CONSUMER BEHAVIOR REVIEWER ensuring consumer-driven

innovation.
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO -​ Companies like Toyota and Sony
CONSUMER BEHAVIOR AND leverage insights to maintain
MARKETING STRATEGY competitive advantage.
-​ Both manufacturers and retailers
ONLINE SHOPPING 2009 - Online can now carefully track consumer
marketing offers a global reach, operating reactions to new products and
24/7 while eliminating the need for services and evaluate marketing
physical stores and catalogs. It enhances strategies better than ever before.
direct consumer engagement, making
transactions more convenient and 3 MAJOR FACTORS INFLUENCING
cost-efficient. Internet sales continue to MARKETING SHIFTS:
grow, shaping the modern retail
landscape. GLOBAL COMPETITION - Companies
must innovate to compete (e.g., Japanese
MAJOR CRITICISMS OF ONLINE firms like Toyota and Sony set quality
MARKETING: benchmarks).

1ST CRITICISM: It is often seen as ADVANCEMENT IN CONSUMER

reaching only a limited segment of the RESEARCH - Improved data collection
population. and analytics allow for better consumer
-​ However, research shows that insights.
online shoppers reflect diverse
demographics, making RISE OF E-COMMERCE - Internet
e-commerce accessible to a wider marketing reshapes purchasing behaviors
audience. and marketing strategies.

2ND CRITICISM: Consumers are believed WHAT IS CONSUMER BEHAVIOR?

to use the internet mainly for research -​ The American Marketing
rather than making purchases. Association defines consumer
-​ Despite these concerns, studies behavior as “the dynamic
reveal that two-thirds of internet interaction of affect and cognition,
users do complete transactions behavior, and the environment by
online, indicating growing which human beings conduct the
consumer trust and improved exchange aspects of their lives.”
security measures.
-​ Involves the thoughts and feelings
INTERNET SHOPPING - was once seen people experience and the actions
as limited but now reflects broader they perform in consumption
demographics. processes.

COMMON PURCHASES: Travel services -​ Includes all the things in the

(e.g., airline tickets), Apparel and specialty environment that influence these
gifts, Books, CDs/DVDs, software thoughts, feelings, and actions.

ROLE OF CONSUMER RESEARCH IN -​ Consumer behavior is dynamic,

MARKETING STRATEGY: involves interactions, and involves
exchanges
MARKETING CONCEPT - Emphasizes
understanding and fulfilling consumer CONSUMER BEHAVIOR IS DYNAMIC -
needs. The thinking, feelings, and actions of
-​ Successful companies use individual consumers, targeted consumer
research to shape their strategies, groups, and society at large are constantly
changing.
CONSUMER BEHAVIOR INVOLVES PRIMARY OBJECTIVES - Understand
INTERACTIONS - Marketers need to consumption and its meanings
understand what products and brands PRIMARY METHODS - Long interviews
mean to consumers, what consumers and focus groups
must do to purchase and use them, and
what influences shopping, purchase, and 2.​ TRADITIONAL
consumption.
CORE DISCIPLINE - Psychology &
CONSUMER BEHAVIOR INVOLVES Sociology
INTERACTIONS AND EXCHANGES: PRIMARY OBJECTIVES - Explain
consumer decision making and behavior
INVOLVES INTERACTIONS - Involves PRIMARY METHODS - Experiments and
interactions between people’s thoughts, Surveys
feelings, actions, and environment.
-​ Marketers must understand 3.​ MARKETING SCIENCE
products and brands’ meaning, CORE DISCIPLINE - Economics &
purchasing requirements, and Statistics
influences on shopping, purchase, PRIMARY OBJECTIVES - Predict
and consumption to target similar consumer choice and behavior
consumers and improve their PRIMARY METHODS - Math-modeling &
marketing strategies. Simulation

INVOLVES EXCHANGES - Involves -​ MARKETING PRACTITIONERS

exchanges between humans, where invest millions annually in
people give up valuable items to obtain consumer research, employing
products and services. various firms , agencies, and
-​ Marketing plays a crucial role in academics to develop better
facilitating these exchanges by strategies, utilizing various
formulating and implementing approaches depending on the
strategies to help consumers and specific marketing problem or
sellers create mutually beneficial decision.
transactions.

SNOOPING ON SHOPPING TO
INCREASE SALES - Many companies
are using electronic and infrared
surveillance equipment to monitor
shoppers in stores, not to spot shoplifters
but to learn about their traffic patterns to
alter consumer buying habits.
-​ Marketers are gaining valuable
insights and statistical details by
tracking consumer movements.

CONSUMER BEHAVIOR - multifaceted

and diverse field with marketing
academics conducting most research USES OF CONSUMER BEHAVIOR
RESEARCH:
APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF
CONSUMER BEHAVIOR: EXHIBIT 1.2 - How marketing
organizations, government, and political
1.​ INTERPRETIVE APPROACH organizations, and consumers utilize
consumer behavior research to
CORE DISCIPLINES - Cultural understand how it impacts their
Anthropology interactions and exchanges.
 -​ Government and Political
organizations monitoring and
regulating marketing organizations
and consumers through public
policies.
-​ Consumer activists and industry
and trade org. exert pressure on
marketing organizations and
consumers to behave in specific
ways.

MARKETING ORGANIZATIONS -
encompasses businesses, hospitals,
museums, parks, firms, and other
organizations seeking consumer
exchanges, with primary focus on these
exchanges.

CONSUMER BEHAVIOR ROLE IN

MARKETING STRATEGY:

MARKETING STRATEGY - a plan to

influence exchanges to achieve
organizational objectives, aiming to
increase consumer positive perceptions of
products, brands and services.

MARKETING STRATEGIES - developed

by various organizations to increase
consumer confidence in purchasing from
the.
-​ Involve developing and presenting
marketing stimuli to target specific
markets, influencing thoughts,
feelings, and actions.
-​ Have a powerful impact on
consumers and society

ORGANIZATIONS - develop strategies,

from planning the future of large
corporations to changing strategies for a
single brand or store.

UNDERSTANDING CONSUMERS - helps

analyze and understand not only
consumers of products and brands but
also consumers of competitive offerings
and reasons for purchasing.

APPROACHES TO CONSUMER
BEHAVIOR RESEARCH:
 HOW DO ATTITUDES AND BELIEFS
FORM?

ATTITUDES- are shaped by personal

beliefs, past experiences, and social
influences. A consumer may have a
positive attitude toward a brand because
of positive past experiences or due to
emotional attachment.

EXAMPLE: A person has a positive

CHAPTER 2: A FRAMEWORK FOR attitude toward Apple because they’ve had
CONSUMER ANALYSIS good experiences with their products in
the past.

THOUGHTS CREATES FEELINGS - what

we think affects how we feel
EXAMPLE: “I might fail.” (you may feel
anxious)

FEELINGS CREATE BEHAVIOR - our

emotions influence what we do
EXAMPLE: If you feel anxious, you
might avoid a challenge.

WHAT ARE CONSUMER THOUGHTS BEHAVIOR REINFORCES THOUGHTS -

AND FEELINGS? our actions confirms our original thoughts
EXAMPLE: If you avoid the challenge,
COGNITION - mental processes like you might think “I knew I couldn’t do
perception, memory, and decision-making it,” which strengthens the cycle.
that help consumers form judgments
about products and brands. WHAT ACTIONS DO CONSUMERS
TAKE?
AFFECT - emotional responses or
feelings consumers have toward products, CONSUMER BEHAVIOR - behaviors
brands, or experiences. These emotions exhibited by consumers in the
can significantly influence purchase marketplace, such as searching for
decisions. information, making purchases, using
products, and post-purchase evaluations
HOW DO EMOTIONS AND THOUGHTS that is also called overt behavior.
INFLUENCE DECISIONS?
ACTIVE BEHAVIORS - Researching a
Cognitive responses (logical thinking) product online
and affective responses (emotions) can
both shape consumer behavior. A PASSIVE BEHAVIORS - Influenced by an
consumer might buy a product because it ad
solves a problem (cognition) or because
it makes them feel good (affect). WHY DO CONSUMERS ENGAGE IN
CERTAIN BEHAVIORS?
EXAMPLE: A consumer buys a sports car
because it gives them an emotional sense CONSUMERS - are driven by needs,
of freedom (affect) and is seen as a status desires, and goals.
symbol (cognition).
NEED - might push a consumer to
purchase a product
DESIRE - might make them choose a POST-PURCHASE BEHAVIOR - After
specific brand over others. buying, they evaluate their decision. If
they’re happy, they feel satisfied. If not,
EXAMPLE: A consumer buys a water they regret it.
bottle because they need it to stay EXAMPLE: “I love this iphone”.
hydrated (need) or because they like the
brand for its eco-friendly image (desire). LEADS TO PROBLEM RECOGNITION -
Over time, they notice new needs or
HOW DO BEHAVIORS VARY BY problems.
CONSUMER TYPE? EXAMPLE: “This phone battery drains to
Fast.”
Not all consumers behave the same way.
RELATIONSHIP AMONG AFFECT,
IMPULSE BUYER - are more likely to COGNITION, BEHAVIOR, AND
make unplanned purchases ENVIRONMENT

DELIBERATE CONSUMERS - carefully BEHAVIOR - refers to the observable

analyze and compare options before actions of consumers, such as shopping,
making a decision. purchasing, and using products.

EXAMPLE: A deliberative consumer AFFECT AND COGNITION - influence

spends time comparing different brands of behavior, but marketing strategies must
laptops based on reviews, while an ultimately lead to actual consumer actions
impulse buyer purchases a phone case to be effective.
immediately after seeing a sale.
ENVIRONMENT - includes social, cultural,
and physical factors that impact what
consumers think, feel, and do.

MARKETERS - use various

strategies—such as product quality,
pricing, convenience, availability, and
brand image—to influence consumer
behavior

WHAT EXTERNAL FACTORS AFFECT

CONSUMER DECISIONS?
CONSUMER PURCHASE DECISION
PROCESS: CONSUMER ENVIRONMENT - includes
all the external factors that influence
INFORMATION SEARCH - looking for buying decisions, such as social
solutions, like reading reviews or asking influences, cultural context, economic
friends conditions, advertising, and retail settings.
EXAMPLE: “What’s the best phone to EXAMPLE: A store’s layout or lighting
buy?” could affect how likely consumers are to
make a purchase.
EVALUATION OF ALTERNATIVES - they
compare different options based on price, ROLE OF CONSUMER RESEARCH AND
features, reviews ANALYSIS IN MARKETING STRATEGY:
EXAMPLE: “SHOULD I GET AN IPHONE
OR A SAMSUNG?” MARKETING STRATEGY - involves
stimuli placed in consumer environments
PURCHASE DECISION - they choose to influence their affect, cognition, and
and buy the product behavior.
EXAMPLE: “I’ll buy the iphone.”
 -​ must be dynamic—they are they adjust based on new insights. The
influenced by consumer research cycle repeats, ensuring marketing remains
and need to adapt accordingly. relevant and effective.

STIMULI - Products, brands, packaging,

advertisements, price tags, salespeople,
and even sensory cues (music, smells).

THE WHEEL OF CONSUMER

ANALYSIS - shows that consumer
behavior is constantly evolving based on
interactions between affect, behavior, and
environment.
​
CONSUMER RESEARCH AND MARKETING STRATEGY- is the hub of
ANALYSIS - Businesses collect data on this wheel, guiding how companies
consumer needs, preferences, and understand, target, and influence
behaviors. (surveys, focus groups, consumers.
market trends, and competitor
analysis.) APPLICABLE TO 4 LEVELS:

MARKETING STRATEGY a. SOCIETIES – How cultural and social

DEVELOPMENT - Based on the research, trends affect buying behavior.
businesses create a marketing plan. b. INDUSTRIES – How businesses use
(product positioning, pricing, consumer analysis to stay competitive.
promotion, and distribution strategies.) c. MARKET SEGMENTS – Identifying and
targeting specific groups of consumers.
MARKETING STRATEGY D. INDIVIDUAL CONSUMERS –
IMPLEMENTATION - The developed Understanding unique consumer choices
strategy is put into action through and behavior
advertising, sales, social media, and
promotions. Businesses engage with CONSUMER BEHAVIOR ROLE IN
consumers and track responses. MARKETING STRATEGIES

CONSUMERS: AFFECT, COGNITION, CONSUMERS - are the focal point in the

BEHAVIOR, AND ENVIRONMENT - development of successful marketing
Consumers react to marketing efforts strategies.
based on emotions (affect), thoughts
(cognition), actions (behavior), and MARKETING STRATEGIES - both
external influences (environment). influence and are influenced by consumer’
Their responses determine whether the affect and cognition, behavior, and
strategy is effective. environmental

CONSUMER RESEARCH AND THE ROLE OF THE WHEEL OF

ANALYSIS (AGAIN) - Businesses analyze CONSUMER ANALYSIS TO THE 4
how consumers reacted. If the strategy LEVELS:
works, they refine and continue it. If not,
SOCIETIES - can be used to analyze
changes in a society's beliefs and
behaviors.

INDUSTRIES - helps companies analyze

consumer product relationships with
consumers in specific industries.

MARKET SEGMENTS - helps firms

understand consumer groups with similar
cognition, affect, behavior, and
environment. Successful firms divide the
market into segments and appeal to (1)​ ENVIRONMENT
specific segments. ●​ The supermarket environment on a
Saturday morning is busy and
INDIVIDUAL CONSUMERS - helps noisy, with social aspects
analyze consumption history, single influencing Greg's affect,
purchases, or aspects of a purchase for cognition, and behavior.
specific consumers. ●​ Physical aspects like store
layout, aisle width, special sale
signs, product displays, lighting,
and temperature also impact
Greg's behavior. However, Greg
may not be consciously aware of
these environmental influences.
(2)​ BEHAVIOR
●​ Greg engages in various
behaviors in the
supermarket, such as
walking down aisles,
looking at products,
picking up packages, and
talking to friends.
●​ These behaviors
influence his affect and
cognition, leading to his
eventual purchases.
Marketers are most
concerned with purchase
behavior, which includes
picking up packages,
placing them in the cart,
CHAPTER 3: AFFECT AND COGNITION and paying at the
AND MARKETING STRATEGY checkout.
Consumer behavior situations such as (3)​ MARKETING STRATEGIES
Greg Macklin’s grocery shopping trip ●​ Greg's in-store environment
can be analyzed in terms of four is influenced by marketing
elements: behavior, environment, strategy decisions made
by retailers and
marketing strategies, and the internal
manufacturers.
factors of affect and cognition. ●​ Grocery stores showcase
●​ Environment a variety of marketing
●​ Behavior strategies, including
●​ Marketing Strategies distribution, pricing,
●​ Affect and Cognition promotion, package
 designs, and element in the Wheel of Consumer
environmental details. Analysis—the environment, behaviors,
These strategies aim to or even other affective and cognitive
influence consumers' affect, responses. Affect and cognition are
cognition, and behavior by
produced by the affective and
influencing their behavior
and affect. Examples
cognitive systems, respectively.
include reduced prices on
Oreo cookies, free samples Affect refers to feeling responses,
of cheese, easy-opening whereas cognition consists of mental
milk containers, and (thinking) responses.
low-calorie frozen entrées.

(4)​ AFFECT AND COGNITION

●​ Greg's affective and cognitive
systems are active in the
supermarket environment,
influencing his shopping
decisions. He pays attention to
certain aspects and focuses
on products that capture his
attention.
●​ He interprets information,
evaluates products, and Types or Levels of Affective
makes choices based on his Responses
needs and family needs. His The four types of affect differ in the
grocery-purchasing behavior is level of bodily arousal or the intensity
influenced by his social and with which they are experienced. The
physical environment, stronger affective responses,
marketing strategies, his own including emotions such as fear or
behavior, and the processes of anger, may involve physiological
his affective and cognitive responses (which are felt in the body)
systems. After 45 minutes, Greg such as increased heart rate or blood
emerges with five bags of pressure, perspiration, dry mouth,
groceries containing 48 different tears, rushes of adrenaline, or
products, feeling happy and butterflies in the stomach.
ready for his tennis match. This
highlights the complex interplay The Affective System
between affective and cognitive Affective responses are produced
systems and how we all perform by the affective system. Although
similar feats while shopping. researchers are still studying the brain
physiology of how the affective system
AFFECT AND COGNITION AS operates, they generally agree on five
PSYCHOLOGICAL RESPONSES basic characteristics One important
Affect and cognition are different types property is that the affective system
of psychological responses consumers is largely reactive.
can have in situations such as grocery
shopping. A related characteristic of the
affective system is that people have
Consumers can have both affective little direct control over their
and cognitive responses to any affective responses. A third feature of
the affective system is that affective
responses are felt physically in the
body. Fourth, the affective system can
respond to virtually any type of
stimulus. Fifth, most affective
responses are learned.

WHAT IS COGNITION?
Human beings have evolved a highly
sophisticated cognitive system that
performs the higher mental
processes of understanding,
evaluating, planning, deciding, and Exhibit 3.4 illustrates how the two
thinking systems are related. Each system can
respond independently to aspects of
Understanding - Interpreting the environment, and each system can
the meanings of specific aspects of respond to the output of the other
one’s environment system. Although the affective and
cognitive systems involve different
Evaluating - Judging whether parts of the brain, they are richly
an aspect of the environment, or one’s connected by neural pathways.
own behavior, is good or bad, positive Therefore, each system continuously
or negative, favorable or unfavorable influences the other.
Planning - Determining how to MARKETING IMPLICATION
solve a problem or reach a goal Understanding consumer behavior
requires looking at both feelings
Broadly to refer to all these mental (affect) and thoughts (cognition).
processes, as well as to the
thoughts and meanings produced Consumer satisfaction involves
by the cognitive system. A major emotions like liking a product and
function of people’s cognitive systems understanding why. A brand image
is to interpret, make sense of, and includes knowledge about the brand
understand significant aspects of their and emotional responses related to it.
personal experiences. Marketers must consider both feelings
and thoughts in their strategies,
DECIDING - Comparing alternative depending on the product. For
solutions to a problem in terms of their instance, products that evoke strong
relevant characteristics and selecting feelings, like ice cream, are affected by
the best alternative. emotional reactions. Häagen-Dazs
successfully used this approach in its
THINKING - The cognitive activity that European ads, leading to a huge
occurs during all of these processes. increase in sales. Remember, feelings
can strongly influence decisions,
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN AFFECT alongside thoughts.
AND COGNITION
The relationship between affect and Using Metaphors to Communicate
cognition remains an issue in Affective and Cognitive Meaning
psychology. Several researchers Because affect and cognition are so
consider the affective and cognitive intimately interrelated, marketers
systems to be (at least some-what) should address both types of meaning
in their marketing strategies. Paying integration processes. Integration
careful attention to metaphors can help processes concern how consumers
managers do so. Consider the basic combine different types of knowledge
metaphor “time is (like) money. ” (1) to form overall evaluations of
People in Western societies may products, other objects, and behaviors
indirectly express this common and (2) to choose among alternative
metaphor in various ways: behaviors, such as a purchase.
●​ Can you spend some time with
me? Additional Characteristics of the
●​ That will save time for us. Cognitive System
●​ I felt like I was frozen in time. Several aspects of the cognitive
●​ He squandered his time on system influence decision making by
earth. consumers. Activation, for instance,
refers to how product knowledge is
retrieved from memory for use in
interpreting and integrating information
Daydreaming is a good example of
activation; various bits of knowledge or
meanings surface as a person’s
conscious mind drifts from one thought
to another. Additional Characteristics
of the Cognitive System Another
important characteristic of our
cognitive systems (and also the
Exhibit 3.5 is a general model of affective system) is that much of its
consumer decision making that operations are unconscious .That is,
highlights these cognitive much of our “thinking” occurs below
processes of interpretation, the level of conscious awareness. This
integration, and product knowledge means people usually are not aware of
in memory. A Model of Consumer the interpretation or integration
Decision Making Interpretation processes that occur more or less
processes require exposure to continuously in their brains, and often
information and involve two related they are unaware of the output of
cognitive processes: attention and those cognitive processes.
comprehension. Attention governs
how consumers select which TYPES OF KNOWLEDGE
information to interpret and which (1)​GENERAL KNOWLEDGE -
information to ignore. Comprehension concerns people’s
refers to how consumers determine interpretations of relevant
the subjective meanings of information information in their
and thus create personal knowledge environments. General
and beliefs. Knowledge, meanings, knowledge is stored in memory
and beliefs interchangeably to refer to as links or connections between
consumers’ subjective understanding two concepts: (Nikon cameras
of information produced by are Expensive) The connections
interpretation processes. Exhibit 3.5 or links are the key to
shows that knowledge, meanings, understanding meaning.
and beliefs may be stored in Knowledge or meaning exists
memory and later retrieved from when a concept in memory is
memory (activated) and used in linked to another concept.
 (2)​PROCEDURAL KNOWLEDGE Three Types of Cognitive Learning
- stored in memory as a 1.​ Accretion - Most cognitive
special type of “if ... then ... ” learning probably occurs by
link between a concept or an accretion . As consumers
event and an appropriate interpret information about
behavior. products and services, they
If you are dissatisfied with the service add new knowledge,
do not leave a tip. Like general meanings, and beliefs to their
knowledge, people’s procedural existing knowledge
knowledge is relevant for many structures: “Nike shoes are
everyday situations. expensive, ” “Nike shoes have
good cushioning” .
STRUCTURES OF KNOWLEDGE 2.​ Tuning - As consumers gain
Consumers’ general and procedural experience with a product,
knowledge is organized to form knowledge structures tend to
structures of knowledge in memory. become larger and more
Our cognitive systems create complex through accretion
associative networks that organize and processes.
link many types of knowledge together. 3.​ Restructuring - Restructuring
involves the revision of the
TYPES OF KNOWLEDGE entire associative network of
STRUCTURES knowledge, which might
People have two types of knowledge include creation of entirely
structures: schemas and scripts. new meaning structures
Each is an associated network of and/or reorganization of an
linked meanings, but schemas contain old knowledge structure.
mostly episodic and semantic general Accretion, and sometimes
knowledge, whereas scripts are tuning, can occur without much
organized networks of procedural cognitive effort or awareness
knowledge. (essentially unconsciously and
automatically).
COGNITIVE LEARNING
- occurs when people interpret
information in the environment and
create new knowledge or meaning.
Often these new meanings modify
their existing knowledge structures in
memory. Consumers can learn about
products or services through direct
personal use experience. Cognitive
learning can also occur through
consumers’ vicarious product
experiences. Cognitive learning occurs
when consumers interpret
product-related information from the
mass media (news stories, advertising,
etc.) or from personal sources (friends
and family).
 messaging, social media content, or
in-store experiences.

INTERPRETATION PROCESS:
-​ ATTENTION - Consumers
selectively focus on certain stimuli
while ignoring others based on
factors like relevance, personal
interest, or how noticeable the
stimulus is.
-​ COMPREHENSION - Consumers
interpret and make sense of the
information based on their prior
knowledge and experiences.

NEW KNOWLEDGE, MEANINGS, AND

BELIEFS - As consumers process
information, they form new knowledge,
meanings, and beliefs about the product,
brand, or situation.

MEMORY (Stored Knowledge,

Meanings, and Beliefs) - Some of this
new information is stored in memory and
integrated with existing knowledge,
CHAPTER 5: ATTENTION AND shaping future perceptions and decisions.
COMPREHENSION
INTEGRATION PROCESS: Consumers
combine new and stored knowledge to
develop:

-​ ATTITUDES AND INTENTIONS -

Their feelings and evaluations
about a product or brand.
-​ DECISION-MAKING - Based on
these attitudes, consumers decide
whether to purchase or engage
with the product.

BEHAVIOR - the consumer takes action,

such as making a purchase, trying out a
product, or recommending it to others.
CONSUMERS’ COGNITIVE
PROCESSES INVOLVED IN EXPOSURE TO INFORMATION -
INTERPRETATION - describe how Exposure to information is critical for
consumers perceive, understand, and consumers’ interpretation processes—no
react to information in their environment. exposure, no interpretation.
-​ Consumers are exposed to
ENVIRONMENT - refers to external stimuli information in the environment,
that consumers are exposed to, such as
including marketing strategies,
advertisements, product packaging, brand
 primarily through their own Most investigations of consumer search
behaviors. behavior have found rather low levels of
intentional exposure to marketing
2 TYPES OF EXPOSURE: information. Before making a purchase,
PURPOSIVE OR INTENTIONAL most consumers visit only one or two retail
EXPOSURE - happens when consumers stores and consult very few salespersons
actively seek out information that interests and external sources of information.
them or helps them make decisions.
EXAMPLES: Searching for product Most consumers already have substantial
reviews before making a purchase, visiting product-related knowledge, meanings,
a brand’s website to compare prices, and beliefs stored in their memories. If
watching tutorial videos to understand they feel confident in their existing
how a product works. knowledge, or if they feel little involvement
with the decision (low self relevance),
RANDOM OR ACCIDENTAL EXPOSURE consumers have little motivation to
- happens when consumers come across engage in an extensive search for
information without actively looking for it. information. Marketing information is
This occurs unexpectedly and can everywhere in the consumer-oriented
influence their attitudes or decisions even environments of most industrialized
if they weren’t initially interested. countries.
EXAMPLES: Seeing an ad while scrolling
through social media, noticing a billboard INTERNET - huge source of marketing
while driving, overhearing a conversation information
about a product in a store.
SELECTIVE EXPOSURE TO
-​ Consumers are exposed to some INFORMATION - consumers become
marketing information because of more adept at avoiding exposure (some
their own intentional, goal-directed consumers intentionally avoid reading
search behavior. Typically, product test reports or talking with
consumers search for relevant salespeople).
marketing information to help solve -​ Or consumers do not maintain
a purchasing problem. accidental exposure to marketing
information (some people
SEARCH BEHAVIOR - refers to how automatically throw away most
consumers actively seek information junk mail unopened). Such
before making a purchase or decision. behaviors result in selective
exposure to marketing information.
CONSUMER REPORTS - detailed
evaluation of products, services, or MARKETING IMPLICATIONS - marketers
companies, often based on independent should develop specific strategies to
research, expert testing, and customer enhance the probability that consumers
reviews. will be exposed to their information and
products. There are three ways to do this:
MARKETING INFORMATION - refers to
data and insights that businesses collect FACILITATE INTENTIONAL EXPOSURE
to understand consumer behavior, market (Encourage consumers to actively seek
trends, and competition. your content)- marketers should facilitate
intentional exposure by making sure
appropriate marketing information is the interpretation processes of attention
available when and where consumers and comprehension begin.
want it.
ATTENTION - implies selectivity.
MAXIMIZE ACCIDENTAL EXPOSURE -​ Attending certain information
(Increase chances of consumers involves selecting it from a large
coming across your brand set of information and ignoring
unexpectedly) - marketers should try to other information.
place their information in environmental SELECTIVE ATTENTION - is highly
settings that maximize accidental influenced by the consumer’s goals that
exposure to the appropriate target groups are activated in the situation.
of consumers. Certain types of retail -​ Attention also connotes awareness
outlets, such as convenience stores, ice and consciousness. To attend to a
cream shops, and fast-food restaurants, stimulus usually means being
should be placed in locations where conscious of it. Attention also
accidental exposure is high. suggests intensity and arousal.
-​ Consumers must be somewhat
MAINTAIN EXPOSURE - Keep alert and aroused to consciously
consumers engaged and remind them attend to something, and their level
about your brand of alertness influences how
intensively they process the
information.

VARIATION IN ATTENTION:
A company’s distribution strategy plays Attention processes vary along a
the key role in creating accidental continuum from a highly automatic,
exposure to products. Distribution is to unconscious level called preconscious
products such as soft drinks, cigarettes, attention to a controlled, conscious level
chewing gum, and potato chips what called focal attention .
location is to fast-food restaurants—it’s
nearly everything. As a consumer’s interpretation processes
shift from preconscious attention toward
Marketers place ads in the environment to focal attention, greater cognitive capacity
maximize the chances of accidental is needed.
exposure. -​ At a focal level, attention is largely
controlled by the consumer, who
Maximum exposure at the retail level is decides which stimuli to attend to
not desirable for all products. and comprehend based on what
goals are activated.
One of the most important functions of a
company’s distribution strategy is to create
the appropriate level of exposure to the
product.

ATTENTION PROCESSES: Once

consumers are exposed to marketing
information, whether accidentally or
through their own intentional behaviors,
 for focal attention and
Most researchers assume that consumers’ comprehension.
cognitive systems respond to all stimuli
that receive some level of attention, ENVIRONMENTAL PROMINENCE - The
whether preconscious or focal. The stimuli associated with marketing
affective system also responds to strategies can also influence consumers’
attended stimuli, whether conscious or attention.
not. -​ not every marketing stimulus is
equally likely to activate relevant
Affective responses can range from knowledge structures, receive
simple evaluations (good or bad) to attention, and be comprehended.
strong feelings (disgust) to emotions -​ most prominent marketing stimuli
(joy or anger). are most likely to attract attention;

As interpretation processes move toward

focal levels of attention, affective
responses usually become more intense
and consumers become more conscious
of their affective states.

FACTORS INFLUENCING ATTENTION:​

3 IMPORTANT INFLUENCES:

CONSUMERS’ GENERAL AFFECTIVE

STATE - Consumers’ affective arousal
can influence their attention processes.
-​ low arousal reduces the amount
and intensity of attention.
-​ a state of high affective arousal is
thought to narrow consumers’
focus of attention and make
attention more selective.
-​ Consumers who are in a bad (or
good) mood are more likely to
notice negative (or positive)
aspects of their environment.

INVOLVEMENT - The level of involvement

a consumer feels is determined by the
means–end chains activated from
memory, related affective responses, and
arousal level.
-​ Involvement is a motivational state
that guides the selection of stimuli