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 Table of Atomic Masses*
Atomic Atomic Atomic Atomic Atomic Atomic
Element Symbol Number Mass Element Symbol Number Mass Element Symbol Number Mass
Actinium Ac 89 [227]§ Gold Au 79 197.0 Praseodymium Pr 59 140.9
Aluminum Al 13 26.98 Hafnium Hf 72 178.5 Promethium Pm 61 [145]
Americium Am 95 [243] Hassium Hs 108 [265] Protactinium Pa 91 [231]
Antimony Sb 51 121.8 Helium He 2 4.003 Radium Ra 88 226
Argon Ar 18 39.95 Holmium Ho 67 164.9 Radon Rn 86 [222]
Arsenic As 33 74.92 Hydrogen H 1 1.008 Rhenium Re 75 186.2
Astatine At 85 [210] Indium In 49 114.8 Rhodium Rh 45 102.9
Barium Ba 56 137.3 Iodine I 53 126.9 Roentgenium Rg 111 [272]
Berkelium Bk 97 [247] Iridium Ir 77 192.2 Rubidium Rb 37 85.47
Beryllium Be 4 9.012 Iron Fe 26 55.85 Ruthenium Ru 44 101.1
Bismuth Bi 83 209.0 Krypton Kr 36 83.80 Rutherfordium Rf 104 [261]
Bohrium Bh 107 [264] Lanthanum La 57 138.9 Samarium Sm 62 150.4
Boron B 5 10.81 Lawrencium Lr 103 [260] Scandium Sc 21 44.96
Bromine Br 35 79.90 Lead Pb 82 207.2 Seaborgium Sg 106 [263]
Cadmium Cd 48 112.4 Lithium Li 3 6.9419 Selenium Se 34 78.96
Calcium Ca 20 40.08 Lutetium Lu 71 175.0 Silicon Si 14 28.09
Californium Cf 98 [251] Magnesium Mg 12 24.31 Silver Ag 47 107.9
Carbon C 6 12.01 Manganese Mn 25 54.94 Sodium Na 11 22.99
Cerium Ce 58 140.1 Meitnerium Mt 109 [268] Strontium Sr 38 87.62
Cesium Cs 55 132.90 Mendelevium Md 101 [258] Sulfur S 16 32.07
Chlorine Cl 17 35.45 Mercury Hg 80 200.6 Tantalum Ta 73 180.9
Chromium Cr 24 52.00 Molybdenum Mo 42 95.94 Technetium Tc 43 [98]
Cobalt Co 27 58.93 Neodymium Nd 60 144.2 Tellurium Te 52 127.6
Copper Cu 29 63.55 Neon Ne 10 20.18 Terbium Tb 65 158.9
Curium Cm 96 [247] Neptunium Np 93 [237] Thallium Tl 81 204.4
Darmstadtium Ds 110 [271] Nickel Ni 28 58.69 Thorium Th 90 232.0
Dubnium Db 105 [262] Niobium Nb 41 92.91 Thulium Tm 69 168.9
Dysprosium Dy 66 162.5 Nitrogen N 7 14.01 Tin Sn 50 118.7
Einsteinium Es 99 [252] Nobelium No 102 [259] Titanium Ti 22 47.88
Erbium Er 68 167.3 Osmium Os 76 190.2 Tungsten W 74 183.9
Europium Eu 63 152.0 Oxygen O 8 16.00 Uranium U 92 238.0
Fermium Fm 100 [257] Palladium Pd 46 106.4 Vanadium V 23 50.94
Fluorine F 9 19.00 Phosphorus P 15 30.97 Xenon Xe 54 131.3
Francium Fr 87 [223] Platinum Pt 78 195.1 Ytterbium Yb 70 173.0
Gadolinium Gd 64 157.3 Plutonium Pu 94 [244] Yttrium Y 39 88.91
Gallium Ga 31 69.72 Polonium Po 84 [209] Zinc Zn 30 65.38
Germanium Ge 32 72.59 Potassium K 19 39.10 Zirconium Zr 40 91.22

§
*The values given here are to four significant figures where possible. A value given in parentheses denotes the mass of the longest-lived isotope.
This page intentionally left blank
 Sixth Edition

Introductory Chemistry

Steven S. Zumdahl
University of Illinois

Donald J. DeCoste
University of Illinois

Houghton Mifflin Company

Boston New York
To Alexander Joseph Wettergren and to Olivia,
Madeline, and Michael DeCoste

Publisher: Charles Hartford

Marketing Manager: Laura McGinn
Development Editors: Bess Deck, Rebecca Berardy Schwartz, Kate Heinle
Editorial Assistant: Henry Cheek
Marketing Assistant: Kris Bishop
Senior Project Editor: Cathy Labresh Brooks
Editorial Assistants: Emily Meyer, Cassandra Gargas
Art and Design Coordinator: Jill Haber
Photo Manager: Jennifer Meyer Dare
Composition Buyer: Chuck Dutton

Cover image: Digital Image Photography/Veer

Photo credits appear on the page following the Index.

Copyright © 2008 by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

No part of this work may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any

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Company, 222 Berkeley Street, Boston, MA 02116-3764.

Printed in the U.S.A.

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 2006932756

ISBNs—Hardcover
ISBN 13: 978-0-618-80328-6
ISBN 10: 0-618-80328-9

ISBNs—Paper
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ISBN 10: 0-618-80329-7

123456789-DOW-10 09 08 07 06
 Brief Contents

1 Chemistry: An Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

2 Measurements and Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

3 Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

4 Chemical Foundations: Elements, Atoms, and Ions . . . . . 72

5 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

6 Chemical Reactions: An Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

7 Reactions in Aqueous Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164

8 Chemical Composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202

9 Chemical Quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238

10 Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270

11 Modern Atomic Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302

12 Chemical Bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340

13 Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386

14 Liquids and Solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426

15 Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450

16 Acids and Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486

17 Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514

18 Oxidation–Reduction Reactions and Electrochemistry . . . 552

19 Radioactivity and Nuclear Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 582

v
This page intentionally left blank
 Contents
Preface xvii

1 Chemistry: An Introduction 1

1.1 Chemistry: An Introduction 1

CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: Dr. Ruth—Cotton Hero 4
1.2 What Is Chemistry? 4
1.3 Solving Problems Using a Scientific Approach 5
CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: A Mystifying Problem 6
1.4 The Scientific Method 7
1.5 Learning Chemistry 9
CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: Chemistry: An Important
Component of Your Education 10
Chapter Review 11

2 Measurements and Calculations 14

2.1 Scientific Notation 15

2.2 Units 18
CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: Critical Units! 19
2.3 Measurements of Length, Volume, and Mass 19
CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: Measurement: Past, Present,
and Future 21
2.4 Uncertainty in Measurement 22
2.5 Significant Figures 23
2.6 Problem Solving and Dimensional Analysis 28
2.7 Temperature Conversions: An Approach to
Problem Solving 33
CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: Tiny Thermometers 36
2.8 Density 41
Chapter Review 44

vii
viii Contents

3 Matter 54

3.1 Matter 55
3.2 Physical and Chemical Properties and Changes 56
3.3 Elements and Compounds 60
3.4 Mixtures and Pure Substances 61
CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: Concrete—An Ancient Material
Made New 62
3.5 Separation of Mixtures 64
Chapter Review 66
Cumulative Review for Chapters 1–3 70

4 Chemical Foundations: Elements, Atoms,

and Ions 72

4.1 The Elements 73

CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: Trace Elements: Small but
Crucial 76
4.2 Symbols for the Elements 76
4.3 Dalton’s Atomic Theory 78
CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: No Laughing Matter 79
4.4 Formulas of Compounds 79
4.5 The Structure of the Atom 81
CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: Glowing Tubes for Signs,
Television Sets, and Computers 83
4.6 Introduction to the Modern Concept of
Atomic Structure 84
4.7 Isotopes 85
CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: Isotope Tales 87
4.8 Introduction to the Periodic Table 88
CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: Putting the Brakes
on Arsenic 92
4.9 Natural States of the Elements 92
4.10 Ions 96
4.11 Compounds That Contain Ions 100
Chapter Review 103
 Contents ix

5 Nomenclature 112

5.1 Naming Compounds 113

CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: Sugar of Lead 114
5.2 Naming Binary Compounds That Contain a Metal and
a Nonmetal (Types I and II) 114
5.3 Naming Binary Compounds That Contain Only Nonmetals
(Type III) 122
5.4 Naming Binary Compounds: A Review 124
5.5 Naming Compounds That Contain Polyatomic Ions 127
5.6 Naming Acids 130
5.7 Writing Formulas from Names 131
Chapter Review 133
Cumulative Review for Chapters 4–5 140

6 Chemical Reactions: An Introduction 142

6.1 Evidence for a Chemical Reaction 144

6.2 Chemical Equations 145
6.3 Balancing Chemical Equations 149
CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: The Beetle That Shoots
Straight 152
Chapter Review 156

7 Reactions in Aqueous Solutions 164

7.1 Predicting Whether a Reaction Will Occur 165

7.2 Reactions in Which a Solid Forms 166
7.3 Describing Reactions in Aqueous Solutions 175
7.4 Reactions That Form Water: Acids and Bases 177
7.5 Reactions of Metals with Nonmetals
(Oxidation–Reduction) 180
7.6 Ways to Classify Reactions 184
CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: Do We Age by Oxidation? 185
CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: Oxidation–Reduction Reactions
Launch the Space Shuttle 187
7.7 Other Ways to Classify Reactions 188
Chapter Review 192
Cumulative Review for Chapters 6–7 200
x Contents

8 Chemical Composition 202

8.1 Counting by Weighing 203

CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: Plastic That Talks and
Listens! 205
8.2 Atomic Masses: Counting Atoms by Weighing 206
8.3 The Mole 208
8.4 Molar Mass 213
8.5 Percent Composition of Compounds 218
8.6 Formulas of Compounds 220
8.7 Calculation of Empirical Formulas 222
8.8 Calculation of Molecular Formulas 227
Chapter Review 229

9 Chemical Quantities 238

9.1 Information Given by Chemical Equations 239

9.2 Mole–Mole Relationships 241
9.3 Mass Calculations 243
CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: Methyl Alcohol: Fuel with
a Future? 249
9.4 Calculations Involving a Limiting Reactant 251
9.5 Percent Yield 257
Chapter Review 259
Cumulative Review for Chapters 8–9 268

10 Energy 270

10.1 The Nature of Energy 271

10.2 Temperature and Heat 273
10.3 Exothermic and Endothermic Processes 274
10.4 Thermodynamics 275
10.5 Measuring Energy Changes 276
CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: Coffee: Hot and
Quick(lime) 277
CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: Nature Has Hot Plants 279
CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: Firewalking: Magic
or Science? 282
 Contents xi

10.6 Thermochemistry (Enthalpy) 283

CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: Methane: An Important Energy
Source 284
10.7 Hess’s Law 285
10.8 Quality Versus Quantity of Energy 287
10.9 Energy and Our World 288
CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: Veggie Gasoline? 292
10.10 Energy as a Driving Force 293
Chapter Review 296

11 Modern Atomic Theory 302

11.1 Rutherford’s Atom 303

11.2 Electromagnetic Radiation 304
CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: Light as a Sex Attractant 305
CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: Atmospheric Effects 307
11.3 Emission of Energy by Atoms 308
11.4 The Energy Levels of Hydrogen 309
11.5 The Bohr Model of the Atom 311
11.6 The Wave Mechanical Model of the Atom 312
11.7 The Hydrogen Orbitals 313
11.8 The Wave Mechanical Model: Further Development 317
11.9 Electron Arrangements in the First Eighteen Atoms on the
Periodic Table 319
CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: A Magnetic Moment 322
11.10 Electron Configurations and the Periodic Table 323
CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: The Chemistry of
Bohrium 324
11.11 Atomic Properties and the Periodic Table 327
CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: Fireworks 329
Chapter Review 332
xii Contents

12 Chemical Bonding 340

12.1 Types of Chemical Bonds 341

12.2 Electronegativity 343
12.3 Bond Polarity and Dipole Moments 346
12.4 Stable Electron Configurations and Charges on Ions 347
CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: Composite Cars 350
12.5 Ionic Bonding and Structures of Ionic Compounds 351
12.6 Lewis Structures 352
12.7 Lewis Structures of Molecules with Multiple Bonds 356
CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: Hiding Carbon Dioxide 357
CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: Broccoli—Miracle Food? 359
12.8 Molecular Structure 363
12.9 Molecular Structure: The VSEPR Model 364
CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: Taste—It’s the Structure
That Counts 365
12.10 Molecular Structure: Molecules with Double Bonds 370
CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: Minimotor Molecule 371
Chapter Review 373
Cumulative Review for Chapters 10–12 382

13 Gases 386

13.1 Pressure 387

13.2 Pressure and Volume: Boyle’s Law 391
13.3 Volume and Temperature: Charles’s Law 395
13.4 Volume and Moles: Avogadro’s Law 399
13.5 The Ideal Gas Law 401
CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: Snacks Need Chemistry,
Too! 406
13.6 Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures 406
13.7 Laws and Models: A Review 411
13.8 The Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases 411
13.9 The Implications of the Kinetic Molecular Theory 412
13.10 Gas Stoichiometry 414
Chapter Review 416
 Contents xiii

14 Liquids and Solids 426

14.1 Water and Its Phase Changes 428

14.2 Energy Requirements for the Changes of State 429
CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: Whales Need Changes
of State 431
14.3 Intermolecular Forces 435
14.4 Evaporation and Vapor Pressure 435
14.5 The Solid State: Types of Solids 437
14.6 Bonding in Solids 439
CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: Metal with a Memory 443
Chapter Review 444

15 Solutions 450

15.1 Solubility 451

CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: Green Chemistry 454
15.2 Solution Composition: An Introduction 455
15.3 Solution Composition: Mass Percent 456
15.4 Solution Composition: Molarity 457
15.5 Dilution 462
15.6 Stoichiometry of Solution Reactions 465
15.7 Neutralization Reactions 467
15.8 Solution Composition: Normality 469
Chapter Review 473
Cumulative Review for Chapters 13–15 482

16 Acids and Bases 486

16.1 Acids and Bases 487

CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: Gum That Foams 489
16.2 Acid Strength 490
CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: Carbonation—A Cool
Trick 493
CHEMISTRY IN FOCUS: Plants Fight Back 494
16.3 Water as an Acid and a Base 495
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