AGSSL 2: MANAGE SOIL AND SOIL WATER SYSTEMS

Perform Criteria (KSC-K)

2.1.1 Evaluate soil based on its profile, texture, and structure
2.1.2 Determine the soil texture using appropriate method.
2.1.3 Carry out soil sampling using appropriate methods and tools.
2.1.4 Determine fertility of the soil and suggest appropriate mitigation measures.
2.1.5 Determine pH of the soil and suggest appropriate mitigation measures.
2.1.6 Explain nitrogen fixation by legumes in the soil

2.1.1 Evaluate soil based on its profile, texture, and structure

Pedology – the study of soil.

Pedogenesis – the process of soil formation.

Soil – the biologically active, porous medium that has developed in the uppermost layer of
the earth’s crust. It serves as a reservoir of water and nutrients and, as a medium for the
filtration and breakdown of injurious wastes, and as a participant in the cycling of carbon and
other elements. It also provides anchorage to the plants. It has evolved through weathering.

SOIL PROFILE
It is a vertical arrangement of soil layers of varying colours and texture. Each layer has
distinct physical and chemical properties. These layers are known as soil horizons. These
layers are identified in terms of colour, texture, thickness and structure. Soil profile differs
from one area to another in terms of soil depth, number of horizons/layers and
characteristics of horizons.

SOIL PROFILE HORIZONS

 1. Horizon O (Organic Layer):
This layer consists mainly of organic material such as decomposing leaves and plant
residues. It is most prominent in forested areas and is typically absent in cultivated
soils
2. Horizon A (Topsoil):
Rich in organic material, dark in colour, and contains minerals particles.
Where most root activity and biological processes occur making it critical for plant
growth.
3. Horizon E (Eluviation Layer):
This horizon is characterized by the leaching or removal of minerals (like iron,
aluminium, and organic matter) that are transported downward by water. It's often
lighter in colour and less fertile (nutrients) than the A horizon.
4. Horizon B (Subsoil):
Accumulates leached materials like silicate clay, iron, and aluminium oxides from the
horizons above. It often has a denser structure. It has less organic matter and
biological activity than the topsoil but is important for water retention and nutrient
storage.
5. Horizon C (partly weathered parent material/regolith):
Consists of partially disintegrated and weathered parent material Composed of
slightly weathered rock and mineral material. It has minimal organic matter and
biological activity but serves as the source of the soil's mineral content.
6. Horizon D (Bedrock):
Unweathered rock layer beneath all the other horizons from which soil has been
formed (unaltered rock layer). It is the deepest and hardest layer. Water
accumulates in the bedrock to form underground pools called water table.

COMPONENTS OF SOIL PROFILE (SOIL CONSTITUENTS)

1. Mineral Matter:
o Derived from the weathering of rocks, mineral matter makes up the bulk of
soil and includes sand, silt, and clay particles. It influences soil texture,
structure, and nutrient availability.
2. Organic Matter:
o Composed of decomposed plant and animal residues, living and dead
microorganisms, and substances synthesized by soil organisms.
Organic matter improves soil fertility, water retention, structure, and
supports microbial life.
3. Water:
o Present in the soil pores, water is essential for plant growth and microbial
activity. It acts as a solvent for nutrients, making them available to plant
roots, and helps in the transportation of nutrients and organic matter through
the soil.
4. Air:
o Occupies the spaces between soil particles that are not filled with water.
Soil air is crucial for root respiration and the survival of aerobic
microorganisms. It contains oxygen needed for the metabolic processes of
plants and soil organisms.
SOIL TEXTURE

It refers to the weight proportion of different sizes of soil particles.

It also refers to the percentage of sand, silt and clay in a soil. Naturally, soils are comprised
are comprised of soil particles of varying sizes.

Soil classification according to particle size

Soil separates Particle size (diameter/mm)

Very coarse sand 2.00 - 1.00
Coarse sand 1.00 - 0.50
Medium sand 0.50 - 0.25
Fine sand 0.25 - 0.10
Very fine sand 0.10 – 0. 05
Silt 0.05 – 0.002
clay < 0.002

• Soils with the finest texture are soils called clay soils.
• Soils with the coarsest texture are called sandy soils.
• A loam soil combines sand, silt and clay in relatively equal amounts. The benefit of
loamy soils is that they can retain moisture while draining well, allow nutrients, making
them ideal for most plants.
• Soils with a loam texture can contain different proportions of sand, silt and clay
creating various soil types, such as sandy loams, silty loams, loamy sandy, and clay
loams for example. They are named after which proportion is highest in the mixture.

Different types of soil textures

1.clay – the smallest particle in the soil and microscopic. It feels hard and brittle when dry,
and sticky when wet and also holds its shape when rolled. It retains moisture and has poor
drainage and aeration.
2.Sand- particles are the largest. It feels gritty to touch and falls through the fingers. Sandy
soils drains quickly and has poor water holding capacity but allow good aeration.
3.Silt – particles are medium sized. Silt particles feel very fine like flour when dry and feel
smooth and slippery when wet. Silt only holds a moderate amount of water. Silty soils have
properties between those of sand and clay.
4.Loam – an intermediate mixture of sand, silt, and clay. It is rich, soft and crumbly. It has
good drainage, water holding capacity and aeration.

Soil texture influences water and air movement (porosity), soil structure, biological activity,
root growth and seedling emergence and tillage operation.

APPROPRIATE METHODS USED TO DETERMINE SOIL TEXTURE

1. Feel method involves assessing the soil texture by feeling it with your hands/fingers/
rub soil between fingers. It is a qualitative method but can provide quick and useful
information. Sandy soil feels gritty, silty soil feels smooth and silky and clay soil feels
sticky and form a long ribbon.
2. Sieve method involves passing soil through a series of sieves with different
mesh sizes to separate the particles into different size fractions.
3. The sedimentation method is based on the principle that soil particles of different
sizes settle at different rates in water.
Sand settles first (within minutes) followed by silt (hours) and clay (days).
SOIL STRUCTURE
This refers to the arrangement of soil particles into aggregates/peds/clusters. It affects water
movement, root penetration, and air flow.

TYPES OF SOIL STRUCTURE

1. Granular and crumb: Small, rounded aggregates often found in the A

horizon/topsoil. Promote/ideal for root growth, water infiltration/drainage and good
aeration...
2. Blocky/cuboidal/sub angular: Irregular, block-like peds found in subsoil, affecting
water movement.
3. Prismatic and columnar: Vertical columns or pillar-like aggregates commonly found
horizon B where clay has accumulated, affecting root penetration and drainage.
4. Platy/ plate-like: Thin, flat plates or leaflets of soil that lie horizontally on top of one
another, often found in compacted soils. Flat, plate- like peds that can impede water
movement and root growth. They are hexagonal in appearance and have sharp
edges. It is commonly found in forest soils, in part of the A horizon and in clay pan
soils.
5. Single Grained: Loose, structureless soils typical of sandy textures, with each
grain acting independently.
6. Columnar: Vertical, pillar-like aggregates found in certain types of subsoils,
affecting drainage and root penetration.
Diagram
Soil structure can be greatly influenced by the farmer. Soil structure can be damaged by
ploughing or cultivating at wrong time. The soil surface can be compacted by trampling of
livestock or heavy machinery/ implements. Monoculture destroys humus in the soil and with it
water and nutrients holding capacity.

SOIL SAMPLING
Soil sampling refers to the process of systematically collecting representative soil samples
from a specific area/site for analysis.

2. It is defined as the process of taking soil in a certain portion to perform testing.

The purpose of soil sampling is to gather information about various soil properties, such as
nutrient levels, pH, texture, organic matter content, and contaminants, human impact
assessment (helps identify areas with soil erosion and allows for targeted restoration efforts),
land use decisions (construction, urban development or restoration initiatives).
Steps for Soil Sampling:
1. Determine Sampling Locations:
o Grid Sampling: Dividing the area into a grid and collecting samples at
regular intervals (e.g., every 2.5 acres).
o Zone Sampling: Sampling according to different management zones within
the field based on soil type, topography, or historical management practices.
o Targeted Sampling: Focusing on areas that exhibit variability in crop
growth, appearance, or historical yield data.
 2. Sampling Tools:
o Use a clean soil sampling tool such as a soil probe, auger, or spade. Avoid
tools that may contaminate the samples with rust or residues.
3. Sampling Depth:
o For most agricultural purposes, sample soil to the depth of the plant
root zone, typically 6 to 8 inches deep.
o In some cases, deeper sampling (12 to 24 inches) may be necessary to
assess nutrient availability or soil properties affecting deeper-rooted crops.
4. Sampling Procedure:
o Remove any surface debris (e.g., leaves, rocks) from the sampling area.
o Use a zigzag pattern to collect multiple subsamples from each sampling
location within the designated area.
o Combine subsamples in a clean bucket or container and mix thoroughly to
create a composite sample representing the entire area.
5. Sampling Quantity:
o Collect enough soil from each sampling location to fill a sample bag or
container provided by the soil testing laboratory. Usually, 1 cup of soil is
sufficient for routine analysis.
6. Labeling and Documentation:
o Label each sample bag or container clearly with a unique identifier,
sampling location, and any relevant information (e.g., previous crop,
fertilizer history).
o Record detailed information about the sampling locations, including GPS
coordinates if available, to maintain accurate records for future reference.
7. Transport and Storage:
o Keep soil samples cool and dry during transportation to the laboratory to
prevent contamination or changes in soil properties.
o Ideally, send samples to the laboratory promptly after collection to ensure
accurate analysis.

APPOPRIATE METHODS USED TO CARRY OUT SOIL SAMPLING

1. Random Sampling
Step-by-Step Procedure:
Preparation:
o Gather your tools: soil probe or auger, spade or trowel, clean bucket, plastic
bags or containers, and a marker.
o Ensure all tools are clean to avoid contamination.
Select Sampling Points:
o Randomly choose at least 10-15 locations across the field.
o Use a random number generator/physically select points to ensure no bias.
 Collect Samples:

o At each location, use the soil probe or auger to take a soil core from a
consistent depth (commonly 0-15 cm for general analysis).
o If using a spade, dig a small hole to the required depth, then cut a thin
slice of soil from the side of the hole.
o Place the soil from each point into a clean bucket.
Combine Samples:

o Mix all collected samples thoroughly in the bucket to create a composite

sample.
o Remove any debris like stones, roots, or large organic matter.
o From the mixed soil, take a subsample (usually about 500 grams) and
place it in a labelled plastic bag or container.

Label and Document:

o Clearly label the sample with the field name, sampling date, and depth.
o Record the GPS coordinates or a rough map of the sampling points
for future reference.
2. Zoning (Stratified) Sampling
Step-by-Step Procedure:
Preparation:
o Gather your tools: soil probe/auger, spade/trowel, clean bucket,
plastic bags/containers, and a marker.
o Divide the field into zones based on soil type, crop history, topography,
or other relevant factors.
Select Sampling Points Within Each Zone:
o Randomly choose multiple sampling points within each zone (at least 5-10
points per zone).
Collect Samples:
o Follow the same procedure as in random sampling for each zone, ensuring
consistent depth and clean tools.
o Collect samples from each point and place them into a bucket for each specific
zone.
Combine Samples:
o Mix samples from each zone separately to create composite samples for each
zone.
o Remove any debris and take a subsample from the mixed soil for each zone.
Label and Document:
o Label each subsample with the zone name, sampling date, and depth.
o Record the GPS coordinates/a rough map of the sampling points for each
zone.
 3. Grid Sampling
Step by step procedure:
Preparation:
o Gather your tools: soil probe/auger, spade/trowel, clean bucket,
plastic bags/containers, and a marker.
o Ensure all tools are clean to avoid contamination.
Create a Grid:
o Overlay a grid pattern on a map of the field. The grid size can vary, but
common sizes are 0.5 to 2.5 acres per grid cell.
Identify Grid Points:
o Mark the centre point of each grid cell on the map.
Collect Samples:
o At each grid point, clear the surface of debris.
o Use a soil auger or spade to collect soil from the desired/specified depth
(e.g., surface soil, subsoil).
o Take/collect multiple subsamples (5-10) around each grid point within a small
radius (1-2 meters)/around point to account for variability within the grid cell.
Combine samples:
o mix the subsamples to form a composite sample for each grid point.
Label and Store: Place each composite sample in a labelled bag, indicating the grid
cell, and store for analysis.

TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT USED IN SOIL SAMPLING

1. Soil Sampling Tools (Auger, Probe/Corer):

o Hand sampling: collecting samples manually.

o Soil Auger: Used for collecting soil samples from shallow depths (typically
up to 1 meter). It consists of a spiral/blade attached to a handle, allowing
soil extraction by twisting into the ground. It can be electrical powered or
used manually.
o Probes – Hydraulic probes: using hydraulic pressure to retrieve
samples. Electric probes: using electric samples to extract samples.
o Soil Corer/ core samplers: it is similar to a probe but specifically designed
for collecting intact soil cores without disturbing the soil structure. Corers are
used for sampling soil profiles in ecological and environmental studies.
o Soil push probe/ hammer probe/ bucket augers: used to collect a uniform
amount of soil at any given depth.
o Spade/ shovel: When soil augers or probes are used, a spade is handy for
digging initial access holes to reach the desired sampling depth. It can be
used to collect composite samples by mixing soil from several locations
within a sampling area for large scale/ when depth is less critical.
o Trowel: are used to extract small, discrete soil samples from targeted
depths/specific locations within a sampling plot.
o Clean Containers or Bags: Clean, labelled containers/bags to store soil
samples.
 2. GPS Device or Field Notebook:
o GPS Device: To accurately record the coordinates of each sampling point,
ensuring precise location documentation for spatial analysis and mapping.
o Field Notebook: For recording detailed information about each sampling
site, including GPS coordinates, sampling depth, soil type observations, and
any specific conditions noted during sampling.

3.Soil pH Meter:
o pH Meter: A portable device used to measure the pH of soil samples
immediately after collection. Soil pH influences nutrient availability and soil
health, making it a critical parameter in soil analysis.
4. Soil Moisture Meter:
o Moisture Meter: Measures the moisture content of soil samples, which
affects soil density, plant growth, and nutrient availability. This information
helps in understanding soil water dynamics and irrigation requirements.
Sampling precautions

Avoid sampling areas that would not be considered representative of an area.

o Land immediately adjacent to drainage ditches

o Highly eroded
o Area close to trees, roads, and fences
o Current or previous manure piles
o Fertilizer storage areas
o Livestock excrement in grazed areas
o Small areas of the field that are known to have distinctly different soils due to
depth or texture.

Points to be considered

o Collect samples during fallow period.

o Sampling at several locations in a zig zag-manner pattern ensures homogeneity.
o For shallow rooted crops collect samples up to 15cm depth. For deep rooted crops
collect samples up to 30cm. for tree crops, collect profile samples.
o Fields which are similar in appearance, production and past-management practices
can be grouped together into single unit.
o Collect separate samples from fields that differ in colour, slope, drainage, past
management practices, fertilization, cropping system, etc.

SOIL TESTING

It is the analyzing of the soil sample to determine certain qualities of the soil. The
information obtained from soil testing helps in making informed decisions about soil fertility
management, crop selection, and environmental protection.

IMPORTANCE OF SOIL TESTING

o Nutrient Analysis: Soil testing provides information about the nutrient levels
in the soil, including essential elements like nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P),
potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), sulfur (S), and micronutrients
(iron, manganese, zinc, etc.). This helps determine the fertility status of the
soil and informs decisions on fertilizer application rates and types.

o pH Level: Soil pH affects nutrient availability to plants. Soil testing determines

the pH level, indicating whether the soil is acidic, neutral, or alkaline. This
information is crucial for adjusting pH through amendments like lime or sulfur
to optimize nutrient availability.
 o Organic Matter and Carbon Content: Soil testing can quantify the amount
of organic matter and soil organic carbon. Organic matter improves soil
structure, water-holding capacity, and nutrient retention. Monitoring organic
matter levels helps assess soil health and fertility over time.

o Texture and Structure: Soil texture (proportions of sand, silt, and clay) and
structure influence water infiltration, drainage, and root penetration. Soil
testing provides insights into these physical properties, guiding soil
management practices such as irrigation and tillage.

o Microbial Activity: Some advanced soil tests can assess microbial biomass
and activity, indicating the health and biological fertility of the soil. Beneficial
soil organisms play a crucial role in nutrient cycling and overall soil
ecosystem functions.

PROCESS OF SOIL TESTING

o Sampling: Soil samples are collected from different areas of a field or

garden using a soil probe or spade. Samples should be representative of the
area of interest, considering factors like soil type, vegetation, and
management history.
o Laboratory Analysis: Soil samples are sent to a certified soil testing
laboratory. Various tests are conducted based on the specific
requirements, including nutrient analysis, pH measurement, organic
matter content, and sometimes microbial analysis.
o Interpretation and Recommendations: The laboratory provides a detailed
soil test report with analysis results. This report typically includes
recommendations for fertilizer application rates, pH adjustment, and other soil
amendments based on the specific needs of crops or plants grown in that
area.

BENEFITS OF SOIL TESTING

o Optimized Nutrient Management: Helps in applying fertilizers efficiently,

reducing costs, and minimizing environmental impacts such as nutrient
runoff.
o Improved Crop Yield and Quality: Ensures that plants receive
adequate nutrients for optimal growth and productivity.
o Environmental Protection: Prevents over-application of fertilizers, which
can lead to water pollution and ecosystem degradation.
o Long-term Soil Health: Allows for proactive soil management practices that
promote sustainability and resilience to environmental stressors.

SOIL FERTILITY

Soil fertility refers to the ability of soil to provide essential nutrients to plants in adequate
amounts and appropriate balance for optimal growth and productivity.

FACTORS CONTRIBUTE TO SOIL FERTILITY

• Nutrient Content: Essential nutrients for plants include nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P),
potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), sulfur (S), and micronutrients like iron
(Fe), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), boron (B), and molybdenum (Mo).
The availability and balance of these nutrients in the soil determine its fertility.

• pH Level: Soil pH affects nutrient availability. Most plants prefer a slightly acidic to
neutral pH range (between 6.0 and 7.5). pH outside this range can limit nutrient
 uptake, even if nutrients are present in the soil.

• Organic Matter: Organic matter improves soil fertility by enhancing nutrient

retention, improving soil structure, and providing a source of slow-release nutrients
as it decomposes.

• Soil Texture and Structure: Soil texture (proportions of sand, silt, and clay particles)
affects nutrient availability and water-holding capacity. Good soil structure promotes
root growth and facilitates nutrient and water movement.

• Biological Activity: Soil organisms such as bacteria, fungi, earthworms, and

other microorganisms play a crucial role in nutrient cycling, decomposition of
organic matter, and maintaining soil health.

• Water and Air Management: Adequate soil moisture and aeration are essential for
nutrient uptake by plant roots and for the activities of soil organisms.

• Management Practices: Agricultural practices such as crop rotation, cover

cropping, mulching, and the use of fertilizers and soil amendments can significantly
influence soil fertility.

Macronutrients

Macronutrients are nutrients that plants require in relatively large amounts. They are
essential for basic plant functions, growth, and development.

1. Nitrogen (N)
o Role: Critical for the synthesis of amino acids, proteins, and chlorophyll.
Promotes leaf and stem growth.
o Deficiency Symptoms: Yellowing of leaves, stunted growth, premature
ripening, premature shedding of the leaves.
o Sources: Organic matter, nitrogen fertilizers, legume crops (through
nitrogen fixation).
o Effect of excess Nitrogen: Scotching of the leaves, delayed maturity,
weakening of stems and fruits
o Loss of Nitrogen from soil (or fate):Soil erosion, drainage (leaching),
volatilization, i.e. loss of N in gaseous form, crop removal, absorption by plant,
use by micro-organisms
o Forms in which N is available to plants: N is absorbed as nitrate (NO3-) and
ammonium (NH4+) ions.

2. Phosphorus (P)
o Role: Important for energy transfer (ATP), root development, and flowering,
hastens maturity of crops i.e. stimulates blooming (flowering) and seed
formation, influences cell division, stimulates nodule formation in legume
crops,it prevents lodging by strengthening the straw in cereal crops, P imparts
disease resistance to certain crops.
o Sources: Rock phosphate, bone meal, phosphorus fertilizers.
o Deficiency Symptoms: Dark green or purple leaves, poor root development,
yield of grains, fruits and seeds is lowered, premature leaf fall,
o Loss of Phosphorus from the soil (fate): soil erosion, leaching, crop
removal, fixation by iron and aluminium oxide.
o Absorption forms: Plants absorb phosphorus in the monovalent form or
primary orthophosphate ion, H2PO4- and some P is absorbed in the divalent
form or secondary orthophosphate ion, HPO4--.
 3. Potassium (K)
o Role: Regulates water uptake, formation of both chlorophyll and starch,
reduces lodging by enhancing development of strong stems and stalks,
development of high- quality seeds and fruits, increases plant vigour and
disease resistance, it regulates the use and availability of essential elements.
o Deficiency Symptoms: plants lodge before maturing, leaves develop a burnt
appearance on the margin/edges of leaves are scotched, leaves may curl,
premature loss of leaves, leaf surfaces are chlorotic.
o Sources: Potash fertilizers, compost, wood ash.
o Loss of Potassium from the soil (fate): crop removal, soil erosion and run
off, leaching, fixation in the soil.
4. Calcium (Ca)
o Role: Essential for cell wall structure, root and leaf development.
o Deficiency Symptoms: Stunted growth, blossom end rot in fruits.
o Sources: Lime (calcium carbonate), gypsum, organic matter.
5. Magnesium (Mg)
o Role: Central component of chlorophyll, involved in photosynthesis.
o Deficiency Symptoms: Yellowing between leaf veins, poor growth.
o Sources: Dolomitic lime, magnesium sulphate (Epsom salts).
6. Sulphur (S)
o Role: Component of amino acids, vitamins, and enzymes.
o Deficiency Symptoms: Uniform yellowing of younger leaves.
o Sources: Organic matter, gypsum, elemental sulphur.

Micronutrients

Micronutrients are required in smaller amounts but are still essential for plant health and
development.

1. Iron (Fe)
o Role: Necessary for chlorophyll synthesis and enzyme function.
o Deficiency Symptoms: Interveinal chlorosis in young leaves.
o Sources: Iron chelates, ferrous sulphate.
2. Manganese (Mn)
o Role: Involved in photosynthesis, nitrogen metabolism, and enzyme activation.
o Deficiency Symptoms: Interveinal chlorosis with brown spots on leaves.
o Sources: Manganese sulphate, organic matter.
3. Zinc (Zn)
o Role: Important for enzyme function, protein synthesis, and growth regulation.
o Deficiency Symptoms: Stunted growth, small leaves with interveinal
chlorosis.
o Sources: Zinc sulfate, zinc chelates.
4. Copper (Cu)
o Role: Involved in photosynthesis, respiration, and lignin synthesis.
o Deficiency Symptoms: Leaf curling, chlorosis, and dieback of shoot tips.
o Sources: Copper sulfate, copper chelates.
5. Boron (B)
o Role: Essential for cell wall formation, sugar transport, and
reproductive development.
o Deficiency Symptoms: Poor growth of growing points, distorted leaves, and
 flowers.
o Sources: Borax, boric acid.
6. Molybdenum (Mo)
o Role: Necessary for nitrogen fixation and nitrate reduction.
o Deficiency Symptoms: Chlorosis and poor growth in legumes.
o Sources: Sodium molybdate, ammonium molybdate.

ASSESSING SOIL FERTILITY LEVELS

1. Soil Testing:
o Conduct soil tests to measure the levels of macro and micro-nutrients,
pH, and organic matter content.
o Collect soil samples from various locations within the field or garden to
get a representative sample.
o Send samples to a reputable soil testing laboratory.
2. Interpreting Soil Test Results:
o Review the soil test report to understand nutrient levels and pH.
o Compare the results with recommended sufficiency ranges for the specific
crops grown.

MANAGING SOIL FERTILITY LEVELS/ MITIGATION MEASURES TO MANAGE SOIL

FERTILITY.

1. Fertilization:
o Apply appropriate fertilizers based on soil test results to correct nutrient
deficiencies.
o Nitrogen Deficiency: Apply nitrogen fertilizers (e.g., urea, ammonium
nitrate). Use organic amendments like compost or manure to add organic
nitrogen. Practice crop rotation with legumes to enhance nitrogen fixation.
o Phosphorus Deficiency: Apply phosphorus fertilizers (e.g.,
superphosphate, bone meal). Incorporate organic matter to improve
phosphorus availability.
o Potassium Deficiency: Apply potassium fertilizers (e.g., potassium sulphate,
muriate of potash). Use cover crops or green manures to add organic
potassium.
2. Organic Amendments:
o Incorporate organic matter such as compost, manure, or green manure to
improve soil fertility and structure.
o Implement reduced tillage practices to preserve soil organic matter.
o Organic matter releases nutrients slowly, improving long-term soil health.
3. Soil pH Adjustment:
o Adjust soil pH to ensure optimal nutrient availability. Use lime to raise pH
(reduce acidity) and sulphur to lower pH (increase acidity).
o Acidic Soils (Low pH): Apply lime (calcium carbonate) to raise pH. Use
dolomitic lime if magnesium is also deficient.
o Alkaline Soils (High pH): Apply sulphur or gypsum to lower pH. Use acid-
forming fertilizers like ammonium sulphate.
4. Crop Rotation and Cover Crops:
o Implement crop rotation to prevent nutrient depletion and manage soil fertility.
o Use cover crops to add organic matter and fix nitrogen in the soil.
5. Soil Conservation Practices:
o Implement practices like no-till farming, contour ploughing, and
mulching to maintain soil structure and prevent erosion.
6. Salinity Management:
o Improve drainage to prevent salt accumulation.
o Apply gypsum to soils high in sodium to improve soil structure and reduce
salinity.
SOIL pH

The degree of acidity or alkalinity (basicity) of the soil, or the measure of hydrogen ions in the
soil solution. The letters pH stand for potential Hydrogen concentration in the soil.

DETERMINING SOIL PH

1. Collect Soil Samples:

o Follow proper soil sampling techniques to collect representative
samples from different parts of the field or garden.
2. Test the Soil pH:
o Using a pH Meter: The pH meters are more accurate, although expensive
and therefore very rarely used.
▪ Mix the soil sample with distilled water in a 1:1 or 1:2 ratio (soil to
water)
▪ Stir the mixture well to make a paste and let it sit for about 30 minutes.
▪ Calibrate the pH meter according to the manufacturer’s instructions.
▪ Insert the pH meter probe into the soil-water mixture and record the
reading.
o Using pH Test Strips/ Litmus paper
▪ Mix the soil sample with distilled water in a 1:1 or 1:2 ratio.
▪ Stir the mixture and let it sit for a few minutes.
▪ Dip a pH test strip/ litmus paper into the soil-water mixture.
▪ Compare the colour change on the test strip to the provided pH
scale and record the reading.
o Using a Soil pH Test Kit/ Universal indicator solution
▪ Follow the instructions provided with the soil pH test kit.
▪ Generally involves mixing soil with a testing solution and
comparing the colour change to a pH scale.

INTERPRETING SOIL PH RESULTS

o Acidic Soil: pH less than 7
o Neutral Soil: pH around 7
o Alkaline Soil: pH greater than 7

MITIGATION MEASURES

1. For Acidic Soils (Low pH):

o Apply Lime:
▪ Use agricultural lime (calcium carbonate) to raise the soil pH.
▪ The amount of lime needed depends on the soil type, current pH, and
desired pH level.
▪ Apply lime evenly and incorporate it into the soil.
o Use Dolomitic Lime:
▪ If the soil is also deficient in magnesium, use dolomitic lime
(calcium magnesium carbonate).
o Organic Amendments:
▪ Add organic matter such as compost, manure, or leaf mold to help
buffer soil pH over time.
2. For Alkaline Soils (High pH):
o Apply Sulphur:
▪ Elemental sulphur can be used to lower soil pH. Bacteria in the soil
convert sulphur to sulfuric acid, which acidifies the soil.
▪ Apply sulphur according to soil test recommendations and incorporate
it into the soil.
o Use Gypsum:
▪ Gypsum (calcium sulphate) can help displace sodium in high-pH
soils, improving soil structure and lowering pH.
 oIron Sulphate or Aluminium Sulphate:
▪ These can also be used to lower soil pH more quickly than elemental
sulfur.
o Organic Amendments:
▪ Add organic matter such as compost or peat moss to help lower soil
pH and improve soil structure.
3. General Practices for pH Management:
o Regular Testing:
▪ Conduct soil pH tests regularly (every 1-2 years) to monitor
changes and adjust as needed.
o Crop Selection:
▪ Choose crops that are well-suited to the existing soil pH. Some
plants are more tolerant of acidic or alkaline conditions.
o pH Buffering:
▪ Incorporate organic matter regularly to help buffer soil pH and
improve overall soil health.

NITROGEN FIXATION

Nitrogen fixation is the conversion of atmospheric nitrogen (N₂) into ammonia (NH₃), which
can then be converted into other forms like ammonium (NH₄⁺) and nitrate (NO₃⁻) that are
accessible to plants. This process is primarily carried out by certain bacteria.

THE ROLE OF LEGUMES

Legumes (plants in the Fabaceae family, such as peas, beans, clover, and alfalfa) have a
unique symbiotic relationship with nitrogen-fixing bacteria, primarily from the genera
Rhizobium.

THE NITROGEN FIXATION PROCESS

Roots release compounds that absorb bacteria present in the soil. Bacteria enters the root
hairs of the plant and form nodules. Inside nodules rhizobium bacteria convert atmospheric
nitrogen into ammonia. Ammonia is converted to ammonium which is absorbed by bean
plant/legume to synthesize amino acids and proteins. During growth some of the fixed
nitrogen is released into the soil through root nodules. When plant dies and decomposes,
nitrogen stored in its tissues is released back into the soil.

BENEFITS OF NITROGEN FIXATION BY LEGUMES

1. Improved Soil Fertility: Increases the nitrogen content in the soil, reducing the
need for synthetic nitrogen fertilizers. Enhances the growth of subsequent crops
in crop rotations.
2. Sustainable Agriculture: Promotes sustainable agricultural practices by
reducing dependency on chemical fertilizers. Helps maintain soil health
and structure.
3. Economic Benefits: Reduces the cost of nitrogen fertilizers for farmers. Enhances
crop yields and quality, leading to better economic returns.
4. Crop Rotation Benefits: Legumes are often included in crop rotation systems
because they can improve soil nitrogen levels for subsequent crops that have higher
nitrogen demands (like cereals).
EXAMPLES OF NITROGEN-FIXING LEGUMES

• Clovers (Trifolium spp.): Commonly used in pastures and cover cropping.

• Alfalfa (Medicago sativa): Widely grown as forage and for soil improvement.
• Soybeans (Glycine max): Major agricultural crop with significant nitrogen-
fixing capabilities.
• Peas (Pisum sativum) and Beans (Phaseolus spp.): Commonly grown for food and as cover
crops.

SOIL CONSERVATION

Soil conservation Soil conservation is the practice of managing soil to prevent its
degradation and maintain its health and productivity.
Soil conservation involves a range of strategies and techniques to protect soil from erosion,
nutrient loss, and other forms of degradation.

The goal of soil conservation is to ensure that soil remains fertile and capable of supporting
agricultural activities, as well as to sustain ecosystem functions and environmental quality.

IMPORTANCE OF SOIL CONSERVATION

1. Preservation of Soil Fertility: Healthy soil supports plant growth by providing

essential nutrients, water retention, and a stable root environment.
2. Erosion Control: Preventing soil erosion helps maintain soil structure and
prevents sedimentation in water bodies, preserving water quality and
aquatic habitats.
3. Sustainable Agriculture: Soil conservation practices contribute to sustainable
farming practices by reducing the need for synthetic inputs and enhancing soil
resilience to climate change.
4. Biodiversity Conservation: Healthy soils support diverse ecosystems and
contribute to biodiversity conservation by maintaining habitats for plants, animals,
and microorganisms.

METHODS AND PRACTICES OF SOIL CONSERVATION

1. Contour ploughing: Ploughing and planting crops along the contour lines of slopes
to reduce water runoff and soil erosion. It involves ploughing along the contours of the
land, rather than up and down slopes.

Advantages

o helps reduce soil erosion by water runoff.

o enhances water infiltration into the soil, reducing runoff and improving
water availability to plants.
o helps conserve soil moisture by reducing the speed and volume of water flow.
o prevents the formation of gullies and rills, maintaining better soil structure.
o reduces the risk of water pollution by minimizing runoff carrying soil
particles and nutrients.
Disadvantages
o requires more labour and precision compared to traditional ploughing
methods.
o increased wear and tear on equipment due to working on sloped land.
o initial establishment can be time-consuming and may require specialized
equipment.
o best suited for hilly/sloped terrain; not as beneficial on flat land.
o requires skill and knowledge to implement correctly to achieve the desired
benefits.
2. Zero tillage/no-till this is where the soil is not disturbed by traditional
ploughing/tilling. Instead of turning over the soil, seeds are directly sown into the
residue of previous crops using specialized equipment. This method maintains
the soil structure and surface cover, which can help improve soil health and
reduce erosion.

Advantages

o maintains natural soil structure, which enhances water infiltration and

retention.
o minimizes soil disturbance, thereby reducing the risk of wind and water
erosion.
o crop residues on the soil surface help retain moisture, which can be
beneficial during dry periods.
o increases organic matter content in the soil over time, improving soil
fertility and health.
o enhances carbon storage in the soil, helping to mitigate climate change.
o reduces the need for labour and fuel, as there are fewer field operations
required.
o promotes greater biodiversity both above and below the soil surface,
including beneficial soil microorganisms.
Disadvantages
o can lead to increased weed pressure, often necessitating the use of
herbicides.
o the transition to no-till farming can be challenging and may require
changes in equipment and practices.
o potential increase in pest populations, as crop residues can provide habitat for
pests.
o may experience variable crop yields during the initial years of adoption.

3. Crop Rotation: alternating different types of crops in the same field across seasons.
This practice helps to maintain soil health, prevent nutrient depletion and control
pests and diseases. The following principles should be observed when designing a
crop rotation:
o Crops with deep roots should alternate with shallow roots thus nutrients are
used at different levels.
o Inclusion of a legume such as beans/groundnuts fixes nitrogen into the soil
which mantains soil fertility.
o Inclusion of cover crops add organic matter upon decomposition thus
improving soil structure. Crop rotation breaks/ disrupts the life cycle of pests
and diseases which ensures soil health.
o During the ley phase (i.e. fallow period), soil erosion is minimized due to a
heavy vegetative cover provided by legumes and grasses.

Advantages

o helps maintain and improve soil fertility by alternating crops with different
nutrient needs and root structures.
o reduces the buildup of pests and diseases associated with continuous
cropping of the same species.
o interrupts weed cycles and reduces weed pressure.
o different crops improve soil structure and prevent compaction.
o enhances biodiversity on the farm, contributing to ecosystem stability and
resilience.
o different crops use different soil nutrients, reducing the need for chemical
fertilizers.
 Disadvantages

o requires careful planning and management to be effective.

o farmers need to understand the specific requirements and benefits of
different crop sequences.
o may be challenging if the rotation crops do not have a ready market.
o requires appropriate infrastructure to handle diverse crops.
o potential short-term yield reductions as the system is being established and
optimized.

4. Afforestation refers to the process of planting trees in an area where there was
no previous tree cover, creating a forest. This can help combat climate change by
sequestering carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.

Advantages
o trees help protect the soil from erosion by wind and water.
o trees absorb carbon dioxide, contributing to climate change mitigation.
o creates habitats for various species, enhancing biodiversity.
o trees improve the water cycle by increasing groundwater recharge and
reducing runoff.
o provides resources such as timber, fruits, and other forest products.
Disadvantages
o may require converting agricultural land, which can impact food production.
o high initial costs for planting and establishing trees.
o trees take time to grow, requiring long-term commitment and maintenance.
o potential risk of introducing invasive tree species that can harm local
ecosystems.
o trees may compete with crops for water, especially in dry regions.

5. Minimum Tillage (Conservation Tillage) involves reducing the amount of tilling

/ploughing to maintain soil structure and health. It involves reducing the frequency
and intensity of tillage operations to maintain soil structure, reduce erosion, and
conserve soil moisture.

Advantages

o reduces soil disturbance compared to conventional tillage, helping to

preserve soil structure and reduce erosion.
o enhances water infiltration and reduces runoff, aiding in better water
management.
o requires fewer passes over the field, reducing labor and fuel costs.
o helps to maintain/increase organic matter in the soil, improving soil health
over time.
o leaves crop residues on the surface, which protect the soil and provide
habitat for beneficial organisms.
o more flexible than zero tillage, allowing some soil disturbance to manage
weeds and incorporate residues when necessary.
Disadvantages
o weeds can still be a problem, often requiring integrated weed management
practices, including the use of herbicides.
o may require specialized equipment, such as no-till drills/planters, which
can be costly.
o potential for soil compaction if not managed properly, particularly in wet
conditions.
o crop residues can harbour pests, necessitating careful pest management
strategies.
o farmers may need time and education to adapt to the new practices and
understand how to best implement minimum tillage on their fields.
 6. Observing the correct stocking rate: Prevents overgrazing which can lead to soil
compaction, erosion, and loss of vegetation cover, reducing soil fertility and water
retention. Maintaining an appropriate stocking rate allows vegetation time to recover
and regrow, preventing degradation of grasslands and natural habitats. It preserves
soil structure compaction as high stocking rates can compact soil, reducing
infiltration rates and increasing surface runoff, which can lead to erosion and
nutrient loss. Proper stocking rates ensure that vegetation roots can grow and
stabilize soil, enhancing soil structure and water holding capacity. Improves grazing
efficiency by nutrient cycling: Balanced stocking rates promote nutrient cycling
through plant and animal interactions, improving soil fertility and productivity over
time. Pasture Health: Maintaining optimal stocking rates supports healthy pasture
ecosystems, benefiting both livestock and wildlife.

Advantages
o maintains a balance between the number of grazing animals and the land's
carrying capacity, preventing overgrazing.
o prevents soil degradation and compaction caused by overgrazing.
o promotes healthy vegetation growth, which improves soil cover and reduces
erosion.
o supports biodiversity by maintaining diverse plant species and habitats.
o ensures animals have sufficient forage, leading to better health and
productivity.

Disadvantages
o requires regular monitoring and management to adjust stocking rates based
on forage availability.
o may limit the number of animals that can be grazed, potentially reducing
immediate income.
o stocking rates may need frequent adjustment due to weather variability
affecting forage growth.
o may require investment in fencing, water supply, and other infrastructure to
manage grazing effectively.
o farmers need knowledge and skills to assess forage availability and
determine appropriate stocking rates.
Challenges in Soil Conservation

• Land Degradation: Intensive agricultural practices, deforestation, and urbanization

can lead to soil degradation and loss of soil productivity.
• Climate Change: Increasing weather extremes, such as droughts and heavy
rainfall, pose challenges to soil conservation efforts by exacerbating erosion and
soil nutrient depletion.
• Policy and Implementation: Effective implementation of soil conservation practices
requires supportive policies, financial incentives, and collaboration among
stakeholders at local, national, and global levels.

DRAINAGE

Definition: the removal of excess water from a water logged soil.

o it is a method of land reclamation.

IMPORTANCE OF SOIL DRAINAGE

o it raises soil temperature for optimum growth of both crops and soil microbes.
o It increases soil aeration for root respiration and increased multiplication of soil
microbes
o It reduces the activity of denitrifying bacteria which removes nitrogen from the
soil/ reduces nitrogen loss through denitrification
o It improves soil structure
o It reduces occurrence of root and fungal diseases and parasites
 o It enhances root growth and development
o It increases rate of seed germination as soil are warm and well aerated.
o It facilitates tillage operations such as cultivation
o It prevents accumulation of salts
o it reduces aquatic weeds
o it reduces leaching of nutrients
o It increases land area for farming activities/ facilitates reclaiming waste land
into agricultural use.
o It prevents waterlogging/removes excess water/ controls soil moisture content

SIGNS OF POOR SOIL DRAINAGE/ EFFECTS OF WATER-LOGGED SOIL ON CROPS

o Death of crops due to shortage of oxygen/ restricted growth of roots and crops
due to limited root respiration and low temperature
o Poor seed germination due to limited supply of oxygen (poor aeration)
o Increased occurrence of root and fungal diseases resulting in reduced growth
or death of crops
o Death of plants intolerant to water-logged conditions
o Increased loss of nutrients due to leaching and denitrification hence reduced
plant growth.
o Death of useful soil microbes reducing plant growth
o soil structure when heavy machinery goes over wet land leading to poor
growth.

METHODS USED TO DRAIN THE SOIL

1. Surface drains
Open ditches/furrows/surface ditches
o trenches/ditches/furrows are dug.
o dug 1-2 m deep.
o dug towards the slope.
o spaced 50-200cm apart.
o ditches may be U-shaped/V-shape/square shaped.
o floors/sides may be built with concrete/bricks/tiles/stones.
o for durability/to avoid erosion
o allows water to flow into sloping ditches due to gravity/water moves due to
gravity.
o water led away through waterway/river.

Illustration
U shaped ditch
U- shaped ditch

Advantages and disadvantages of open ditches

Advantages Disadvantages
(i) low cost of construction (i) interfere with/ disturb tillage
(ii) it is easy to construct/ set up operations/ farm machinery
(ii) encourages soil erosion
(iii) danger to farm animals/ workers
(iv) they take up farm-land/ reduce
production space
(v) regular maintenance thus more
labour required
(vi) weeds may grow in the ditches and
interfere with drainage system

2. Sub-surface drainage
(i) Piped drains/ underground (buried) piped drains/ underground
perforated pipes
o 1-2m deep ditches/ trenches are dug and spaced 50-200m apart.
o Stones are placed in the ditch
o perforated pipes are placed 60-100cm deep along the sloping ditches then
covered with stones
o a metal sheet is placed above the stones surrounding the pipes and then
covered with soil
o water will flow from the side of the ditch into the perforated pipe water will be
carried away to a water way/ stream/ lake/ocean/dam
o
(ii) French drain
 o A ditch/trench of 60-100m deep is dug’
o The trench is lined with stones
o A perforated pipe is placed in the ditch/ with holes facing down
o The ditch is filled with gravel or stones around the pipe
o Water from surrounding areas runs into the pipe through gravity/ by gravity
o The pipe empties water from the field into a natural water way/river/stream.

Advantages and disadvantages of French drains/ underground piped drains

Advantages Disadvantages
(i) less maintenance is required (i) very expensive to set up and operate
(ii) do not disturb field operations (ii) difficult to clearly detect any faults
(iii) no blockage of drains by weeds underground/ damaged or blocked
points in pipes are difficult to detect
(iii) needs expertise skill to install and
maintain

Illustration

IRRIGATION
Definition: it is the controlled application of water/ artificial application of water to the land/
crops.

Importance of irrigation
 • provides moisture for plant growth and photosynthesis.
• dissolve nutrients for easy absorption by plants for use.
• ensures production of crops throughout the year.
• allow plants to complete their lifecycle and reach their optimal size.
• during drought times, irrigation can be used to save crops at germination and
flowering stage.

Effects of irrigation on crop quality

• it improves the taste.

• it improves nutritional value/content.
• it improves the texture/ smoothness.
• it improves the colour/ brightiness/ glossiness.

Methods of irrigation

There are three common methods/types of irrigation namely;

(i) surface irrigation

(ii) sub-surface irrigation
(iii) over-head irrigation

(i) Surface irrigation – water is applied directly to the soil surface/field with the help
of gravitational force. In this method, gravity is used to supply the water from the
source of irrigation to the crop with the help of canals or pipes. This method is
best suited for areas that have a flat surface and moderate fine textured soil type.
The efficiency of this method depends on the type of soil and crop. It is mainly
used in field crops and orchards. Surface irrigation is made up of four
components: water supply, water conveyance or delivery, water use and
drainage. Examples of surface irrigation include; basin, furrow and flood
irrigation.

(ii) Sub-surface irrigation – method of delivering water and nutrients to the

plants below the surface directly into the root zone. It involves the use of porous
hoses that are placed close to plant roots, maximizing the effect of irrigation and
fertilization. It can be used in a variety of crops such as cabbages and rape. The
system can save water, energy and fertilizers and can be used in heavy clay or
 sandy soils. Examples of sub-surface irrigation include subsurface drip
irrigation (SDI) and Micro jet irrigation systems.

(iii) Overhead irrigation – water is applied from above the crop plant. It includes all
the systems that provide water to the plants in form of sprays or bucket system.
This is the most common method used in the field where there is a lot of plants to
be irrigated. It holds a unique advantage of washing off dust and fungal debris
that may be attached to the foliar plant parts. It is suitable for irrigating landscape
plants such as lawn/turf grass and variety of field crops. Examples of over-head
irrigation include sprinkler irrigation and center-pivot irrigation systems.

SYSTEMS OF IRRIGATION
Systems of irrigation How it works
Basin irrigation- is a surface irrigation • The land is levelled to create a flat area.
method that uses gravity to deliver water to • A dyke or check bank is built around the basin
the crops by flooding a flat area of land. The to prevent water from running off.
water is added to a basin through a gap in a • Water is added to a basin through a gap in the
dyke or ditch, and allowed to soak in. dyke.
• The water is allowed to soak in the soil.
Flood irrigation- water is channeled to the • Farmers pump water or allow it to flow into
field by the use of ditch or pipe using gravity channels between crop rows.
and allowed to flow over the soil surface • The water flows by gravity down the channels.
through the crops. • The water distribution is uncontrolled.
Furrow irrigation- is a surface irrigation • Farmers cut sloping channels, or furrows, into
method that uses gravity to move water the soil.
through trenches in the soil to irrigate crops. • Water is directed into the furrows.
• The water moves through the furrows,
 infiltrating the soil.
Drip irrigation- a water delivery method • Water is supplied to the system from a water
which uses buried drip tubes or pipes to source.
apply water directly to the root zone of • Pump moves the water through the system.
crops. • Filters removes solid particles from the water
• Water flows through the pipes to the emitters.
• Emitters release water in small drops at the
base of each plant.
Micro jet irrigation- also known as drip • Emitters or applicators are placed along a
irrigation, delivers water slowly and directly water delivery line.
to the root zones of plants. It uses low • Pipe with holes are buried or placed slightly
pressure and flow rates to reduce above the ground.
evaporation and runoff. • Water slowly drips onto the plant roots and
stems.
Sprinkler irrigation- water is applied over • Water is pumped under pressure through
the field under pressure in the form of a pipes (mainline/sub mainline) laid across the
spray field.
• Irrigation water is released in form similar to
rain by rotating sprinklers mounted on vertical
pipes (laterals).
• Water is forced out through sprinklers under
pressure.
• Irrigation systems/ pipes can be moved from
one side of the field to another.

Centre pivot irrigation- uses a central • A pivot point/central tower with a pivot
power and pipeline to distribute water in a mechanism is anchored to a water supply point
circular pattern to irrigate crops. The system in the centre of the field.
can also be used to apply fertilizers, • A long pipeline with sprinklers attached is
pesticides and herbicides. supported above ground by towers that move
on wheels.
• The system rotates slowly in a circular pattern,
watering the crops with overhead spray.
• The water breaks up into small drops and falls
to the ground.

Advantages and disadvantages of the irrigation systems

Irrigation system Advantage Disadvantages
Basin • Low labour and material costs • Only suitable for flat land
• Not much water is wasted • May result in leaching,
• Little or no erosion capping and soil pans
Flood • Weed and pest control • Can lead to runoff,
• Climate smart evaporation and anaerobic
• River water may improve soil conditions in the soil
fertility by adding silt deposits • Inefficient in sandy soil
• Not ideal in arid
environments
• Only suitable for flat land
• Water is unevenly distributed
to plants
• Salinization occurs in poorly
drained soils.
Furrow • Reduce fungal diseases • Loss of water through
• Also cheap to establish and evaporation and ground
maintain seepage
• Require less skills • Soil erosion may occur
 • It is suitable to most soils • It is labour intensive to dig
trenches
• Needs level land
Drip (Trickle)/ • Can be used to conserve • It is expensive to install and
micro jet water maintain
• Can be automated to optimize • It is labour intensive to lay
irrigation, fertilization and crop and move pipes
health • Amount of water used must
• Reduced weed growth be regulated
• Less water is lost by • Drips can be easily
evaporation blocked/clogged by soil or
• Water can be directed to solid particles
specific plant that need it
Centre pivot • Uniform distribution of water • High initial and maintenance
• Fertigation/can be used to costs
apply small amount of • Not efficient in windy
nutrients precisely conditions
• Can be automated thus • Loss of water through
reducing labour costs evaporation
• Can be used to conserve • Outbreak of fungal infections
water due to moist conditions
Sprinkler • covers large areas, can be • potential for water loss due to
automated, suitable for various evaporation and wind drift.
soil types. • expensive to install.
• there is uniform distribution of • there is a need for skilled
water, and it wastes less water. personnel to maintain.
• it is ease to shift sprinklers • it encourages fungal
from one area to another. diseases because water
• it allows for both application of accumulate on the leaves.
water and fertilizers. • leads to increased risk of soil
• it can be practised on capping/formation of hard
sloppy ground since there crusts.
is more accurate • it requires a lot of labour to
regulation of an amount of move sprinklers around in a
water applied. big field.
• there is less risk of soil erosion. • strong winds may drift water
away.
• evaporation of water under
warm conditions.

Installation of a sprinkler irrigation system

1. Planning – evaluate the yard and measure the area to be covered. Decide on
the type and layout of watering system.
2. Gather materials – assemble / collect all the necessary components such as
pipes, fittings, valves and sprinklers.
3. Trenching – dig trenches for the pipes, ensuring they are deep enough to
protect them from damage.
4. Install the system – connect the water source, install shut-off valves, and lay
the PVC pipes. Build a valve manifold and connect the wires.
5. Install sprinklers – place the sprinklers in the desired locations and ensure they
are properly connected to the system.
6. Test the system – flush the system to remove the debris and check for leaks
before covering the trenches.
7. Maintenance – regularly check and maintain the system to ensure it operates
efficiently.