1.

1 – System Architecture

Fetch-decode-execute cycle:
The instruction is fetched from the RAM via the Program Counter, the control unit
interoperates the instruction and execute, runs the instruction, this could mean
fetching more instructions to be processed.

ALU – (Arithmetic Logic Unit), performs logic and arithmetic calculations

CU – (Control Unit), controls how data flows around the CPU
Cache – stores frequently accessed data

Registers:
MDR – holds the data fetched from or to be written to RAM
MAR – holds the address of where data will be fetched or stored
Accumulator – holds the results of the ALU
Program Counter – holds next instruction

1.2 – CPU Performance

Clock speed – number of instructions can be handled at once
Cache size – stores frequently accessed data
Number of cores – more cores, means more instructions can be processed
simultaneously

1.1.3 – Embedded Systems

Embedded Systems are a computer systems built for a specific purpose
Examples Include: Washing Machines, Intensive Care Unit, MP3 Player

1.2 – Memory and Storage

Primary Storage is needed to temporarily store data within fast memory
RAM – Stores current program, running on PC, background tasks. Can be written and
read from (volatile)
ROM – Stores initial bootup program known as BIOS, can only be read from (non-
volatile)

Virtual Memory is needed when there is not enough physical capacity of RAM installed
into the system, a portion of secondary storage acts as virtual memory to hold more
temporary data, until it is no longer needed or when RAM becomes free.
1.2.2 – Secondary Storage
Secondary Storage is needed to store long-term data that is non-volatile. Such things
like programs, data, files, OS.
Different Types Include:
Magnetic – HDD (high capacity, medium speed, not portable, reliable, not durable, does
not cost too much)
Optical – DVD, CD (low capacity, low speeds, portable, not reliable or durable, cheap)
Solid State – SSD, M.2 (medium-high capacity, fast transfer speeds, not portable,
reliable, durable, expensive)

Bit
Nibble (4 bits)
Byte (16 bits)
Kilobyte (1KB)
Megabyte (1000KB)
Gigabyte (1000MB)
Terabyte ( 1000GB)
Petabyte (1000TB)

Data must be stored in binary forms as computer works in 1,0s, 1 is on and 0 is off, this
is how computer processes data.

sound file size = sample rate x duration (s) x bit depth

image file size = colour depth x image height (px) x image width (px)
text file size = bits per character x number of characters

Denary Number Range: 0 – 255

Hexadecimal Range: 00 – FF
Binary Range: 00000000 – 11111111

Characters:
Character Set – A list of different denary values that match to a specific
letter/number/special character
Examples: Unicode, ASCII
If ‘A’ represents 63, ‘B’ would be one more representing 64
Images:
A image is multiple of pixels inside a file, represented in binary.
Metadata is information about the data
If colour depth increases, quality increase, file size increases.
If resolution increases, quality increases, file size increases.

Sound:
If sample rate, duration or bit depth increases file size increases
Sound wave is sampled, and amplitude is measured at set time intervals, each sample
stored as binary number.

Sample Rate measured in Hz (hertz)

Duration length of sound file in seconds
Bit depth – number of bits available to store each sample

1.2.5 - Compression
Compression reduces file size, could be to free up/save capacity or reduce upload time
to servers e.g email.

Lossy (Images) – Permanently deletes data, reducing the quality of the file, though the
human eye can not recognise it (Decreases file size significantly)
Lossless (Text Files) – rearranges data in a more efficient way (Doesn’t decrease too
much)

1.3.1 - Networks and topologies

LAN (Local Area Network), owned by a singular entity, small geographic location
WAN (Wide Area Network), big geographic location, made up of multiple LANS

Factors that affect performance of network:

Bandwidth – amount of data that can be transferred set by ISP
Latency – the delay until data reaches the location
Error Rate – when data has to get resent, as it did not deliver to the location
Number of users connected – bandwith is split across the devices
Connection Method – Wifi: Interferences e.g EM waves, Walls Wired: Limited
Interferences, faster connection speed

Client – Server: Client sends a request to server, server responds

Peer – Peer: Each Peer can act like a client or a server
Wireless Access Points – Provide a Wireless connection within a LAN
Routers – Connect Devices together allowing communication
Switches – Allow for more wired physical connections
NIC – Provides Unique identifier called MAC Address
A Domain Name Service (DNS) is made up of multiple Domain Name Servers

The URL that the user has provided has been received by the DNS, then it searches the
DNS root name, the root server responds with the top level domain e.g (.com), it makes
a request to the top level domain and then the top level domain responds with the IP
address of the URL provided, the DNS then resolves the IP to the URL.

Web server → Web pages, File server → file storage/retrieval

Advantages of Using the Cloud:

- Access your files anywhere in the world with internet
- Encryption could be provided
- Backups could be provided

Disadvantages of Cloud:
- Data can be hacked
- Could be unreliable data speeds of transfer

Network Topologies:
Star
Advantages: Easy to wire and setup, Easier to manage
Disadvantage: Can be susceptible to data collisions increasing error rate, reliant on one
central node
Mesh
Advantages: If one connection point goes down data can still be travelled, less error rate
Disadvantages: Harder to wire/setup, May require a IT Technician to manage

1.3.2 Wired and wireless networks, protocols and layers

Encryption scrambles data so it cannot be readable without decryption via a key, this
prevents hackers from reading the data even if intercepted they would need a key.
IPV4: can be up to 3 numbers separated by a full stop e.g 192.168.1.254
IPV6: ABCD:GAER:ETQE:TKEQ:531S:REQFD:431S:RQWS (separated by a colon each 4
characters 8x)
MAC – Unique identifier provided by a NIC, this allows for packets in a LAN to be routed
to the correct device, via a routing table.
Standard – to allow devices be compatible with each other via agreeable connection
method. E.g it allows other companies hardware/software work with others.
Protocol – a set of agreeable rules to allow devices to communicate with each other
E.g
TCP/IP – handles errors
HTTP - Websites
HTTPS – end-end encryption for websites
FTP – File Transfer Protocols
POP – Post Office Protocol – receive emails
SMTP – Simple Mail Transfer Protocol – send emails
IMAP – Internet Mail Access Protocol – send emails + sync with server

Layers – a group of similar protocols to perform a specific function

Benefits of using layers:
A programmer can change one layer without affecting others.
It allows different developers to focus on one aspect of the network
It promotes compatibility with companies and systems

1.4.1 Threats to computer systems and networks

Malware – can be downloaded or spread on a computer system that could have a RAT,
Virus, Adware, Keylog
Social Engineering – e.g phishing tricking people to giving personal info
SQL Injection – injecting malicious code into a sql input
Brute Force – trying many random combinations in order to gain access
Denial of service – sending many request/packets to a IP address, that it fails to handle
Data interception – stealing data whilst it is going to another device

1.4.2 Identifying and preventing vulnerabilities

Anti-malware software – scans computer files to find malware and removes it
Firewall – block unauthorised internet access to your computer / manage ports
Encryption – scrambles data only can be readable via a key
Physical Security – locks, cctv
User Access Levels – a user access rights privilege on a file/folder onto a computer
Passwords – A added layer of protection, a form of authentication in order to access
something

1.5.1 Operating systems

Features of a UI:
WIMP: Windows, Icons, Menu Pointers
Memory Management:
The OS manages where programs temporary files should be stored in RAM
Also allows for multitasking by allowing each program to have a time slice of the CPU
Processing Power

Manages Peripherals:
Manages Physical devices and hardware connected inside via a device driver allowing
communication between it

Manages User Access Levels:

Who can read/write the files

File Management:
Allows for creation of files, naming, moving files, saving files

1.5.2 Utility software

Encryption – Data is scrambled using a random algorithmic combination that can only
be decrypted by a key. Even if data is intercepted or obtained it cannot be read without
the key.
Defragmentation – Similar files onto the physical hard drive onto the pc are grouped to a
specific place onto the drive allowing for the disk drive’s head to not move as much in
order to improve read/write speeds across the file
Data Compression – The reduction of the capacity of the data

1.6.1 Ethical, legal, cultural and environmental impact

Different Laws:
Data Protection Act – data must be secure, the person should know what personal data
of theirs is stored, it should be a reasonable amount of time and a moral purpose.
Computer Misuse Act – computers should not be hacked including data and the
creation of malware to distribute for immoral purposes
Copyright and Patents Act – you cannot copy other people’s designs without their
permission

Open Source:
Free
Can see source code
less digital divide
Proprietary:
Paid for to gain a license to a software
Source code hidden
People cannot steal your creation without your permission
Community Support
Less Bugs
More Digital Divide