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COMPUTER
ORGANIZATION
Basic Processor Structure
COMPUTER
ORGANIZATION
Basic Processor Structure
James Gil de Lamadrid
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2018 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business
No claim to original U.S. Government works
Printed on acid-free paper
Version Date: 20180131
International Standard Book Number-13: 978-0-8153-6246-3 (Hardback)
International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4987-9951-5 (Paperback)
This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts
have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume
responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers
have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to
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To my father and mother, who infused me with the
conviction that there are very few human activities
more important than pursuing knowledge.
Contents
Introduction and Remarks xvii
Chapter 1 Overview 1
1.1 HIGH-LEVEL, ASSEMBLY, AND MACHINE LANGUAGES 2
1.1.1 High-Level Languages 2
1.1.2 Machine Language 3
1.1.3 Assembly Language 4
1.2 COMPILERS AND ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE 5
1.2.1 Assembly Language Translation 5
1.2.2 The Translation Process 6
1.3 THE ASSEMBLER AND OBJECT CODE 7
1.3.1 External References 7
1.3.2 Compiler versus Assembler 9
1.4 THE LINKER AND EXECUTABLE CODE 10
1.4.1 Resolving External References 10
1.4.2 Searching Libraries 10
1.4.3 Relocation 11
1.5 THE LOADER 12
1.5.1 Processes and Workspaces 13
1.5.2 Initializing Registers 14
1.6 SUMMARY OF THE TRANSLATION PROCESS 15
1.7 THE PROCESSOR 15
1.7.1 Processor Behavior 16
1.7.2 Processor Structure 17
1.7.2.1 The Data Path, Registers, and Compu-
tational Units 17
1.7.2.2 Control Circuitry 18
1.8 DIGITAL CIRCUITRY 19
vii
viii Contents
1.9 SUMMARY 21
1.10 EXERCISES 21
Chapter 2 Number and Logic Systems 23
2.1 NUMBERS 24
2.1.1 Hexadecimal Numbers 26
2.1.2 Adding Binary Numbers 27
2.1.3 Representing Negative Integers 28
2.2 BOOLEAN ALGEBRA 32
2.2.1 Boolean Functions 32
2.2.2 Boolean Expressions and Truth Tables 34
2.2.3 Don’t Care Conditions 36
2.2.4 Boolean Simplification Using Identities 37
2.2.4.1 Boolean Identities 38
2.2.4.2 DeMorgan’s Law 39
2.2.4.3 Simplifying the XOR Function 39
2.2.4.4 Example Simplification Using Identities 39
2.2.5 Boolean Simplification Using Karnaugh-Maps 41
2.2.5.1 K-Map for Functions of Two Variables 41
2.2.5.2 K-Maps for Functions of Three Variables 43
2.2.5.3 K-Maps for Functions of Four Variables 46
2.2.5.4 Don’t Care Conditions in Karnaugh-
Maps 46
2.2.5.5 K-Maps for Functions of More than
Four Variables 47
2.3 SUMMARY 47
2.4 EXERCISES 48
Chapter 3 Digital Circuitry 51
3.1 COMBINATIONAL CIRCUITS 53
3.1.1 Designing with Logical Gates 53
3.1.2 Common Combinational Circuits 57
3.1.2.1 The Decoder 57
3.1.2.2 The Encoder 59
3.1.2.3 The Multiplexer 61
Contents ix
3.1.2.4 MUX Composition 62
3.1.2.5 The Adder 64
3.1.2.6 The Ripple-Carry Adder 66
3.2 SEQUENTIAL CIRCUITS 67
3.2.1 The Clock 68
3.2.2 Storage Devices 69
3.2.2.1 The D-Type Storage Devices 69
3.2.2.2 The D-Latch 70
3.2.2.3 The D-Flip-Flop 72
3.2.2.4 The J-K- Storage Device 73
3.2.2.5 Flip-Flops with Extra Pins 73
3.2.3 Sequential Design 75
3.2.3.1 The FSM and State Diagrams 75
3.2.3.2 The FSM and the State Transition Table 78
3.2.3.3 State Diagrams and Transition Tables:
Building One Representation from the
Other 79
3.2.3.4 Moore versus Mealy Machines 81
3.2.3.5 Implementing a Sequential Design 81
3.2.4 Sequential Circuit Analysis 84
3.2.5 Common Sequential Circuits 85
3.2.5.1 The Parallel-Load Register 86
3.2.5.2 The Shift Register 87
3.2.5.3 The Counter 88
3.2.5.4 The Standard Register 89
3.3 SUMMARY 91
3.4 EXERCISES 91
Chapter 4 Devices and the Bus 95
4.1 MEMORY 97
4.1.1 Memory Operation 97
4.1.2 Memory Types: ROM and RAM 98
4.1.3 Memory Composition 100
4.1.3.1 Horizontal Composition 100
4.1.3.2 Vertical Composition 101
4.1.4 Internal Memory Structure 103
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