Cambridge (CIE) IGCSE Co- Your notes
ordinated Sciences (Double
Award): Biology
Inheritance, Genes & Cell Division
Contents
Chromosomes, Genes & Proteins
The Inheritance of Sex
Control of Gene Expression
Mitosis
Meiosis
Monohybrid Inheritance
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Chromosomes, Genes & Proteins
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The Structure of Genes
Chromosomes are located in the nucleus of cells
They are thread-like structures made of DNA, carrying genetic information in the form
of genes
A gene is a short length of DNA found on a chromosome that codes for a specific
protein
This could be a structural protein such as collagen found in skin cells, an enzyme or a
hormone
Genes can exist in alternative forms and these are known as alleles
Alleles give all organisms their characteristics
For example we have a gene for eye colour and the different alleles might be blue,
green and brown
Genes are short lengths of DNA that code for a protein. They are found on chromosomes
Examiner Tips and Tricks
The Zoom model is always useful when trying to visualise where you are in a cell, and
what molecules are doing what. Imagine a zoom lens that has the power to zoom right
out to look at a whole organism, but also to zoom right into individual molecules. This
helps in recognising the structures in cell nuclei visible as chromosomes, then
zooming in to picture the individual genes and then, the bases that make up the DNA
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The Inheritance of Sex
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XX & XY Chromosomes
Sex (male or female) is determined by an entire chromosome pair (as opposed to most
other characteristics that are just determined by one or several genes)
Biological females have the sex chromosomes XX
Biological males have the sex chromosomes XY
Only a biological male can pass on a Y chromosome, he is therefore responsible for
determining the sex of the child
He does this because
He produces (during ejaculation) around 250 million sperm cells during sexual
intercourse
Of those, half (125 million sperm) will be carrying his X chromosome
If one of these sperm fertilises the egg (also an X chromosome), the fetus will be
female (XX)
The other 125 million of his sperm will be carrying his Y chromosome
If one of these fertilises the egg (X chromosome) this will result in a male (XY)
fetus
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Your notes
Sperm cells determine the sex of offspring
Inheritance of sex
The inheritance of sex can be shown using a genetic diagram (known as a Punnett
square), with the X and Y chromosomes taking the place of the alleles usually written in
the boxes
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Your notes
Punnett square shows the inheritance of sex
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Control of Gene Expression
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Control of Gene Expression: Extended
Extended Tier Only
Haploid and Diploid Cells
All humans have 23 different chromosomes in each cell
In most body cells, not including the gametes (sex cells), we have 2 copies of each
chromosome, leading to a total of 46 chromosomes
Nuclei with two sets of chromosomes are known as diploid nuclei
The gametes (egg and sperm cells) only have one copy of each chromosome, meaning
they have a total of 23 chromosomes in each cell
Nuclei with one set of unpaired chromosomes are known as haploid nuclei
Human gametes (sperm and egg cells) are haploid
Examiner Tips and Tricks
An easy way to remember the difference between haploid and diploid is to
remember:
Haploid = Half the normal number of chromosomes
It’s worth noting that the human diploid chromosome number is 46. In an exam, you
may be given information about a different species, with a different number of
chromosomes. Make sure you read exam questions carefully.
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Mitosis
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New Cells are Made by Mitosis: Extended
Extended Tier Only
Most body cells have two copies of each chromosome
We describe these cells as diploid
When cells divide, the replication of chromosomes happens beforehand where
chromosome numbers are doubled
This ensures that when the cell divides in two, each new cell still has two copies of each
chromosome (is still diploid)
This type of cell division is known as mitosis and is used for:
growth
repair of damaged tissues
replacement of cells
asexual reproduction
Mitosis is defined as:
Nuclear division giving rise to genetically identical cells
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Your notes
The process of cell division by mitosis
Examiner Tips and Tricks
You are not required to know any of the stages of mitosis, only the key principles
discussed on this page.
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Meiosis
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Meiosis: Extended
Extended Tier Only
Meiosis is a type of nuclear division that gives rise to cells that are genetically different
It is used to produce the gametes (sex cells)
The number of chromosomes must be halved when the gametes (sex cells) are formed,
it is therefore known as reduction division
Halving the number of chromosomes ensures there is not double the number of
chromosomes after gametes join at fertilisation
The chromosome number is therefore halved from diploid to haploid,
Meiosis results in four genetically different cells
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Your notes
The process of cell division by meiosis to produce haploid gamete cells
Differences between Mitosis & Meiosis
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Your notes
Examiner Tips and Tricks
You do not need to know the stages involved in meiosis.
Questions on cell division often ask for differences between mitosis and meiosis.
Learn two or three and remember to BE SPECIFIC when giving your answer.
You should also know the reasons for a specific type of cell division taking place and
the types of cells where each happen.
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Monohybrid Inheritance
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Inheritance: Definitions
Inheritance is the transmission of genetic information from one generation to the next
generation
A gene is a short length of DNA found on a chromosome that codes for a particular
characteristic (expressed by the formation of different proteins)
Alleles are variations of the same gene
As we have two copies of each chromosome, we have two copies of each gene and
therefore two alleles for each gene
One of the alleles is inherited from the mother and the other from the father
This means that the alleles do not have to ‘say’ the same thing
For example, an individual has two copies of the gene for eye colour but one allele
could code for brown eyes and one allele could code for blue eyes
The observable characteristics of an organism (seen just by looking - like eye colour, or
found – like blood type) is called the phenotype
The combination of alleles that control each characteristic is called the genotype
Alleles can be dominant or recessive
A dominant allele only needs to be inherited from one parent in order for the
characteristic to show up in the phenotype
A recessive allele needs to be inherited from both parents in order for the
characteristic to show up in the phenotype.
If there is only one recessive allele, it will remain hidden and the dominant
characteristic will show
If the two alleles of a gene are the same, we describe the individual as being
homozygous (homo = same)
An individual could be homozygous dominant (having two copies of the dominant
allele), or homozygous recessive (having two copies of the recessive allele)
If the two alleles of a gene are different, we describe the individual as being
heterozygous (hetero = different)
When completing genetic diagrams, alleles are abbreviated to single letters
The dominant allele is given a capital letter and the recessive allele is given the same
letter, but lower case
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Your notes
Alleles of a gene can carry the same instructions or different instructions. You can only
inherit two alleles for each gene, and they can be the same or different
Genetic Diagrams
What is monohybrid inheritance?
Monohybrid inheritance is the inheritance of characteristics controlled by a single gene
(mono = one)
This can be determined using a genetic diagram known as a Punnett square
A Punnett square diagram shows the possible combinations of alleles that could be
produced in the offspring
From this the ratio of these combinations can be worked out
Remember the dominant allele is shown using a capital letter and the recessive allele is
shown using the same letter but lowercase
Punnett Squares
Monohybrid Inheritance Example
The height of pea plants is controlled by a single gene that has two alleles: tall and short
The tall allele is dominant and is shown as T
The small allele is recessive and is shown as t
‘Show the possible allele combinations of the offspring produced when a pure breeding
short plant is bred with a pure breeding tall plant’
The term ‘pure breeding’ indicates that the individual is homozygous for that
characteristic
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Your notes
A pure-breeding genetic cross in pea plants
This shows that there is a 100% chance that all the offspring will be tall
‘Show the possible allele combinations of the offspring produced when two of the
offspring from the first cross are bred together’
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Your notes
A genetic cross diagram (F2 Generation)
All of the offspring of the first cross have the same genotype, Tt (heterozygous), so the
possible combinations of offspring bred from these are:
There is more variation in this cross, with a 3:1 ratio of tall:short, meaning each
offspring has a 75% chance of being tall and a 25% chance of being short
The F2 generation is produced when the offspring of the F1 generation (pure-breeding
parents) are allowed to interbreed
‘Show the results of crossing a heterozygous plant with a short plant’
The heterozygous plant will be tall with the genotype Tt
The short plant is showing the recessive phenotype and so must be homozygous
recessive - tt
The results of this cross are as follows:
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Your notes
A cross between a heterozygous plant with a short plant
In this cross, there is a 1:1 ratio of tall to short, meaning a 50% chance of the offspring
being tall and a 50% chance of the offspring being short
How to construct Punnett squares
The steps involved are:
1. Determine the parental genotypes
2. Select a letter that has a clearly different lowercase, for example: Aa, Bb, Dd
3. Split the alleles for each parent and add them to the Punnett square around the outside
4. Fill in the middle four squares of the Punnett square to work out the possible genetic
combinations in the offspring
You may be asked to comment on the ratio of different allele combinations in the
offspring, calculate a percentage chances of offspring showing a specific
characteristic or just determine the phenotypes of the offspring
Completing a Punnett square allows you to predict the probability of different
outcomes from monohybrid crosses
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Examiner Tips and Tricks Your notes
You should always write the dominant allele first, followed by the recessive allele.
If you are asked to use your own letters to represent the alleles in a Punnett square, try
to choose a letter that is obviously different as a capital than the lower case so the
examiner is not left in any doubt as to which is dominant and which is recessive.
For example, C and c are not very different from each other, whereas A and a are!
Pedigree Charts
Family pedigree diagrams are usually used to trace the pattern of inheritance of a
specific characteristic (usually a disease) through generations of a family
This can be used to work out the probability that someone in the family will inherit the
genetic disorder
A family pedigree chart
Males are indicated by the square shape and females are represented by circles
Affected individuals are red and unaffected are blue (in this example)
Horizontal lines between males and females show that they have produced children
(which are shown underneath each couple)
The family pedigree above shows:
both males and females are affected
every generation has affected individuals
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that there is one family group that has no affected parents or children
the other two families have one affected parent and affected children as well Your notes
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