MODULE 4

Explain the term critical path.

Critical Path – Explanation (3 Marks)

1. Definition: The critical path is the longest sequence of dependent tasks in a project that
determines the shortest possible time to complete the entire project.
2. Impact on Project Duration: Any delay in activities on the critical path will directly affect
the overall project duration, as there is no slack or float time in these tasks.
3. Identification: To find the critical path, project managers create a network diagram of all
activities and their dependencies, calculate the duration of each path, and identify the one
with the longest total duration.

Optional: Simple Network Diagram (If you want a visual)

A (3d) --> B (4d) --> D (2d)
\ /
\--> C (5d) --------/

• Path 1: A → B → D = 3 + 4 + 2 = 9 days
• Path 2: A → C → D = 3 + 5 + 2 = 10 days → Critical Path

What do you mean by project management?

1. Definition: Project management is the discipline of applying specific processes and
principles to initiate, plan, execute, and manage new initiatives or changes within an
organization.
2. Difference from Routine Management: Unlike regular business activities (which are
continuous), project management focuses on temporary efforts to create unique products or
achieve specific business goals.
3. Key Activities: It involves planning, delegating, monitoring, and controlling all aspects of a
project, along with motivating the team to successfully achieve project objectives.

Differentiate between CPM and PERT

Point of PERT (Program Evaluation and Review

CPM (Critical Path Method)
Difference Technique)
1. Nature of Used for predictable, repetitive
Used for uncertain, research-based projects
Project projects
2. Focus Focuses on time-cost trade-off Focuses on time estimation and uncertainty
3. Time Uses single (deterministic) time Uses three (probabilistic) time estimates
 Point of PERT (Program Evaluation and Review
CPM (Critical Path Method)
Difference Technique)
Estimation estimates (optimistic, pessimistic, most likely)
4. Application Suitable for construction, Suitable for R&D, new product
Area production, maintenance development

Explain the dummy activity in a project network.

Dummy Activity in a Project Network (4 Marks)

A dummy activity is a fictitious or imaginary task used in a project network diagram (especially
in Activity-on-Arrow (AOA) diagrams) to show dependency or relationship between tasks
without consuming any time or resources.

Key Points (1 mark each):

1. Purpose: Dummy activities help maintain the correct logical sequence between project
tasks, especially when two or more activities share the same start or end nodes.
2. Representation: It is represented by a dashed arrow in the network diagram.
3. Duration: Dummy activities have zero duration and do not require resources.
4. Usage Example: Used to avoid duplication of activities or to distinguish between activities
that have the same start and end events but are logically different.

• Activity A and Activity B both start from the same point.

• Activity C depends only on Activity A.
• Activity D depends on both Activity A and B.
To show this dependency clearly, we use a dummy activity.

Network Representation (Activity-on-Arrow):

A B
1 ---> 2 ---> 3
| \
| \
| Dummy D
|------------> 4 --->

C
2 ---> 5
Explanation:
• A (1 → 2) and B (1 → 3) are real activities.
• C (2 → 5) depends only on A.
• D (4 → end) depends on both A and B, so a dummy activity (2 → 4) is added to show that
dependency without adding time or work.

What are the rules for constructing a project network:

1. Start and End Events: Every project must have a unique start and end node representing
the beginning and completion of the project.
2. Logical Sequence: Activities should be arranged in the correct logical order, based on
dependencies (i.e., which activity must be completed before the next starts).
3. No Loops or Cycles: The network should not contain any loops or circular paths. An
activity cannot depend on itself directly or indirectly.
4. Use of Dummy Activities: Dummy activities are used to maintain correct logic when two
or more activities have the same start and end events but are logically distinct. They help in
avoiding ambiguity.

What is an event in a project network? Using sketches, explain merge and

burst events

An event is a point in time that marks the start or completion of one or more project activities. It
does not consume time or resources, but shows when an activity starts or ends in a network
diagram.

Types of Events: Merge and Burst Events (3 Marks)

1. Merge Event (1.5 Marks)
• A merge event occurs when two or more activities end at the same event (i.e., multiple
arrows converge into a single node).
• It indicates that all preceding activities must be completed before the next can start.
Sketch:
A B
\ /
\ /
\ /
● (Merge Event)
2. Burst Event (1.5 Marks)
• A burst event occurs when a single event gives rise to two or more activities (i.e., multiple
arrows leave the same node).
• It indicates that multiple activities start from a common point.
Sketch:
● (Burst Event)
/ \
/ \
A B

Define a Project. Which project scheduling technique use probabilistic(3)

approach?

Write notes on time-cost trade off in project management

The time-cost trade-off is a concept in project management that involves balancing the project
duration and the associated costs. It reflects the relationship between how much time a project will
take to complete and how much it will cost to reduce or extend that time.
Key points:
1. Project Duration vs. Cost:
• In most projects, the time required for completion can be reduced by adding more
resources (e.g., labor, equipment), which increases the project cost.
 • Conversely, reducing resources or extending the project timeline may lower costs but
result in delayed completion.
2. Crashing:
• The process of accelerating project completion by adding resources is called
crashing. While it reduces project duration, it comes with a higher cost.
• Crashing is often applied to critical path activities, as shortening these tasks will
directly affect the project timeline.
3. Optimal Balance:
• The goal is to find an optimal balance between project time and cost, where the
benefits of shortening the project duration (e.g., meeting customer expectations or
faster returns on investment) outweigh the additional costs.
4. S-curve Model:
• An S-curve is often used to visualize the trade-off, showing how the project cost
increases as the project duration decreases. The curve reflects a point beyond which
crashing no longer yields significant time savings.
In summary, the time-cost trade-off helps project managers make informed decisions about whether
to shorten the project timeline at the expense of additional costs or whether to extend it to minimize
expenses.

List out the steps involved in developing a project network.

1. Define Project Activities:
• Identify all the tasks or activities required to complete the project. Break down the
work into manageable components (Work Breakdown Structure - WBS).
2. Determine Activity Sequence:
• Establish the logical relationships between activities. Identify which activities must
precede or follow others. This helps in understanding the dependencies (e.g., Finish-
to-Start, Start-to-Start).
3. Estimate Activity Durations:
• Estimate the duration for each activity based on available resources, historical data,
or expert judgment.
4. Develop Network Diagram:
• Create a visual representation of the project activities and their dependencies using a
network diagram. This can be done using methods like the Activity-on-Node (AON)
or Activity-on-Arrow (AOA).
5. Identify the Critical Path:
• Calculate the earliest start and finish times, as well as the latest start and finish times
for each activity. This helps in identifying the critical path, which determines the
minimum project duration.
 6. Perform Forward and Backward Pass:
• Use the forward pass to determine the earliest possible start and finish times for each
activity.
• Use the backward pass to calculate the latest possible start and finish times.
7. Calculate Total Float:
• Calculate the total float or slack for each activity, which indicates how much delay an
activity can tolerate without affecting the overall project timeline.
By following these steps, a comprehensive project network is created, enabling effective scheduling
and management of project tasks.

Differentiate between critical and non-critical activity

Criteria Critical Activity Non-Critical Activity

Activities that are not immediately required
Activities that are essential for the
for the timely completion of the project.
project to be completed on time. Any
Definition Delays in these activities can be absorbed
delay in these activities will directly
without affecting the overall project
impact the project’s completion date.
schedule.
Delay in critical activities leads to Delay in non-critical activities does not affect
Impact on
delay in the entire project. These the overall project timeline. These activities
Project
activities are on the critical path. have float or slack time.
Critical activities have zero float or Non-critical activities have positive float or
Float
slack time. slack time.
High priority in scheduling and Can be given lower priority compared to
Priority in
resource allocation to ensure no critical activities, as their delay does not
Scheduling
delay. affect the project’s end date.

List the steps involved in PERT method.

1. The project is broken down into various activities systematically.
2. Arrange all activities in logical sequence.
3. Construct the network diagram.
4. Events and activities are numbered.
5. Using three time estimate, the expected time for each activity is calculated.
6. Standard Deviation and variance of each activity are calculated.
7. EST and LFT are calculated.
8. Expected time, earliest starting time and latest finishing times are marked on
the network diagram.
9. Slack is calculated.
10. Critical paths are identified and marked on the network diagram.
11. Length of critical path or total project duration is found out.
12. Lastly the probability that the project will finish at due date is calculated

Define project management. What are the three phases of project management?
Project Management is the practice of initiating, planning, executing, controlling, and
closing the work of a team to achieve specific goals and meet success criteria within a
specified time.
Three Phases of Project Management:
1. Project Planning Phase:
• In this phase, the project objectives, scope, and deliverables are defined. The
planning phase also includes setting up the project schedule, resource allocation, and
identifying potential risks.
2. Scheduling Phase:
• This phase involves organizing tasks, assigning timelines, and ensuring that activities
are completed on time. Tools like Gantt charts or network diagrams are often used to
visualize and track progress.
3. Project Control Phase:
• The control phase involves monitoring the project’s progress to ensure it stays on
track. It includes comparing actual performance with planned performance,
managing changes, and addressing any issues or risks that arise.
These phases help ensure that a project is completed successfully, on time, and within budget.
Explain the term project crashing.
Project Crashing refers to the process of accelerating the completion of a project by adding
additional resources to the activities on the critical path. The goal of project crashing is to
shorten the overall project duration, typically to meet a tight deadline or to improve time
efficiency.
Key Points:
1. Critical Path Focus: Crashing focuses on the activities in the critical path, as any delay in
these activities directly impacts the project's end date. By shortening these tasks, the project
can be completed earlier.
2. Resource Addition: Crashing involves adding more resources (such as extra labor,
equipment, or technology) to speed up the completion of tasks. This might include working
overtime or hiring more workers.
 3. Cost Increase: While crashing can shorten the project duration, it typically leads to higher
costs due to the additional resources or overtime needed.
In summary, project crashing is a technique used to accelerate project timelines by adding resources
to critical path activities, but it often comes at an increased cost.

Identify the methodology which is opted when activity timings could not be
estimated with enough certainty? List the steps

Describe the different start and finish times of an activity

What is Fulkerson’s rule?
Fulkerson's Rule is a technique used to find the critical path in a project network when the
project consists of activities with uncertain durations. It provides a systematic method for
determining the sequence of activities that affects the project's overall duration.
Key points of Fulkerson’s Rule:
1. Determine Earliest Start and Finish Times: Start by calculating the Earliest Start (ES)
and Earliest Finish (EF) times for all activities, starting from the beginning of the project
and moving forward through the network.
2. Determine Latest Start and Finish Times: Then, calculate the Latest Start (LS) and
Latest Finish (LF) times, starting from the end of the project and moving backward through
the network.
3. Identify the Critical Path: The critical path is determined by identifying activities where
the Earliest Start time equals the Latest Start time and the Earliest Finish time equals the
Latest Finish time. These activities have zero slack and form the critical path.
Purpose:
Fulkerson’s Rule is used to help project managers identify the critical path and ensure that all
critical activities are properly managed, as any delay in these activities will directly affect the
project's completion time.
Describe the network construction process in project management
The network construction process in project management involves creating a visual
representation of project activities and their dependencies.
1. Define Project Activities:
• List all tasks or activities required to complete the project, typically based on the
Work Breakdown Structure (WBS).
2. Determine Dependencies:
• Identify and establish the logical relationships between activities, i.e., which tasks
need to be completed before others can begin (e.g., Finish-to-Start, Start-to-Start).
3. Create the Network Diagram:
• Draw the network diagram to represent activities (as nodes) and their dependencies
(as arrows). This diagram shows the flow of work through the project.
4. Identify Critical Path:
• Determine the critical path, which is the longest sequence of dependent activities
that directly affect the project's completion time. Activities on this path have no slack
or float.
This process helps in scheduling, managing resources, and tracking the project progress.
Discuss the importance of crashing in project management and its application
Importance of Crashing in Project Management:
1. Accelerating Project Completion:
• Crashing is used to shorten the project duration when there's a need to meet a
deadline or reduce the time to market. By adding extra resources or working
overtime, the project can be completed faster.
2. Minimizing Delays:
• When delays occur or unforeseen challenges arise, crashing helps bring the project
back on track by focusing on reducing the time of critical activities, ensuring that the
overall project timeline is not jeopardized.
3. Optimizing Resource Utilization:
• Crashing helps in better resource allocation by adding more resources to critical
tasks. This ensures that the most time-sensitive parts of the project are prioritized
without compromising overall quality.
Application of Crashing:
1. Identifying Critical Path:
• Crashing is applied to activities on the critical path because any delay in these
activities will directly affect the project's completion date.
 2. Resource Addition:
• It involves increasing resources (e.g., more workers, additional equipment, or
overtime) for tasks on the critical path to reduce their duration.
3. Cost Implications:
• Crashing typically increases project costs due to additional resources or overtime.
However, the decision is made based on a cost-benefit analysis where the benefit of
completing the project sooner outweighs the extra costs.
In summary, crashing is crucial for reducing project duration in time-sensitive situations, but it
comes with added costs and resource demands. It’s typically applied to critical path activities for
maximum effect.

PART B

What are the uses of PERT and CPM?

Uses of PERT (Program Evaluation and Review Technique) and CPM
(Critical Path Method):
1. Project Scheduling and Planning:
• Both PERT and CPM are used to plan and schedule project activities. They help in
determining the sequence of tasks, estimating the time required for each task, and
establishing a project timeline.
2. Identifying the Critical Path:
• CPM helps identify the critical path, the longest sequence of dependent tasks that
determines the project duration. In PERT, although it is not explicitly focused on
critical path, it helps in calculating the expected time for each activity, which helps in
determining the critical path indirectly.
3. Resource Management:
• CPM is particularly useful for determining resource allocation, as it focuses on
optimizing time and cost. It helps in managing resources effectively by identifying
which activities can be delayed and which are critical.
• PERT is useful when there is uncertainty in activity durations, helping project
managers understand the possible variability in project timelines.
4. Risk and Uncertainty Management:
• PERT is specifically useful in managing uncertainty by using three time estimates
(optimistic, pessimistic, and most likely) for each activity. This helps in evaluating
the project’s potential variability and risks.
 • CPM assumes more predictable time estimates and focuses on optimizing the project
schedule, making it more suitable for projects with well-defined activities and
predictable durations.
In summary, both PERT and CPM are essential for effective project management, helping in
scheduling, resource management, risk assessment, and ensuring that projects are completed on
time.

Explain the rules for network analysis in project management

1. Activity Representation:
• Each activity in the project is represented by a node (or arrow, depending on the
network diagram type). The node contains information such as the activity name and
duration.
2. Correct Sequencing of Activities:
• Activities must be arranged in a logical sequence according to their dependencies.
Activities that need to be completed before others must be connected with
appropriate arrows or links in the diagram.
3. No Loops or Circles:
• The network should not contain any loops or cycles. This means that there should be
no activity that can be revisited or repeated. This ensures that the project follows a
proper, non-repetitive flow of activities.
4. Use of Dummy Activities:
• Sometimes, dummy activities are used in the network (particularly in Activity-on-
Arrow diagrams) to show dependencies where no actual work is involved. These
dummy activities help clarify complex dependencies between activities without
adding extra time to the project schedule.
By following these rules, a network diagram can accurately represent the project’s workflow,
helping in the identification of critical paths, estimation of project duration, and better management
of resources and risks.

Write notes on Fulkerson’s rule of numbering events.

Fulkerson’s Rule is a method used in project management to assign unique numbers to events (or
nodes) in a project network diagram, helping to simplify the process of determining the project's
critical path and scheduling. The rule is particularly useful in Activity-on-Arrow (AOA) network
diagrams.

Key Points of Fulkerson’s Rule:

1. Numbering Events Sequentially:
 • Events are numbered sequentially from 1 to the total number of events in the project,
starting from the first event (the start of the project) and continuing through to the
last event (the project’s completion).
2. Forward Numbering:
• Fulkerson’s Rule recommends numbering events from left to right in the network
diagram, based on the sequence of activities and their dependencies. This ensures
that an event’s number reflects the order of the project timeline.
3. Event Numbering Based on Dependencies:
• When determining the number of events, ensure that dependent activities or events
are assigned numbers based on the sequence. For example, an event that depends on
the completion of another activity should have a higher number than the preceding
event.
4. Unique Event Numbers:
• Each event must have a unique number. This helps to clearly define the start and end
points of each activity and ensures there is no confusion when calculating the critical
path or project duration.
By using Fulkerson’s Rule, project managers can create a clear, logical sequence of events, making
it easier to track the flow of the project and manage its schedule effectively.

Differentiate between activity and event in a project network.

Aspect Activity Event

A task or operation that needs to be A milestone or point in time marking the
Definition
performed to complete the project. completion or start of an activity.
Time Does not require time; it marks a point
Requires time to complete.
Requirement in time.
Resource Requires resources (e.g., manpower,
Does not require resources.
Requirement materials).
Represents work that is done to Marks the completion or initiation of
Purpose
achieve project objectives. one or more activities.
Designing a product, writing code, Completion of design phase, project
Example
testing software. review approval.

Compare CPM and PERT

PERT (Program Evaluation and Review
Aspect CPM (Critical Path Method)
Technique)
Focuses on project scheduling and Focuses on project planning and determining
Purpose
determining the critical path. project timelines with uncertainty.
Nature of Activities have well-defined and Activities have uncertain durations, estimated
Activities deterministic durations. with three time estimates (optimistic,
pessimistic, and most likely).
 PERT (Program Evaluation and Review
Aspect CPM (Critical Path Method)
Technique)
Uses a single time estimate for Uses three time estimates: optimistic,
Time Estimates
each activity. pessimistic, and most likely.
Linear and deterministic, best
Probabilistic, suitable for projects with
Methodology suited for projects with well-
uncertain or unknown durations.
known activities.

Primarily used for construction,

Primarily used for research and development,
Application engineering, and manufacturing
and projects with high uncertainty.
projects.

Using beta distribution, explain the three time estimates associated with the
PERT
In PERT (Program Evaluation and Review Technique), the beta distribution is used to estimate the
time required for each project activity by considering uncertainty. The three time estimates
associated with the PERT method are:

Time Estimate Definition Explanation

The shortest time in which an This estimate assumes that there are no delays,
Optimistic
activity can be completed, and all resources are available as planned. It
Time (O)
assuming everything goes right. represents the best-case scenario.
The longest time in which an This estimate assumes that worst-case
Pessimistic
activity can be completed, conditions prevail, such as delays, resource
Time (P)
considering all possible delays. shortages, or unforeseen issues.
The best estimate of the time This estimate is the most realistic, assuming
Most Likely
required for completing an activity typical obstacles and conditions, and represents
Time (M)
under normal conditions. the most probable duration.
The beta distribution is then used to calculate a weighted average of these three estimates to
provide a more accurate expected duration. The formula for the expected time (TE) is:

Where:
• O = Optimistic time
• M = Most likely time
 • P = Pessimistic time

Discuss the common errors to be avoided while drawing network diagrams.

Error Explanation
Activities should be placed in the correct order based on their logical
Incorrect sequencing of
dependencies. Incorrect sequencing can lead to confusion and affect
activities
the project schedule.
Dependencies (such as "finish-to-start") should be correctly
Ignoring dependencies
represented. Missing dependencies can cause incorrect network flow
between activities
and affect critical path determination.
The diagram should be simple and clear. Adding unnecessary details
Overcomplicating the
or too many intermediate steps can make the diagram difficult to read
diagram
and understand.
Milestones (events) should be clearly represented in the network
Incorrect or missing
diagram. Missing milestones can lead to confusion about project
milestones
progress and key deliverables.

What are the rules for constructing network diagram?

1. Represent activities with arrows: Use arrows to represent project activities. The direction
of the arrow indicates the flow of work.
2. Represent events with nodes: Events (milestones) are represented as nodes (usually
circles). They signify the start or completion of activities.
3. Define dependencies clearly: Ensure that dependencies (e.g., finish-to-start) are clearly
shown with arrows between nodes, representing the logical sequence of tasks.
4. Use dummy activities when needed: Dummy activities (dashed arrows) are used to show
relationships between tasks without any actual work being involved, maintaining proper
logical sequencing.
These rules help maintain clarity and ensure that the network diagram accurately represents project
tasks and their relationships.

What is activity on arc representation in a project network?

Activity on Arc (AOA) is a method of representing activities in a project network where the
activities are represented by arcs (arrows) and events (milestones) are represented by nodes
(circles).
Here are the key points about AOA representation for 4 marks:
1. Activities as Arcs: In AOA, the actual project activities are shown as arrows (arcs), which
are drawn between nodes, representing the logical flow from one activity to another.
2. Events as Nodes: The nodes represent events (milestones), which are points of completion
or initiation of activities. Each node corresponds to a specific point in time.
 3. Dependency Representation: The direction of the arrows shows the sequence or
dependency between activities. The arrows indicate that an activity must be completed
before another can begin.
4. Dummy Activities: Sometimes, dummy activities (represented by dashed arrows) are used
to represent logical dependencies that do not involve actual work but are necessary to
maintain correct sequencing.
In summary, AOA focuses on representing activities as arrows and events as nodes, with
dependencies shown through the flow of arrows connecting the nodes.

Explain the following terms

(i) Crash Cost
(ii) Crash time
(iii) Project Crashing

(i) Crash Cost (2 Marks)

Crash cost refers to the additional cost incurred when reducing the duration of an activity in a
project by accelerating its completion. This involves using extra resources, overtime, or more
expensive methods to complete the task in a shorter time.
• Normal Cost: The standard cost of completing an activity within its usual time frame.
• Crash Cost: The increased cost associated with reducing the activity’s duration by using
extra resources or methods to speed up work.
Example: If an activity usually takes 10 days at a cost of $1,000 but can be completed in 7 days
with the use of overtime, the additional $500 is the crash cost.

(ii) Crash Time (2 Marks)

Crash time refers to the minimum time that an activity can be completed by applying maximum
resources or using methods like overtime work, additional labor, or other techniques to expedite the
process. It is the shortest possible duration to complete an activity.
• Normal time: The time it typically takes to complete an activity under normal conditions.
• Crash time: The reduced time achieved by speeding up the activity, usually resulting in
additional costs.
Example: If an activity normally takes 10 days to complete, but through resource intensification
(like more workers or overtime), it can be reduced to 7 days, then 7 days is the crash time.

(iii) Project Crashing (2 Marks)

Project crashing is the process of accelerating project activities to shorten the overall project
duration. This is typically done when a project needs to be completed earlier than planned, and the
goal is to minimize the project’s critical path.
To crash a project:
 1. Identify the critical path: Focus on activities on the critical path because they directly
affect the overall project duration.
2. Crash activities: Choose activities that can be shortened with the least cost increase. This is
done by applying crash cost and reducing crash time for specific tasks.
3. Optimize resources: Use additional resources or different techniques to expedite tasks
without causing excessive cost overruns.
However, crashing has limits, as not all activities can be reduced indefinitely. The process requires
balancing between time reduction and additional costs to determine the most effective way to
complete the project on time while managing the costs.
Example: A construction project may be delayed, and the project manager may decide to crash
certain activities like foundation work by adding extra workers or machinery, which will cost more
but help to complete the project on time.
In summary:
• Crash Cost: Extra cost incurred to speed up an activity.
• Crash Time: The minimum time an activity can be reduced to.
• Project Crashing: The overall strategy to reduce project duration by shortening critical path
activities at an increased cost.

What is meant by events in a network diagram. How are the events

classified.

Events in a Network Diagram:

Events in a network diagram represent milestones or points in time marking the start or completion
of activities. They have no duration but show when an activity begins or ends, helping to establish
the logical flow of a project.

Classification of Events:
1. Start Event:
• Marks the beginning of a project or a phase.
• Indicates when the first activity starts.
2. Intermediate Event:
• Occurs between the start and end events.
• Represents milestones or transitions from one activity or phase to another.
3. End Event:
• Marks the completion of the project or a phase.
• Signifies the conclusion of all activities.
These events help structure the project timeline and show dependencies between tasks.
Explain Activity-on-Arc(AOA) and Activity-on-Node(AON) in detail with 8
suitable graphical representations

Activity on Arc (AOA) - Explanation (2 Marks)

In Activity on Arc (AOA) representation, activities are represented by arcs (arrows), and events
are represented by nodes (circles). The nodes represent milestones or events that mark the
completion of an activity. The arrows connecting the nodes represent the activities, and the direction
of the arrows shows the logical sequence of the project tasks.
• Events signify points in time when an activity starts or finishes.
• Activities are the tasks or operations that need to be completed, represented by arrows.

Diagram:
(Start) ----> [Activity A] ----> (Event 1)
|
v
[Activity B]
|
v
(End)

Activity on Node (AON) - Explanation (2 Marks)

In Activity on Node (AON) representation, activities are represented by nodes (rectangles), and
events are implied by the flow of activities. The arrows indicate the relationships (dependencies)
between activities. AON is more intuitive than AOA because activities are shown directly on the
nodes, making it easier to visualize the flow and dependencies.
• Activities are represented as nodes, which contain the task descriptions.
• Arrows represent the dependencies or relationships between the activities.

Diagram:
[Activity A] ----> [Activity B]
|
v
[Activity C]

Four Rules for Drawing Network Diagrams (0.5 Marks Each)

1. Represent activities with arrows (for AOA): Arrows represent activities, and their
direction indicates the flow of work.
2. Represent events with nodes (for AOA): Nodes represent milestones or points in time
when an activity starts or finishes.
3. Proper sequencing of activities: The activities should be arranged in the correct logical
order, showing dependencies.
4. Use dummy activities where needed (for AOA): Dummy activities (represented by dashed
arrows) may be used to represent dependencies that do not involve any work but are
required to maintain the logical flow.

Discuss the time-cost optimization procedure in detail

3. Rank Activities (1 Mark)
• Rank activities based on their cost slopes from lowest to highest.
• Importance: Activities with the lowest cost slopes are the most cost-effective to crash, as
they provide the largest reduction in time for the smallest increase in cost. These should be
targeted first for crashing.

4. Crash the Activities (1 Mark)

• Crash the activities with the lowest cost slopes first, reducing their duration as much as
possible without exceeding their crash time.
• Procedure: Apply additional resources, work overtime, or use more efficient methods to
reduce the time required for the selected activities. Ensure that these activities remain on the
critical path.
• Importance: Crashing activities with the lowest cost slopes will minimize the overall
increase in cost while achieving the desired reduction in project time.
5. Reduce Critical Path, Check Parallel Critical Paths (1 Mark)
• After crashing the selected activities, update the network diagram to reflect the new
durations and critical paths.
• Procedure: If crashing one activity reduces the duration of the critical path, check if other
paths become critical. If parallel critical paths exist, repeat the crashing process for those
paths.
• Importance: The goal is to shorten the project duration, so after each crash, reevaluate the
critical path to ensure the reduction is effective.

6. The Total Cost is Found Out (1 Mark)

• After crashing the necessary activities, calculate the total cost of the project, including both
normal costs and the additional crash costs incurred.
• Procedure: Sum the normal costs for activities not crashed, and add the crash costs for
activities that were shortened. The total cost reflects the new project duration and the cost
increase due to crashing.
• Importance: This step provides the final total project cost and ensures that the time-cost
optimization has been balanced effectively. The objective is to achieve the desired project
duration at the lowest possible cost.

Summary of Procedure:
1. Find Critical Path: Identify the longest path that dictates the project duration.
2. Calculate Cost Slopes: Determine the cost per unit of time reduced for each activity.
3. Rank Activities: Rank activities based on cost-effectiveness for crashing.
4. Crash the Activities: Apply crashing techniques to activities on the critical path.
5. Reduce Critical Path, Check Parallel Critical Paths: Update the critical path and check
for any parallel critical paths.
6. Find Total Cost: Calculate the new project total cost, including normal and crash costs.
This procedure helps achieve time-cost optimization by strategically reducing project duration with
minimal cost impact.

What are the different networking components1. Events (2 Marks)

Definition:
In project management, events represent significant milestones or points in time that mark the start
or completion of activities. Events themselves do not have any duration; they simply indicate the
occurrence of specific milestones.
 • Function: Events are used to indicate when a certain activity begins or finishes and help in
tracking progress within the project. They are usually represented as nodes (circles) in
Activity on Node (AON) diagrams and in Activity on Arrow (AOA) diagrams, events are
represented by the nodes that connect the arrows (activities).
• Example: In a construction project, the "Approval of Design" could be an event, indicating
that the design phase has been completed, even though the actual work or activities have
finished.

2. Jobs/Activity/Task (2 Marks)
Definition:
A job, activity, or task is a specific piece of work that needs to be completed within a project.
These are the individual tasks that consume time and resources, and they are represented by arrows
in Activity on Arrow (AOA) diagrams or by nodes in Activity on Node (AON) diagrams.
• Function: Activities are the core work units in a project, and each activity typically has a
duration, a start time, an end time, and resources allocated to it. Activities are the building
blocks of project scheduling.
• Example: In a software development project, "Develop Login Page" or "Test User
Interface" would be considered activities or tasks, with specific durations, resources, and
dependencies.

These two components — events and activities — are crucial in creating network diagrams for
visualizing and scheduling project tasks and milestones.

Write short notes on project crashing

Project Crashing is a schedule compression technique used in project management to reduce the
total project duration with the least possible cost increase.

Key Points:
1. Objective:
To shorten the project duration without compromising the scope, by speeding up
activities, especially those on the critical path.
2. Method:
Involves adding extra resources, using faster methods, or working overtime to reduce the
time required for certain activities.
3. Cost-Time Trade-off:
Crashing typically leads to higher costs, so the process involves selecting activities with the
lowest cost slope (i.e., least cost per time saved).
4. Steps Involved:
• Identify the critical path.
 • Calculate cost slopes for activities.
• Crash activities with lowest cost slope first.
• Update the network and recheck for new critical paths.
5. Limitation:
Crashing cannot be done indefinitely; each activity has a crash limit, and excessive crashing
may lead to resource strain or quality issues.

Conclusion:
Project crashing is an effective technique for meeting deadlines when time is critical, but it must be
applied carefully to avoid excessive cost or reduced quality.