples
1. Example: The relation f = {( x, x 2 + 1) | x ∈ R} is a function from R to R+, since every x ∈ R has
association with unique element x 2 + 1 in R+. The function f : R → R+ is given by f ( x ) = x 2 + 1 .
Observe that f (1) = 2 and f ( −1) = 2 . Note that the numbers less than 1 have no pre-image under f.

 1 
2. Example: The relation f = ( x, ) | 0 ≠ x ∈ R  is not a function from R to R since there is no b in
 x 
R such that (0, b ) ∈ f . But f (x ) = is a function from R {0} → R since every x ∈ R {0} has
1
x
association with a unique element in R .
 Functions 5

1.1.5 Definition ( Range )

If f : A → B is a function, then f(A), the set of all f - images of elements in A, is called the
range of f . Clearly f ( A ) = { f ( a ) | a ∈ A} ⊆ B.
Also f (A) = {b ∈ B | b = f (a) for some a ∈ A} .

1.1.6 Examples

1. Example: Let f : N → N be defined by f ( n) = 2n .

Then the range of f = f (N) = {2n | n ∈ N} = set of all even natural numbers.

2. Example: Let f : R → R be defined by f ( x) = x 2 .

Then the range of f = f ( R ) = {x 2 | x ∈ R} = [0, ∞ ) 3 x 2 ≥ 0 for all x ∈ R  .

1.1.7 Definition (Injection or one - one function)

A function f : A → B is called an injection if distinct elements of A have distinct
f - images in B. An injection is also called a one-one function.

f : A → B is an injection ⇔ a1 , a2 ∈ A and a1 ≠ a2 implies that f (a1 ) ≠ f (a2 )

⇔ a1 , a2 ∈ A and f (a1 ) = f (a2 ) implies that a1 = a2

1.1.8 Examples
1. Example

Let A = {a, b, c, d } and B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

(i) If f = {(a, 3) , (b, 5) , (c, 1) , (d , 4)} then f is a function from A into B and for different
elements in A, there are different f - images in B. Hence f is an injection.
(ii) If g = {(a, 2) , (b, 2) , (c, 3) , (d , 5)}, then g is a function from A into B, but g (a ) = g (b) .
Hence ‘g’ is not an injection.
2. Example
Let f : R → R be defined by f ( x ) = 2 x + 1 . Then ' f ' is an injection since for any a1 , a2 ∈R
and f (a1 ) = f (a2 ) ⇒ 2a1 + 1 = 2a2 + 1 ⇒ a1 = a2 .

3. Example
Let f : R → R be defined by f (x ) = x 2 . Then ' f ' is not an injection because f ( −1) = 1 = f (1) .
 6 Mathematics - IA

4. Example
Let f : N → N be defined by f ( x) = x 2 . Then ' f ' is an injection since for a1 , a2 ∈ N and

f (a1 ) = f (a2 ) ⇒ a12 = a2 2 ⇒ (a12 − a2 2 ) = 0 ⇒ (a1 − a2 ) (a1 + a2 ) = 0

⇒ a1 − a2 = 0 [3a1 , a2 ∈ N ⇒ a1 + a2 > 0] ⇒ a1 = a2 .

5. Example

Let A = {a,b,c,d } and B = {x, y,z} . We can’t define an injection from A to B because atleast
two distinct elements in A have the same f - image in B for any function f : A → B .

1.1.9 Definition (Surjection)

A function f : A → B is called a surjection if the range of f is equal to the co-domain

of f.

f : A → B is a surjection ⇔ range f = f (A) = B (co-domain )

⇔ B = { f (a) | a ∈ A}
⇔ for every b ∈ B there exists atleast
one a ∈ A such that f ( a ) = b

Hence we may conclude that f : A → B is a surjection if every element of B occurs as the image
of atleast one element of A (i.e., every element in B has a ‘pre image’ in A). A surjection is also called an
onto function.

1.1.10 Examples
1. Example
f
Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {a, b, c}

(i) If f = {(1, a), (2, b), (3, c), (4, c)} then

f is a function from A to B and range

f = f (A) = {a, b, c} = B , the

co-domain. Hence it is a surjection. Fig. 1.1
Note that f is not an injection.
Functions 7

A B
(ii) If g = {(1, b), (2, b), (3, c), (4, c)} then g
g
is a function from A to B but not a surjection
because there is no pre image to the element
a ∈ B . Note that g is not an injection.

2. Example Fig. 1.2

Let A = {-3, -2, -1, 1, 2, 3} and B = {1, 4, 9}. If f : A → B defined by f ( x) = x2 for all x ∈ A
then, range f = f (A) = { f ( − 3) , f ( − 2) , f ( − 1) , f (1) , f (2) , f (3)}= {1, 4,9} = B .
∴ f : A → B is a surjection. Note that f is not an injection.
3. Example
Let f : R → R be defined by f ( x ) = ax + b (a, b ∈ R and a ≠ 0) . Then f is a surjection
y −b
since for any y ∈R (co-domain) there exists x = ∈ R (domain) such that
a
a (y − b)
f ( x) = ax + b = + b = y (i.e., every element in the co-domain has a pre-image in the domain).
a
Note that f is an injection too.

4. Example

Let f : R → R be defined by f (x) = x2 + 4 . Then range of f = [4, ∞ ) [3 for any x ∈R we

have x 2 ≥ 0 ⇒ x 2 + 4 ≥ 4] and it is not equal to co-domain R . Hence f : R → R is not a surjection. In
particular there are no pre-images for all real numbers less than 4 in its co-domain R . Note that f is not an
injection.

1.1.11 Definition (Bijection)

If f : A → B is both an injection and a surjection then f is said to be a bijection or
one-to-one from A onto B.

i.e., f : A → B is a bijection ⇔ f is both injection and surjection

⇔ (i) If a1 , a2 ∈ A and f (a1 ) = f (a2 ) then a1 = a2

(ii) for every b ∈ B there exists atleast one a ∈ A

such that f (a ) = b .
 8 Mathematics - IA

1.1.12 Definition (Finite set)

If A is empty or there exists n ∈ N such that there is a bijection from A onto
{1, 2, 3, ..., n} then A is called a finite set. In such a case we say that the number of elements
in A is n and denote it by |A| or n(A).

1.1.13 Remarks
(i) In particular, if A and B are two finite sets with |A| > |B| then we can’t define an injection from A into
B. Hence if there is an injection from A to B then |A| ≤ |B|. The converse of this also holds good, that
is, if A and B are finite sets such that |A| ≤ |B|, then we can define an injection f : A → B , for, if
A = {a1 , a2 , .....,an } then there exist distinct elements b1 , b2 ,....,bn ∈ B (since n = A ≤ B ) and
the function f : A → B , defined by f (ai ) = bi , for 1 ≤ i ≤ n , is an injection.

(ii) Let A and B be two finite sets and |A| < |B|, then we can’t define a surjection from A to B. Since

if f : A → B then range f = f (A) contains atmost |A| elements ≠ | B| (codomain) 3 A < B  .

Hence if there is an onto function from A to B then A ≥ B . The converse of this also holds good.
That is if A and B are finite sets such that A ≥ B , then we can define a surjection f : A → B ; for
if B = {b1 , b2 ,....,bn } then n ≤ | A | and hence there exist distinct elements a1 , a2 , ........,an ∈ A
and we can define f : A → B by

bi if a = ai for some i

f (a) = 
b1 if a ≠ ai for all i , which becomes a surjection.

(iii) Note that if there is a bijection ' f ' from a finite set A to a finite set B then, since f is both injection and
surjection, A ≤ B and A ≥ B hence |A| = |B|. Thus for any two finite sets A and B, A = B if and
only if there is a bijection f : A → B .

1.1.14 Example

Let f : R → R be defined by f ( x ) = 2 x + 3 , then from example 3 (1.1.10), f is a bijection.

However if we change the domain of f as N then f (x) = 2x + 3 ∈ N ∀ x ∈ N. Also,

(i) If x1 ,x2 ∈ N (domain), f ( x1 ) = f ( x2 ) ⇒ 2 x1 + 3 = 2 x2 + 3 ⇒ x1 = x2 .

∴ f : N → N is an injection.
Functions 9

(ii) Range f = f (N ) = { f (1) , f (2) , f (3) , ... } = {5,7 ,9 ,...} ≠ N . (codomain)

Hence f : N → N is not a surjection.

Observe that the natural numbers less than 5 and the even natural numbers in the
co-domain N of f have no pre-images in domain N.

1.1.15 Definition (Equality of functions)

Let f and g be functions. We say f and g are equal and write f = g if domain of
f = domain of g and f(x) = g(x) for all x ∈ domain f.

Problem : On what domain the functions f (x) = x2 − 2x and g(x) = − x + 6 are equal?
Solution : f (x) = g(x)
⇔ x2 − 2x = − x + 6
⇔ x2 − x − 6 = 0
⇔ (x − 3) (x + 2) = 0
⇔ x = −2, 3
∴ f (x) and g(x) are equal on the domain {−2, 3}.

1.1.16 Definition (Constant function)

A function f : A → B is said to be a constant function, if the range of f contains one
and only one element. i.e. f(x) = c for all x ∈ A , for some fixed c ∈ B. In this case the
constant function f will be denoted by ‘c’ itself.

1.1.17 Example
Let A = {a, b, c, d}, B = {1, 2, 3} and f = {(a, 2), (b, 2), (c, 2), (d, 2)} then f : A → B is a
constant function.

1.1.18 Definition (Identity function)

Let A be a non-empty set. Then the function f : A → A defined by f (x) = x for all x ∈ A
is called the identity function on A and is denoted by I A .

1.1.19 Example
If A = {a, b, c}, then IA = {(a, a) , (b, b) , (c, c)} .

1.1.20 Solved Problems

1
1. Problem: If f : R {0} → R is defined by f (x) = x + then prove that
x
( f (x) )2 = f (x 2 ) + f (1) .
 10 Mathematics - IA

 1
Solution: Since f ( x) =  x + 
 x
1  1 1
f (x 2 ) + f (1) = x 2 + + 1 +  = x 2 + 2 + 2
 1
2
x x
2
 1
=x+  = (f (x) ) .
2

 x
3x − 2,x > 3

2. Problem: If the function f is defined by f (x) =  x 2 − 2, − 2 ≤ x ≤ 2
2 x + 1,x < −3

then find the values, if exist, of f(4), f(2.5), f(−2), f(−4), f(0), f(−7).
Solution: Note that the domain of f is ( − ∞, − 3) ∪ [−2, 2] ∪ (3,∞) .
(i) Since f ( x ) = 3 x − 2, for x > 3 , we have f (4) = 12 − 2 = 10
(ii) 2.5 does not belong to domain f, f (2.5) is not defined.
(iii) Since f ( x ) = x 2 − 2, − 2 ≤ x ≤ 2 , we have f (−2) = (−2) 2 − 2 = 2
(iv) Since f ( x) = 2 x + 1, x < −3, we have f ( −4) = 2 ( −4) + 1 = −7
(v) Since f (x) = x2 − 2 when − 2 ≤ x ≤ 2, we have f (0) = 02 − 2 = − 2
(vi) Since f ( x) = 2 x + 1, for x < - 3, we have f ( −7) = 2 ( −7) + 1 = −13 .

 π π π π
3. Problem: If A = 0, , , ,  and f : A → B is a surjection defined
 6 4 3 2
by f (x) = cos x then find B.
Solution: Let f : A → B be a surjection defined by f ( x ) = cos x .
 π  π  π  π  
Then B = range f = f (A) =  f (0), f   , f   , f  , f   
 6 4 3 2
 π π π π 
= cos 0, cos , cos , cos , cos 
 6 4 3 2 
 3 1 1 
= 1, , , , 0 .
 2 2 2 
4. Problem: Determine whether the function f : R → R defined by
e − e− x
x
f ( x) = is an injection or a surjection or a bijection.
e x + e− x
e − e− x
x
Solution: Let f : R → R be defined by f ( x ) = x , then f is not an injection as
e + e− x
 Functions 11

e0 − e0 e−e
f (0) = 0 0 = 0 and f (−1) = −1 = 0 and also f is not a surjection since, for y = 1
e +e e +e
there is no x ∈ R such that f ( x) = 1 .
If there is such x ∈ R then e x − e − x = e x + e − x , clearly x ≠ 0
for x > 0 this equation gives − e − x = e − x which is not possible
for x < 0 this equation gives − e − x = e x which is also not possible.
5. Problem: Determine whether the function f : R → R defined by
x if x > 2
f ( x) =  is an injection or a surjection or a bijection.
5 x − 2 if x ≤ 2
Solution: Since 3 > 2, we have f (3) = 3,
Since 1 < 2, we have f (1) = 5(1) − 2 = 3
∴ 1 and 3 have same ‘f’ image. Hence f is not an injection.
Let y ∈ R then y > 2 (or) y ≤ 2
If y > 2 take x = y ∈ R so that f ( x) = x = y .
y+2 y+2
If y ≤ 2 take x = ∈ R and x = < 1.
5 5
y+2
∴ f ( x) = 5 x − 2 = 5   − 2 = y.
 5 
∴ f is a surjection.
Since f is not an injection, it is not a bijection.
6. Problem: Find the domain of definition of the function y(x), given by the equation
2 x + 2 y = 2.
Solution: 2x = 2 − 2y < 2 (3 2y > 0)
⇒ log2 2x < log2 2
⇒ x<1
∴ Domain = (− ∞ , 1).
7. Problem: If f : R → R is defined as f (x + y) = f (x) + f (y) ∀ x, y ∈ R and f (1) = 7,
n
then find ∑ f (r ) .
r =1
Solution: Consider f (2) = f (1 + 1) = f (1) + f (1) = 2 f (1)
f (3) = f (2 + 1) = f (2) + f (1) = 3 f (1)
Similarly f (r) = r f (1)
n
∴ ∑ f (r ) = f (1) + f (2) + ..... + f (n)
r =1
= f (1) + 2 f (1) + ..... + n f (1)
 12 Mathematics - IA

= f (1) (1 + 2 + ..... + n)
7 n( n + 1)
= .
2

cos 2 x + sin 4 x
8. Problem : If f ( x) = ∀ x ∈ R then show that f(2012) = 1.
sin 2 x + cos 4 x
cos 2 x + sin 4 x
Solution: f ( x) =
sin 2 x + cos 4 x

1 − sin 2 x + sin 4 x
=
1 − cos 2 x + cos 4 x

1 − sin 2 x(1 − sin 2 x)

=
1 − cos 2 x(1 − cos 2 x)

1 − sin 2 x cos 2 x
=
1 − sin 2 x cos 2 x
= 1.
∴ f (2012) = 1.

Exercise 1(a)

 x + 2, x > 1

I. 1. If the function f is defined by f ( x) = 2 , − 1 ≤ x ≤ 1 , then find the values of
 x − 1, − 3 < x < −1


(i) f (3) , (ii) f (0) , (iii) f (−1.5) ,

(iv) f (2) + f ( −2) , (v) f (−5)

1
2. If f : R {0} → R is defined by f (x) = x − , then show that f ( x ) + f (1/ x ) = 0 .
3

x3

1 − x2
3. If f : R → R is defined by f ( x) = , then show that f (tan è) = cos 2è .
1 + x2

1+ x  2x 
4. If f : R {+1} → R is defined by f ( x ) = log , then show that f  2 
= 2 f ( x) .
1− x  1+ x 
 Functions 13

5. If A = {−2, − 1, 0, 1, 2} and f : A → B is a surjection defined by f ( x) = x 2 + x + 1 , then

find B.
6. If A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and f : A → R is a function defined by
x2 − x + 1
f ( x) = , then find the range of f.
x +1
7. If f (x + y) = f (xy) ∀ x, y ∈ R then prove that f is a constant function.

II. 1. If A = {x | −1 ≤ x ≤ 1}, f ( x) = x 2 , g ( x) = x3 , which of the following are surjections?

(i) f : A → A (ii) g : A → A
2. Which of the following are injections or surjections or bijections? Justify your answers.
2x +1
(i) f : R → R defined by f ( x) =
3
(ii) f : R → (0, ∞ ) defined by f ( x) = 2 x

(iii) f : (0, ∞ ) → R defined by f ( x) = log e x

(iv) f : [0, ∞ ) → [0, ∞ ) defined by f ( x) = x 2

(v) f : R → [0, ∞ ) defined by f ( x) = x 2

(vi) f : R → R defined by f ( x) = x 2
3. Is g = {(1,1), (2,3), (3,5), (4, 7)} a function from A = {1, 2, 3, 4} to B = {1,3,5, 7}? If this is
given by the formula g ( x ) = ax + b , then find a and b.
−x
4. If the function f : R → R defined by f ( x) = 3 + 3 , then show that
x

2
f ( x + y ) + f ( x − y ) = 2 f ( x) f ( y ) .

4x
5. If the function f : R → R defined by f ( x) = , then show that
4x + 2
1 1 3
f (1 − x ) = 1 − f ( x ) , and hence deduce the value of f   + 2 f  + f  .
4 2 4
6. If the function f : {−1, 1} → {0, 2} , defined by f ( x ) = ax + b is a surjection, then find
a and b.

1 1 1 x 

7. If f ( x ) = cos (log x ) , then show that f   f   −  f   + f ( xy )  = 0.
x  y 2  y 
 14 Mathematics - IA

1.2 Inverse Functions and Theorems

If f is a relation from A to B, then the relation {(b, a) | (a, b) ∈ f } is denoted by f −1 .

1.2.1 Theorem
If f : A → B is an injection, then f −1 is a bijection from f (A) to A.

Proof: Let f : A → B be an injection. clearly f −1 is a relation from f (A) to A.

Let b ∈ f (A) . Then there exists atleast one a ∈ A such that f ( a ) = b . Since f is an injection ‘a’ is the
only element of A such that f(a) = b. Thus given b ∈ f (A) , there is a unique element a in A such that
( a, b) ∈ f . Hence given b ∈ f (A) there is a unique a ∈ A such that (b, a ) ∈ f −1 . Hence f −1 is a
function from f (A) to A, and f −1 (b) = a if and only if f ( a ) = b . Clearly f −1 is a surjection. If
b1 , b2 ∈ f (A) and f −1 (b1 ) = f −1 (b2 ) = a ( say ) then b1 = f (a ) = b2 . Thus f −1 is an injection.

∴ f −1 : f (A) → A is a bijection.
1.2.2 Corollary

If f : A → B is a bijection, then f −1 is a bijection from B to A.

Proof: This is an immediate consequence of Theorem 1.2.1, since f (A) = B.

( )
−1
Note : Since f −1 = f , it follows from 1.2.2 that f −1 : B → A is a bijection if and only if f : A → B is
a bijection.

1.2.3 Definition (Inverse function)

If f : A → B is a bijection, then the relation f −1 = {(b, a) | (a, b) ∈ f } is a function from B to
A and is called the inverse of f.

1.2.4 Examples
1. Example: If A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {a, b, c} then f = {(1, c), (2, b), (3, a)} is a bijection from A to B
and f −1 = {(a,3), (b, 2), (c,1)} is a bijection from B to A.
2. Example: If A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {a, b, c, d } then f = {(1, c), (2, b), (3, a)} is an injection but not a
surjection, f −1 = {(c, 1), (b, 2), (a, 3)} is a relation from B to A but not a function because ' d ' ∈ B has
no f −1 image in A.
3. Example: If A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {a, b} ; then f = {(1, a), (2, b), (3, a)} is a surjection but not an
injection, f −1 = {(a, 1), (b, 2), (a, 3)} is a relation from B to A but not a function from B to A because
for a ∈ B there are two f −1 images in A.
 Functions 15

1.2.5 Definition Composite Function f

A B

If f :A → B, g : B → C , then the relation

g
{(a, g ( f (a ))) | a∈A}
gof
is called composite of ‘g’

with ‘ f ’ and is denoted as gof .

C
Fig. 1.3

1.2.6 Theorem: Let f : A → B and g : B → C be functions. Then gof is a function from A to

C, and (gof) (a) = g ( f ( a ) ) for all a ∈ A .

Proof : Let a ∈ A . Since f is a function from A to B then f (a ) ∈ B . Since g is a function from B to

C then g ( f (a) ) ∈ C . Hence gof is a relation from A to C. Further, given a ∈ A there is one and only one
element c in C, namely, g ( f (a) ) , such that ( a, c) ∈ gof . Hence gof is a function from A to C and
( gof ) (a) = g ( f (a) ) for all a ∈ A .
1.2.7 Theorem: Let f : A → B, g : B → C be injections, then gof : A → C is an injection.
Proof : Let a1 , a2 ∈ A be such that ( gof ) (a1 ) = ( gof ) (a2 )
g ( f (a1 ) ) = g ( f (a2 ) )
f (a1 ) = f (a2 ) [since g is an injection]
a1 = a2 [since f is an injection]
∴ gof : A → C is an injection.

1.2.8 Theorem: Let f : A → B and g : B → C be such that gof is an injection. Then f is an

injection.
Proof : Let a1 , a2 ∈ A be such that f (a1 ) = f (a2 ) then g ( f (a1 ) ) = g ( f (a2 ) )
⇒ gof (a1 ) = gof (a2 )
⇒ a1 = a2 . [3 gof is an injection]
∴ f is an injection.
1.2.9 Note
If f : A → B , g : B → C are such that gof is injection then g need not be injection. For example,
let A = {1, 2}, B = {a, b, c}, C = {d , e} , f = {(1, a), (2, b)} and g = {(a, d ), (b, e), (c, e)} , then
gof = {(1, d ), (2, e)} .
 16 Mathematics - IA

Hence gof is an injection but g is not an injection. However, if gof is an injection then necessarily f
is an injection.
1.2.10 Theorem: Let f : A → B , g : B → C be surjections. Then gof : A → C is a surjection.
Proof : Let c ∈ C . Since g : B → C is a surjection then there exists b ∈ B such that g (b) = c . Since
f : A → B is a surjection then there exists ' a ' ∈ A such that f ( a ) = b .

∴ c = g (b) = g ( f (a) ) = ( gof ) (a) .

∴ for each ' c ' ∈ C there exists ' a ' ∈ A such that ( gof ) ( a ) = c .
Hence gof : A → C is a surjection.

1.2.11 Theorem: Let f : A → B, g : B → C be such that gof is a surjection. Then g is a surjection.

Proof : Let c ∈ C . Since gof : A → C is a surjection then there exists a ∈ A such that ( gof ) (a ) = c , i.e.,
g ( f (a) ) = c . Let b = f ( a ) . Then f ( a ) = b ∈ B and g (b) = c .

∴ g is a surjection.

1.2.12 Note
If f : A → B, g : B → C are such that gof is a surjection then f need not be a surjection. In Note
1.2.9, gof is a surjection but f is not a surjection. However, if gof is a surjection then necessarily ‘g’ is
a surjection.

1.2.13 Theorem: Let f : A → B, g : B → C be bijections. Then gof : A → C is a bijection.

Proof: This is a consequence of Theorems 1.2.7 and 1.2.10.

1.2.14 Theorem: Let f : A → B, g : B → C be bijections. Then ( gof ) = f −1og −1 .

−1

Proof: Since f : A → B, g : B → C are bijections, so is gof from A to C (from Theorem 1.2.13).

Hence (gof)− 1 is a bijection from C to A. Further, f −1 : B → A; g −1 : C → B are also bijections.
Hence f −1og −1 is a bijection from C to A.

∴ The functions ( gof ) −1 and f −1og −1 are defined on the same domain ‘C’.

Let c ∈ C . Since g : B → C is a bijection, there exists a unique b ∈ B such that g (b) = c i.e.,
g −1 (c) = b .
Now b ∈ B and f : A → B is a bijection. Hence there exists a unique a ∈ A such that f ( a ) = b
i.e., f −1 (b) = a .
 Functions 17

Thus c = g (b) = g ( f (a) ) = ( gof ) (a) (or) ( gof ) −1 (c) = a

Now ( f −1og −1 ) (c ) = f −1 ( g −1 (c )) = f −1 (b) = a

Hence ( gof ) −1 = f −1og −1 .

1.2.15 Theorem: The identity function I A : A → A is a bijection and I A−1 = I A .

Proof: We have I A = {( a, a ) | a ∈ A} .
Given a ∈ A we have I A (a ) = a . Hence IA is a surjection.
Let a1 , a2 ∈ A, I A (a1 ) = I A (a2 ) ⇒ a1 = a2 . Hence IA is an injection.
∴ I A : A → A is bijection and I −A 1 = I A .
1.2.16 Theorem: Let f : A → B, IA and IB be identity functions on A and B respectively. Then
foI A = f = I B of .

Proof: Since I A : A → A and f : A → B are functions, foI A is a function from A to B. Hence

functions foI A and f are defined on same domain A.

Let a ∈ A , then ( foI A ) (a) = f ( I A (a) ) = f (a) [3 I A (a) = a for all a ∈ A]

∴ foI A = f ... (1)

Since f : A → B, I B : B → B , are functions then I B of is a function from A to B.
∴ The functions I B of and f are defined on the same domain A.

Let a ∈ A , then ( I B of ) (a) = I B ( f (a) ) = f (a) [3 f : A → B we have f ( a ) ∈ B ]

∴ I B of = f ... (2)
From (1) and (2) we have foI A = f = I B of .

1.2.17 Theorem: Let f : A → B be a bijection. Then fof −1 = I B and f −1of = I A .

Proof : Since f : A → B is a bijection then f −1 : B → A is also a bijection. Hence fof −1 is a bijection

from B to B and f −1of is a bijection from A to A. We have that I B is a bijection from B to B and I A
is a bijection from A to A.
∴ The functions fof −1 and I B are defined on the same domain B.
Let b ∈ B . Since f : A → B is a bijection then there exists a unique a ∈ A such that
f ( a ) = b i.e., f −1 (b) = a .
 18 Mathematics - IA

Thus fof −1 (b) = f ( f −1 (b) ) = f ( a ) = b = I B (b)

∴ fof −1 = I B

The functions f −1of and I A are defined on the same domain.

We have f −1of (a) = f −1 ( f (a) ) = f −1 (b) = a = I A (a)

∴ f −1of = I A .

1.2.18 Theorem: Let f : A → B be a function. Then f is a bijection if and only if there exists a
function g : B → A such that fog = I B and gof = I A and, in this case, g = f −1 .

Proof: Let f : A → B be a bijection. Then f −1 : B → A is a bijection [from Corollary 1.2.2]. Take g = f −1 .

Then from Theorem 1.2.17, fog = I B and gof = I A .

Conversely, if there exists a function g : B → A such that fog = I B and gof = I A then gof = I A is an
injection, we get from Theorem 1.2.8 that f is an injection. Also, since fog = I B is a surjection, we get from
Theorem 1.2.11 that f is a surjection.

∴ f : A → B is a bijection. Hence f −1 : B → A is a bijection. We also have g : B → A .

∴ f −1 and g are defined on the same domain B.

Let b ∈ B . Since f : A → B is a bijection then there exists a unique ' a ' ∈ A such that f ( a ) = b or
f −1 (b) = a . Now
f −1 (b) = a = I A (a) = ( gof ) (a) = g ( f (a) ) = g (b)
∴ g = f −1 .

1.2.19 Theorem: Let f : A → B , g : B → C and h : C → D . Then ho ( gof ) = (hog ) of , that is,

composition of functions is associative.
Proof: Since f : A → B, g : B → C and h : C → D ,
gof : A → C and h : C → D ⇒ ho ( gof ) : A → D . Further

f : A → B and hog : B → D ⇒ ( hog ) of : A → D .

Thus ho ( gof ) and ( hog ) of have the same domain A . Let ‘a’ be any element of A. Now

[ho ( gof )] (a) = h (( gof ) (a) ) = h ( g ( f (a) )) = ( hog ) ( f ( a )) = ((hog )of ) (a)
∴ ho ( gof ) = ( hog ) of .
Functions 19

1.2.20 Solved Problems

1. Problem: If f : R → R, g : R → R are defined by f ( x ) = 4 x − 1 and g ( x) = x 2 + 2 then find
 a +1 
(i) ( gof ) ( x ) (ii) ( gof )  
 4 
(iii) fof ( x ) (iv) go( fof )(0) .

Solution

(i)) ( gof ) ( x) = g ( f ( x) ) = g (4 x − 1) = (4 x − 1)2 + 2 = 16 x 2 − 8 x + 3 ... (1)

a +1   a +1   a +1 
2
(ii) from (1) we have ( gof )   = 16   − 8 +3= a +2
2

 4   4   4 
(iii) ( fof ) ( x) = f ( f ( x) ) = f (4 x − 1) = 4 (4 x − 1) − 1 = 16 x − 5 ... (2)
(iv) from (2) we have ( fof ) (0) = 0 − 5 = −5
∴ go ( fof ) (0) = g ( fof (0) ) = g (−5) = 25 + 2 = 27 .

1 + x, 0 ≤ x ≤ 2
2. Problem: If f : [0,3] → [0,3] is defined by f ( x ) =  , then show that
3 − x, 2 < x ≤ 3
f [0, 3] ⊆ [0, 3] and find fof.
Solution: 0≤x≤2 ⇒ 1 ≤ 1+x ≤ 3 ... (1)
2<x ≤ 3 ⇒ − 3 ≤ − x< − 2
⇒ 3−3 ≤ 3− x<3−2
⇒ 0 ≤ 3−x<1 ... (2)
From (1) and (2), f [0, 3] ⊆ [0, 3].
When 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 we have
( fof ) ( x) = f ( f ( x) ) = f (1+ x) =1 + 1 + x = 2 + x. [31 ≤ 1 + x ≤ 2]
When 1 < x ≤ 2 we have
fof ( x) = f ( f ( x) ) = f (1+ x) = 3 − (1 + x) = 2 − x. [3 2 < 1 + x ≤ 3]
When 2 < x ≤ 3 we have
fof ( x) = f ( f ( x) ) = f (3 − x) = 1 + 3 − x = 4 − x. [3 0 ≤ 3 − x < 1]
 2 + x, 0 ≤ x < 1

∴ ( fof ) ( x) = 2 − x, 1 < x ≤ 2
 4 − x, 2 < x ≤ 3

 20 Mathematics - IA

0 if x ∈Q
3. Problem: If f , g : R → R are defined by f ( x) = 
1 if x ∉Q
 −1 if x ∈Q
and g ( x) =  then find ( fog) (π) + (gof )(e).
 0 if x ∉ Q
Solution: ( fog) (π) = f (g(π)) = f(0) = 0
(gof ) (e) = g( f (e)) = g(1) = −1
∴ ( fog) (π) + (gof ) (e) = −1.
4. Problem: Let A = {1, 2,3}, B = {a, b, c}, C = { p, q, r} . If f : A → B, g : B → C are defined by
f = {(1, a), (2, c), (3, b)}, g = {(a, q), (b, r ), (c, p)} then show that f −1og −1 = ( gof ) −1 .

Solution: Given that f = {(1, a), (2, c), (3, b)} and g = {(a, q), (b, r ), (c, p)} then

gof = {(1, q), (2, p), (3, r )} ⇒ ( gof ) −1 = {(q,1), ( p, 2), (r ,3)} .

g −1 = {(q, a), (r , b), ( p, c)}, f −1 = {(a,1), (c, 2), (b,3)} then

f −1og −1 = {(q,1), (r ,3), ( p, 2)} .
∴ ( gof ) −1 = f −1og −1 .

5. Problem: If f : Q → Q is defined by f ( x ) = 5 x + 4 for all x ∈Q , show that f is a bijection and

find f −1 .
Solution: Let x1 , x2 ∈ Q, f ( x1 ) = f ( x2 ) ⇒ 5 x1 + 4 = 5 x2 + 4 ⇒ x1 = x2 .
∴ f is an injection.
y−4
Let y ∈ Q . Then x = ∈ Q and
5
 y − 4  y − 4
f ( x) = f   = 5 +4= y.
 5   5 
∴ f is a surjection and hence f is a bijection.

∴ f −1 : Q → Q is a bijection.
We have fof −1 ( x) = I ( x)

( )
f f −1 ( x ) = x
5 f −1 ( x) + 4 = x
x−4
f −1 ( x) = for all x ∈Q .
5
Functions 21

Exercise 1(b)
I. 1. If f ( x) = e x and g ( x) = log e x , then show that fog = gof and find f −1 and g −1 .
y y
2. If f ( y ) = , g ( y) = then show that ( fog ) ( y ) = y .
1− y2 1+ y2
3. If f : R → R and g : R → R are defined by f ( x) = 2 x 2 + 3 and g ( x ) = 3 x − 2 , then find
(i ) ( fog ) ( x), (ii ) ( gof ) ( x), (iii ) fof (0), (iv ) go ( fof ) (3) .
4. If f : R → R , g : R → R are defined by f ( x) = 3 x − 1, g ( x) = x 2 + 1 , then find

(i ) fof ( x 2 + 1), (ii ) fog (2), (iii ) gof (2a − 3) .

1
5. If f ( x) = , g ( x) = x for all x ∈ (0, ∞ ) , then find ( gof ) ( x ) .
x
x +1
6. If f ( x) = 2 x − 1, g ( x) = for all x ∈R , then find ( gof ) ( x) .
2
7. If f ( x) = 2, g ( x) = x 2 , h ( x) = 2 x for all x ∈R , then find ( fo ( goh) ( x) ) .

8. Find the inverse of the following functions.

(i) a, b ∈ R , f : R → R defined by f ( x ) = ax + b ( a ≠ 0) .
(ii) f : R → (0, ∞) defined by f ( x) = 5 x .
(iii) f : (0, ∞ ) → R defined by f ( x) = log 2 x .

9. If f (x) = 1 + x + x2 + ..... for | x | < 1 then show that f −1 ( x) = x − 1 .

x
10. If f : [1, ∞ ) → [1, ∞ ) defined by f (x) = 2x(x − 1) then find f −1(x).
x −1
II. 1. If f ( x) = , x ≠ ±1, then verify fof −1 ( x) = x.
x +1
2. If A = {1, 2,3}, B = {α , β , γ }, C = { p, q, r} and f : A → B, g : B → C are defined by
f = {(1, α ), (2, γ ), (3, β )}, g = { (α , q), ( β , r ), (γ , p)} ,
then show that f and g are bijective functions and ( gof ) −1 = f −1og −1 .

3. If f : R → R , g : R → R defined by f ( x) = 3 x − 2, g ( x) = x 2 + 1, then find

(i ) ( gof −1 ) ( 2 ) , (ii ) ( gof ) ( x − 1) .
4. Let f = {(1, a), (2, c), (4, d ), (3, b)} and g −1 = {(2, a), (4, b), (1, c), (3, d )} ,
then show that ( gof ) −1 = f −1og −1 .
 22 Mathematics - IA

5. Let f : R → R , g : R → R be defined by f ( x) = 2 x − 3, g ( x) = x3 + 5 then find ( fog ) −1 ( x) .

6. Let f ( x ) = x 2 , g ( x ) = 2 x . Then solve the equation ( fog ) ( x ) = ( gof ) ( x ) .

x +1
7. If f ( x) = ( x ≠ ±1) then find ( fofof ) ( x ) and ( fofofof ) ( x) .
x −1

1.3 Real valued functions (Domain, Range and Inverse)

If X is any set, f : X → R then f is called a real valued function. For example let
  a b  
X =   a, b, c, d ∈ R  , define f : X → R by f (A) = det A for all A ∈ X ,
  c d  
then f is a real valued function.

In this section a function f is defined through a formula, without mentioning the domain and the range
explicitly. In such cases, the domain of f is taken to be the set of all real x for which the formula is
meaningful. The range of f is the set { f ( x ) | x is in the domain of f }.

1.3.0 (a) : nth root of a non-negative real number

Let x be a non-negative real number and n be a positive integer. Then there exists a unique non-
negative real number y such that y n = x . The proof is beyond the scope of this book. This number y is
called the nth root of x and is denoted as x1/ n (or) n
x.

When n = 2, 2
x is called the square root of x . 2
x is written simply as x.
If x is any real number and n is an odd positive integer there exists a unique real number y such that
1
y = x so that we write y = n x or x n .
n

1.3.0 (b): ax when 1 ≠ a > 0 and x is a rational number:

1
If 1 ≠ a > 0 and x =
m
n
where m, n are integers and n > 0 we define a x = a m ( ) n .

1.3.1 Examples
1. Example: The domain of the real valued function f ( x) = a 2 − x 2 (a > 0) is [−a, a ] .

[Since a − x ∈ R, (a > 0) ⇔ a − x ≥ 0 ⇔ x ≤ a ⇔ x ≤ a ⇔ −a ≤ x ≤ a] .
2 2 2 2 2 2

is R  −  .
1 1
2. Example: The domain of the real valued function f ( x) =
2x +1  2
 1 1
 Since 2 x + 1 ∈ R ⇔ 2 x + 1 ≠ 0 ⇔ x ≠ − 2 
Functions 23

1.3.2 Algebra of real valued functions

If f and g are real valued functions with domains A and B respectively, then both
f and g are defined on A ∩ B when A ∩ B ≠ φ .

(i) Let f : A → R and g : B → R . Suppose that A ∩ B ≠ φ , we define

f + g , f − g and fg on A ∩ B as ( f ± g ) ( x ) = f ( x ) ± g ( x ) and
( fg ) ( x ) = f ( x ) g ( x ) .
Let f : A → R and c be a constant function defined on A. Then from the
above definition ( f + c ) ( x ) = f ( x ) + c and (cf ) ( x) = cf ( x ) for all x ∈ A .
The function ( −1) f is denoted by − f.

f
(ii) Let E = {x ∈ A ∩ B g ( x ) ≠ 0} ≠ φ . We define on E by
g

 f  f ( x) f ( x)
  ( x) = for all x ∈ E . Note that if g ( x ) = 0 , then is not
g g ( x) g ( x)

defined.

(iii) Let f : A → R and n ∈ N . We define f and f n on A by f ( x) = f ( x)

and f n ( x) = ( f ( x) ) for all x ∈ A .

n

(iv) If E = {x ∈ A f ( x) ≥ 0} ≠ φ , then we define f on E by

f ( x) = f ( x) , for all x ∈ E .
In view of the above, we can conclude that if f, g are defined on their
respective domains then
domain ( f + g) = domain of f ∩ domain of g
domain ( fg) = domain of f ∩ domain of g

 f 
domain   = domain of f ∩ domain of g ∩ {x : g(x) ≠ 0}
g

domain ( f ) = domain of f ∩ {x : f (x) > 0}

 24 Mathematics - IA

1.3.3 Solved Problems

1. Problem: Find the domains of the following real valued functions.
1 1
(i) f (x) = (ii) f (x) = (a > 0)
6x − x2 − 5 x2 − a2
(iii) f (x) = ( x + 2) ( x − 3) (iv) f (x) = ( x − α ) ( β − x)(0 < α < β )
1
(v) f (x) = 2 − x + 1+ x (vi) f (x) = x2 −1 +
x 2 − 3x + 2
1
(vii) f (x) = (viii) f (x) = x −x
x −x
Solution
1 1
(i) f ( x) = = ∈ R ⇔ ( x − 1) (5 − x) ≠ 0
6 x − x − 5 ( x − 1) (5 − x)
2

⇔ x ≠ 1,5
∴ Domain of f is R {1, 5}.
1
(ii) f ( x) = ∈ R ⇔ x2 − a2 > 0
x −a
2 2

⇔ ( x − a) ( x + a) > 0
⇔ x < −a (or) x > a
⇔ x ∈ ( −∞, − a ) ∪ ( a, ∞ )
∴ Domain of f is ( −∞, − a ) ∪ ( a, ∞ ) = R [ − a, a ] .
(iii) f ( x) = ( x + 2) ( x − 3) ∈ R ⇔ ( x + 2) ( x − 3) ≥ 0
⇔ x ≤ −2 or x ≥ 3
⇔ x ∈ ( −∞, − 2] ∪ [3, ∞ ) = R (−2, 3)
∴ Domain of f is ( −∞, − 2] ∪ [3, ∞ ) = R (−2, 3).

(iv) f ( x) = ( x − α ) ( β − x) ∈ R ⇔ ( x − α ) ( β − x) ≥ 0
⇔ α ≤ x ≤ β (3 α < β )
⇔ x ∈ [α , β ]
∴ Domain of f is [α , β ] .
(v) f ( x) = 2 − x + 1 + x ∈ R ⇔ 2 − x ≥ 0 and 1 + x ≥ 0
⇔ 2 ≥ x and x ≥ −1
⇔ −1 ≤ x ≤ 2
⇔ x ∈ [−1, 2]
∴ Domain of f is [ − 1, 2].
 Functions 25

1
(vi) f ( x) = x 2 − 1 + ∈ R ⇔ x 2 − 1 ≥ 0 and x 2 − 3 x + 2 > 0
x − 3x + 2
2

⇔ ( x + 1) ( x − 1) ≥ 0 and ( x − 1) ( x − 2) > 0

⇔ x ∈ ( −∞, − 1] ∪ [1, ∞ ) and x ∈ ( −∞,1) ∪ (2, ∞ ) .

⇔ x ∈ ( R (−1, 1) ∩ (R [1, 2])).

⇔ x ∈R {( −1,1) ∪ [1, 2]}

⇔ x ∈R ( −1, 2] = ( − ∞, −1] ∪ (2, ∞ ) .
∴ Domain of f is ( −∞, − 1] ∪ (2, ∞ ) = R ( −1, 2] .

1
(vii) f ( x) = ∈R ⇔ x − x > 0 ⇔ x > x
x −x
⇔ x ∈ ( −∞, 0) .
∴ Domain of f is ( −∞, 0) .

(viii) f ( x) = x − x ∈ R ⇔ x − x ≥ 0 , which is true for all x ∈ R .

∴ Domain of f is R .

2. Problem: If f = {(4,5), (5, 6), (6, −4)} and g = {(4, −4), (6,5), (8,5)} then find
(i) f + g (ii) f − g (iii) 2f + 4g (iv) f + 4
(v) fg (vi) f / g (vii) | f | (viii) f
2 3
(ix) f (x) f

Solution: Domain of f = A = {4,5,6} , Domain of g = B = {4, 6,8} .

Domain of f ± g = A ∩ B = {4, 6} .

(i) f + g = {(4, 5 − 4), (6, −4 + 5)} = {(4,1), (6,1)} and

(ii) f − g = {(4,5 + 4), (6, −4 − 5)} = {(4,9), (6, −9)} .

(iii) Domain of 2 f = A = {4, 5, 6}, Domain of 4 g = B = {4,6,8} .

∴ 2 f = {(4,10), (5,12), (6, −8)}, 4 g = {(4, −16), (6, 20), (8, 20)} .

Domain of 2 f + 4 g = {4, 6}

∴ 2 f + 4 g = {(4,10 − 16), (6, −8 + 20)} = {(4, −6), (6,12)} .

 26 Mathematics - IA

(iv) Domain of f + 4 = A = {4,5, 6}

f + 4 = {(4,5 + 4), (5, 6 + 4), (6, −4 + 4)} = {(4,9), (5,10), (6, 0)} .
(v) Domain of fg = A ∩ B = {4, 6}
fg = {( 4, (5) ( −4) ) , (6, ( −4) ( −5) )} = {(4, −20), (6, 20)} .
f
(vi) Domain of = {4, 6} .
g
f  −5   −4  
∴ =  4,  ,  6,   .
g  4   5 
(vii) Domain of f = A = {4,5, 6}.

∴ f = {(4,5), (5, 6), (6, 4)} .

(viii) Domain of f = {4,5} .

{
∴ f = (4, 5), (5, 6) . }
(ix) Domain of f 2 = A = {4,5, 6} .

∴ f 2 = {(4, 25), (5,36), (6,16)}.

(x) Domain of f 3 = A = {4,5, 6} .
∴ f 3 = {(4,125), (5, 216), (6, −64)}.
3. Problem: Find the domains and ranges of the following real valued functions.
2+ x x
(i ) f ( x) = (ii ) f ( x) = (iii ) f ( x) = 9 − x2
2− x 1 + x2
Solution
2+ x
(i) ∈ R ⇔ 2 − x ≠ 0 ⇔ x ≠ 2 ⇔ x ∈ R {2}.
2− x
∴ Domain of f is R {2}.
2+ x 2 ( y − 1)
Let f ( x) = y ⇒ = y⇒x= , clearly, x is not defined for
2− x ( y + 1)
y + 1 = 0 i.e., when y = −1 . ∴ range of f = R {−1}.
x
∈ R ⇔ x ∈ R is defined for all x∈R , since x + 1 ≠ 0 for x∈R .
2
(ii) f ( x) =
1+ x 2

∴ Domain of f is R .
If x = 0 then f (x) = 0, If x ≠ 0 then f (x) ≠ 0.
 Functions 27

x 1± 1− 4 y2
Let y = f ( x) = ⇒ x y−x+ y =0⇒ x =
2
is a real number
1 + x2 2y
iff 1 − 4 y 2 ≥ 0 ⇔ (1 + 2 y ) (1 − 2 y ) ≥ 0;
 −1 1 
⇒ y∈ , 
 2 2
 −1 1 
∴ range of f =  ,  .
 2 2
(iii) f ( x) = 9 − x 2 ∈ R ⇔ 9 − x 2 ≥ 0
⇔ (3 + x) (3 − x) ≥ 0 ⇔ x ∈ [−3,3] .

∴ domain of f = [−3,3] .

Clearly f (x) = 9 − x 2 ∈ [0, 3] . Suppose y ∈ [0, 3] .

Then x = 9 − y 2 ∈ [0, 3] and f ( x) = 9 − (9 − y 2 ) = y .

∴ range of f = [0,3] .
1.3.4 Some more types of functions
1. Even and odd functions : Let A be a nonempty subset of R such that − x ∈ A for all x ∈ A and
f :A → R.
(i) If f (− x ) = f ( x ) for every x in A then f is called an even function.
(ii) If f ( − x ) = − f ( x ) for every x in A then f is called an odd function.

Examples
(i) f ( x) = x 2 , g ( x) = cos x, h( x) = x ( x ∈ R ) are all even functions.
(ii) f ( x ) = x, ( x ∈R ) is an odd function.
 2n + 1 
g (x) = tan x is an odd function on R  π , n ∈ Z .
 2 
(iii) f ( x) = x + x , g ( x) = cos x + sin x are neither even nor odd.
2 3

Every real valued function defined on a nonempty subset A of R such that x ∈ A ⇒ − x ∈ A can be
written as sum of an even and odd functions.
f ( x) + f (− x) f ( x) − f (− x)
Consider g ( x) = and h ( x) = then g is even and h is odd since
2 2
g (x) = g (− x) and h (x) = − h (− x). Clearly
f ( x) = g ( x) + h ( x) .
 28 Mathematics - IA

2. Polynomial function : If n is a non negative integer, a0 , a1 , a2 , ...., an are real numbers (at least
one ai ≠ 0 ) then the function f defined on R by
f ( x ) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + .... + an x n for all x ∈R is called a polynomial function.

Examples
(i) f ( x ) = ax + b ( a, b ∈ R ) is a polynomial function.

(ii) g ( x) = −7 x 4 + 3x 2 + 2 is a polynomial function.

(iii) h ( x ) = k (0 ≠ k ∈ R ) is a polynomial function.

3. Rational function : If f and g are polynomial functions and g ( x ) ≠ 0 for all x ∈R then the
f  f  f ( x)
function defined by   ( x) = is called a rational function.
g g g ( x)
x 2 − 3x + 2
Examples: 1. is a rational function.
x2 + 1
1
2. f ( x) = , x ∈ R {0} is a rational function.
x
Y

0 X

1
Fig. 1.4 Graph of f ( x) = .
x
4. Algebraic function: Operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and extraction
of square root etc., are called algebraic operations. A function obtained by applying a finite number
of algebraic operations on polynomial functions is called an algebraic function.

3x 2 + 9 − x 2
Examples : (i ) f ( x) = , ( x ∈ [−3,3] {0} ).
2x

( ii ) f ( x) = x 2 − a 2 + 7 x, (a > 0), ( x ∈ R ( − a, a )) .
Functions 29

5. Exponential function: The function ax when 1 ≠ a > 0 and x is rational, is already defined in this
chapter. This can be extended to real x as well, inheriting all the exponential properties. We do not
present a formal definition of ax (x ∈ R ) but assume the existence of such a (unique) function. This
function is called an exponential function. Even though the definition presented in chapter 9 is
slightly different, these two are equivalant. The domain of the function ax is R and the range is R+.

Y
Y Y

y = ax, (a > 1)
y = ax, (a = 1) y = ax, (0 < a < 1)
0 X 0 X 0 X

Fig. 1.5 graph of ax

6. Logarithmic function: If a > 0, a ≠ 1, given y > 0 there is a unique x ∈ R such that ax = y.

The function defined on R+ by f(y) = x, where ax = y, is called the logarithmic function to the
base ‘a’. This function is denoted by loga. Thus log a y = x iff ax = y. The logarithmic function to
the base e is called the natural logarithmic function and is denoted by ‘log’ and also ln. Thus
log y = lny = x iff ex = y. Clearly the domain of loga function is (0, ∞) . Further its range is R.
Y
Y

y = loga x, (a > 1) y = loga x, (0 < a < 1)

0 X
0 X

Fig. 1.6 Graph of loga x

7. Greatest Integer function: For any real number x, we denote by [ x ] , the greatest integer less than or
equal to x. For example [1.72] = 1,[ −3.41] = −4, [0.22] = 0, [ −0.71] = −1 .
 30 Mathematics - IA

The function f : R → R defined by f ( x) = [ x ] for all x ∈R is called the greatest integer

function. The domain of the greatest integer function is R and the range is the set Z of all integers.
Y

−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 X

−1

−2

−3

Fig. 1.7 Graph of greatest integer function

8. Modulus function : The function f : R → R defined by f (x) = |x| for each x ∈R is called
modulus function. For each non-negative value of x, f (x) is equal to x. But for negative values of
x, the value of f (x) is the negative of the value of x i.e.,
 x, x ≥ 0
f ( x) = 
 − x, x < 0
The graph is

y = |x|

0
X

Fig. 1.8 f (x) = | x |

 Functions 31

9. Signum function: The function f : R → R defined by

 1, x > 0
|x| 
sgn( x) = f ( x) = =  0, x = 0 is called signum function. The domain is R and range is
x 
 −1, x < 0
Y
{−1, 0, 1}.

y=1
1

X′
0 X

y=−1 −1

Y′
Fig. 1.9 Graph of Signum function

1.3.5 Solved Problems

1. Problem: If f ( x) = x 2 and g ( x) = x , find the following functions.
(i) f + g , (ii) f − g , (iii) fg , (iv) 2 f , (v) f 2 , (vi) f + 3
 x, x ≥ 0
Solution: Given that f ( x) = x 2 , g ( x) = x =  , domain f = domain g = R. Hence the domain
 − x, x < 0
of all the functions (i) through (vi) is R.
 x 2 + x, x ≥ 0
(i) ( f + g ) ( x) = f ( x) + g ( x) = x + x =  2
2

 x − x, x < 0
 x 2 − x, x ≥ 0
(ii) ( f − g ) ( x) = f ( x) − g ( x) = x − x =  22

 x + x, x < 0
 x 3 , x ≥ 0
(iii) ( fg ) ( x) = f ( x) g ( x) = x 2 x =  3
− x , x < 0
(iv) (2 f ) ( x) = 2 f ( x) = 2 x .
2

f 2 ( x) = ( f ( x) ) = ( x 2 ) 2 = x 4 .
2
(v)
(vi) ( f + 3) ( x) = f ( x) + 3 = x 2 + 3 .
2. Problem: Determine whether the following functions are even or odd.
 ex −1 
(i) f ( x ) = a − a
x −x
+ sin x , (ii) f ( x) = x  x ,
 e +1 
 32 Mathematics - IA

(iii) f ( x) = log ( x + x 2 + 1)
Solution: Clearly in all the cases domain f = R

(i) We have f ( x ) = a x − a − x + sin x

∴ f ( − x ) = a − x − a x + sin ( − x) = a − x − a x − sin x = − ( a x − a − x + sin x ) = − f ( x ) .

∴ f is an odd function.
 e x − 1
(ii) f ( x ) = x  x
 e + 1 
 e− x − 1   1 − ex   ex −1 
f (− x) = (− x)  − x  = − x   = x  x  = f ( x) .
 e +1   1+ e +
x
  e 1 
∴ f is an even function.
(iii) f ( x) = log ( x + x 2 + 1) ⇒ f ( − x) = log ( − x + x 2 + 1)
 ( x + x 2 + 1) (− x + x 2 + 1) 
∴ f ( − x ) = log  
 ( x + x 2 + 1) 
 x2 + 1 − x2  −1
= log   = log ( x + x + 1)
2

 x + x +1 
2

∴ f (− x) = − log ( x + x 2 + 1) = − f ( x) .
∴ f is an odd function.
3. Problem: Find the domains of the following real valued functions.

(ii) f ( x) = log ( x − [ x ])
1
(i) f ( x) =
[ x] − [ x] − 2
2

 3− x  1
(iii) f ( x) = log10   (iv) f ( x) = x + 2 +
 x  log10 (1 − x)

(v) f ( x) = 3 + x + 3 − x
x
Solution
1
(i) f ( x) = ∈ R ⇔ [ x] − [ x] − 2 > 0
2

[ x] − [ x] − 2
2

⇔ ([ x ] + 1) ([ x ] − 2 ) > 0
⇔ [ x ] < −1 (or) [ x ] > 2 .
Functions 33

But [ x ] < −1 ⇒ [ x] = −2, −3, −4............ ⇒ x < −1

[ x] > 2 ⇒ [ x ] = 3, 4,5,.......... ⇒ x ≥ 3

∴ Domain of f = ( −∞, −1) ∪ [3, ∞ ) = R [−1, 3).

(ii) f ( x) = log ( x − [ x ]) ∈ R ⇔ x − [ x ] > 0 ⇔ x > [ x ]

⇔ x is a non-integer
∴ Domain of f is R Z.

 3− x   3− x  3− x
(iii) f ( x) = log10   ∈ R ⇔ log 10   ≥ 0 and >0
 x   x  x
3− x
⇔ ≥ 100 = 1 and 3 − x > 0, x > 0
x
⇔ 3 − x ≥ x and 0 < x < 3
⇔ x ≤ 3 / 2 and 0 < x < 3

 3  3
⇔ x ∈  −∞,  ∩ (0, 3) =  0, 
 2  2

 3
∴ Domain of f is  0,  .
 2

1
(iv) f ( x) = x + 2 + ∈ R ⇔ x + 2 ≥ 0 and 1 − x > 0 and 1 − x ≠ 1
log10 (1 − x)

⇔ x ≥ −2 and 1 > x and x ≠ 0

⇔ x ∈[ −2, ∞ ) ∩ ( −∞,1) {0} ⇔ x ∈[ −2,1) {0}

∴ Domain of f is [−2, 1) {0} .
3+ x + 3− x
(v) f ( x) = ∈ R ⇔ 3 + x ≥ 0, 3 − x ≥ 0, x ≠ 0
x
⇔ − 3 ≤ x ≤ 3, x ≠ 0

⇔ x ∈ [−3,3] {0}

∴ Domain of f is [−3,3] {0} .

 34 Mathematics - IA

Exercise 1(c)

I. 1. Find the domains of the following real valued functions.

1 2 x2 − 5x + 7
(i) f (x) = (ii) f (x) =
( x − 1) ( x + 3)
2
( x − 1) ( x − 2) ( x − 3)
1
(iii) f (x) = (iv) f (x) = x − 3
log (2 − x )

1
(v) f (x) = 4x − x 2 (vi) f (x) =
1 − x2

3x
(vii) f (x) = (viii) f (x) = x 2 − 25
x +1
(ix) f (x) = x − [ x] (x) f (x) = [ x] − x
2. Find the ranges of the following real valued functions.
sin π [ x ]
(i ) log 4 − x 2 (ii ) [ x ] − x (iii )
1 + [ x]
2

x2 − 4
( iv ) (v) 9 + x2
x−2
3. If f and g are real valued functions defined by f ( x ) = 2 x − 1 and g ( x) = x 2 then find
 f 
(iii) 
 g 
(i) (3 f − 2 g ) ( x ) (ii) ( fg ) ( x) ( x)
 
(iv) ( f + g + 2) ( x )

4. If f = {(1, 2), (2, −3), (3, −1)} then find

(i) 2 f (ii) 2 + f (iii) f 2 (iv) f

II. 1. Find the domains of the following real valued functions.

(i) f ( x) = x 2 − 3 x + 2 (ii)i) f (x) = log (x 2 − 4 x + 3)
2+ x + 2− x 1
(iii) f ( x) = (iv)v f (x) =
x 3 (x − 2) log(4− x) 10
4 − x2
(v) f ( x) = (vi)i f (x) = log0.3 (x − x 2 )
[x] + 2
1
(vii) f ( x) =
x+ x
Functions 35

x x
2. Prove that the real valued function f ( x ) = + + 1 is an even function on
e −1 2
x

R {0}.
3. Find the domain and range of the following functions.
tan π [ x ] x
(i) f (x) = (ii) f (x) = (iii) f (x) = x + 1 + x
1 + sin π [ x ] +  x 2  2 − 3x

Key Concepts

L If f : A → B is a function then f (A) = { f (a) | a ∈ A} is called the range f. It is a subset of B,

and is denoted by Range f.

L f : A → B is an injection ⇔ a1 , a2 ∈ A, f (a1 ) = f (a2 ) imply a1 = a2 .

L f : A → B is a surjection ⇔ range f = codomain B ⇔ for any b ∈ B there exists atleast one

a ∈ A such that f ( a ) = b .

L f : A → B is a bijection ⇔ f is both an injection and a surjection.

L If f : A → B is a bijection then the relation f −1 = {(b, a) | (a, b) ∈ f } is a bijection from B to A

and is called the inverse function of f.

L Let f : A → B , g : B → C be functions then ( gof ) : A → C is a function and

( gof ) (a) = g ( f (a) ) for all a ∈ A.

L If f : A → B , g : B → C are bijections so is ( gof ) : A → C and ( gof ) −1 = f −1og −1 .

L If f : A → B is a bijection, then fof −1 = I B and f −1of = I A .

L If f : A → B , g : B → C are such that gof = I A , fog = I B then f is a bijection and g = f −1 .

L Let A be a nonempty subset of R such that − x ∈ A for all x ∈ A and f : A → R .

(i) If f (− x ) = f ( x ) for all x ∈ A then f is called an even function.

(ii) If f ( − x ) = − f ( x ) for all x ∈ A then f is called an odd function.

 36 Mathematics - IA

Historical Note

The history of the term “Function” furnishes an interesting example of the enthusiasm in
mathematicians to modify, refine and generalize their concepts.
The word “Function” seems to have been known to Descartes (1596 - 1650) in 1637,
who employed the term simply to mean some positive integral powers, x n , of a variable x. Somewhat
later, Leibnitz (1646 - 1716) employed the term to denote any quantity connected with a curve,
such as the coordinates of a point on the curve, the slope of the curve etc. Johann Bernoulli
(1667 - 1748) regarded a function as any expression made up of a variable and some constants and
Euler (1707 - 1783) gave a symbolic representation as f(x) to a function. Euler’s concept remains
unchanged till Fourier (1768 - 1830) has modified the earlier definition of a function in his
investigations of trigonometric series. These series involve a more general type of relationship between
variables that had previously been studied and have become instrumental in his attempt to furnish the
present definition of function broad enough to encompass such relationships by Lejeune Dirichlet
(1805 - 1859).

Answers
Exercise 1(a)

I. 1. (i) 5 (ii) 2 (iii) −2.5 (iv) 1 (v) Not defined

5. {3, 1, 7}

 1 7 13 
6.  ,1, , 
2 4 5 

II. 1. (i) f is not a surjection (ii) g is a surjection

2. (i) bijection (ii) bijection

(iii) bijection (iv) bijection

(v) not an injection but a surjection (vi) neither injection nor surjection

3. a = 2; b = −1 5. 2 6. a = ± 1, b = 1
 Functions 37

Exercise 1(b)

I. 1. f −1 ( x) = log e x, g −1 ( x) = e x

3. (i) 18 x 2 − 24 x + 11 (ii) 6 x 2 + 7 (iii) 21

(iv) 2653

4. (i) 9 x 2 + 5 (ii) 14 (iii) 36a 2 − 120a + 101

1
5. 6. x 7. 2
x

x−b
8. (i) (ii) log 5 x (iii) 2 x
a

1 + 4 log 2 x
10.
2
 x−7
1/ 3
25
II. 3. (i) (ii) 9 x − 30 x + 26
2
5.  
9  2 
6. x = 0, 2 7. f ( x ) , x

Exercise 1(c)

I. 1. (i) R {−1, 1, −3} (ii) R {1, 2, 3}

(iii) ( −∞, 2 ) {1} (iv) R

(v) [0,4] (vi) (−1, 1)

(vii) R {−1} (viii) R (−5, 5,)
(ix) R (x) Z
2. (i) R (ii) {0}

(iii) {0} (iv) R {4}

(v) [3, ∞ )

3. (i) −2 x 2 + 6 x − 3 (ii) 2x 3 − x 2
2x −1
(iii) (iv) ( x + 1) 2
x2
 38 Mathematics - IA

4. (i) {(1, 4), (2, −6), (3, −2)} (ii) {(1, 4), (2, −1), (3,1)}

(iii) {(1, 4), (2,9), (3,1)} {

(iv) (1, 2) }
II. 1. (i) R (1,2) (ii) R [1, 3]

(iii) [−2, 2] {0} (iv) ( −∞, 4) {2, 3}

(v) (−∞, −2) ∪ [−1, 2] , (vi) (0,1)

(vii) (0, ∞ )

3. (i) Domain R , range {0}

2  −1 
(ii) Domain R   , Range R  
3 3

(iii) Domain R , range [1, ∞)