Geometric Geodesy (SUG 604) – Lecture Notes

1. Introduction to Geodesy and Reference Surfaces

Geodesy studies the size, shape, and gravitational field of the Earth to establish precise positions on its
surface. Because the true topography is highly irregular, geodesists adopt a smooth reference ellipsoid (an
oblate spheroid) as a mathematical model of Earth 1 2 . The ellipsoid is generated by rotating an ellipse
(semi-major axis a, semi-minor axis b) about its minor (polar) axis 2 3 . Points on the actual terrain are
projected (via the normal) onto this ellipsoid, and geodetic calculations use these projected points. The
ellipsoid’s parameters (size and shape) define the global datum. For example, the current World Geodetic
System ellipsoid has a = 6 378 137.0 m and flattening f ≈ 1/298.257223563 4 .

An alternative surface is the geoid, defined as the equipotential surface of Earth’s gravity field that best fits
global mean sea level. The geoid undulates above/below the ellipsoid by up to ±100 m due to gravity
variations. Modern geopotential models (e.g. NGA’s Earth Gravitational Models – EGM96, EGM2008) provide
the geoid height globally 5 . The ellipsoid is used for horizontal positions (latitude, longitude) while the
geoid defines vertical datum (orthometric height).

Key definitions include latitude (angle between the ellipsoid normal and the equatorial plane) and
longitude (angle in the equatorial plane from the prime meridian) 6 . These, together with ellipsoidal
height h, form geodetic coordinates (φ, λ, h). Converting between geodetic coordinates and Earth-centered
Cartesian (X,Y,Z) requires solving non-linear equations (see §2.5 below).

2. Geometry of the Ellipse and Ellipsoid

2.1 Definition of an Ellipse

An ellipse in the plane is the set of points P such that the sum of distances to two fixed foci (F₁, F₂) is
constant 2 . In Cartesian coordinates with origin at the center, a standard ellipse has semi-major axis a
along x-axis and semi-minor b along z-axis; its equation is:

x2 z2
+ = 1.
a2 b2

This follows from the focal definition (with focal distance E where E² = a² – b²) 2 3 . Equivalently, a useful
parametric form is

x = a cos ψ, z = b sin ψ,

for a parameter angle ψ 7 .

The eccentricity e of the ellipse is defined by e² = 1 – (b²/a²). In geodesy, two eccentricities are used: the first
eccentricity e, and the second eccentricity e′ = e/√(1–e²). The ellipse’s flattening is f = 1 – (b/ a). For example,

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the WGS84 ellipsoid has a = 6 378 137.0 m and flattening f = 1/298.257223563 4 (so b = a(1–f)). The classic
Geodetic Reference System 1980 (GRS80) ellipsoid is nearly identical (f ≈ 1/298.257222101). The similarity of
WGS84 and GRS80 means that, for most computations, they can be considered equivalent 8 4 .

2.2 Ellipsoid of Revolution and Principal Meridians

The geodetic ellipsoid is formed by rotating the defining ellipse about its minor axis, aligning that axis with
the Earth’s rotation (polar) axis 9 . This yields a surface of revolution symmetric about the equator and
poles. Every meridian (plane through the polar axis) intersects the ellipsoid in a planar meridian ellipse. All
parallels (planes parallel to the equator) intersect in circles of radius a cosφ (for a point at latitude φ).

The ellipsoid’s equation in Earth-centered coordinates (with Z-axis through the north pole and equatorial
plane as XY-plane) is

X2 + Y 2 Z2
+ = 1.
a2 b2

Analogous to the 2D case, this follows from the rotated ellipse definition 10 3 .

2.3 Differential Properties of the Ellipse

The curvature of the ellipse in the meridian plane varies with latitude. One can derive the radius of
curvature ρ of the ellipse at a point (φ, on the ellipse) by classical differential geometry:

(ab)2
ρ(ϕ) = 3/2
.
(a2 cos2 ϕ + b2 sin2 ϕ)

This formula can be found by differentiating the parametric form (see RMIT notes 3 11 ). Equivalently, the
principal radii of curvature of the ellipsoid (meridian and prime-vertical) are:

• Meridian radius RM = radius of curvature in the north–south plane (meridian):

a(1 − e2 )
RM = .
(1 − e2 sin2 ϕ)3/2

• Prime-vertical radius RN = radius of curvature in the east–west (normal to meridian) plane:

a
RN = .
1 − e2 sin2 ϕ

These formulas follow from the ellipse geometry (e² = 1–b²/a²) 12 RN = a/ 1 − e2 sin2 ϕ and
. Note:
RM = a(1 − e2 )/(1 − e2 sin2 ϕ)3/2 12 . At the equator (φ=0), RN = a and RM = a(1 − e2 ) (i.e. smaller
at poles). These radii are used to relate small changes in latitude/longitude to distances on the ellipsoid. In
particular, differential displacements satisfy dnorthing = R_M dφ and deasting = R_N cosφ dλ 13 .

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Figure: Variation of Earth’s principal curvature radii with latitude (WGS84 ellipsoid). The meridian radius RM
(blue) and prime-vertical RN (green) grow toward the poles 13 . The differential relationships dN =
RM dϕ and dE = RN cos ϕ dλ hold on the ellipsoid 13 . (Formulas: RN = a/ 1 − e2 sin2 ϕ, RM =
a(1 − e2 )/(1 − e2 sin2 ϕ)3/2 12 .)

2.4 Ellipsoid vs. Sphere

An ellipsoid’s surface differs from a sphere of constant radius: the curvature varies with position and
direction. The Gaussian curvature of the ellipsoid at latitude φ is the product of curvatures in the meridian
and prime-vertical directions, and the mean curvature is their average. These are useful in surface geometry
and geoid computations but are beyond this introduction. For many mapping tasks, small ellipsoidal
segments are approximated by tangent spheres of radius RN RM , the so-called Gaussian mean radius
14 .

3. Geodetic Coordinates and Transformations

3.1 Geodetic vs. Geocentric Coordinates

Geodetic coordinates (φ, λ, h) specify a point’s latitude, longitude on the ellipsoid and height h above the
ellipsoid. These differ from geocentric (ECEF) coordinates (X,Y,Z) measured in a 3D Cartesian system
centered at Earth’s center. Converting from geodetic to Cartesian is straightforward:

X = (N + h) cos ϕ cos λ, Y = (N + h) cos ϕ sin λ, Z = [(1 − e2 )N + h] sin ϕ,

where N = RN = a/ 1 − e2 sin2 ϕ is the prime-vertical radius 12 . Inverse conversion (solving φ, h from

X,Y,Z) requires iterative or series methods, since no closed form exists. Common algorithms include
Bowring’s method, Newton–Raphson, or closed-form approximations. (See RMIT notes section on cartesian-
geodetic transforms.) In practice, geodetic software implements these solutions internally.

3.2 Map Projections and Coordinate Systems (Brief)

While geodetic coordinates are angular, many applications use planar grid coordinates via map projections
(UTM, Mercator, etc.). Each projection has its own formulas and distortion properties. For example, the
Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) projection yields easting/northing in meters on the chosen zone’s
transverse Mercator plane. Detailed projection theory (scale factors, convergence, series) is beyond this
scope, but must be covered in any complete course (see e.g. See Also references).

3.3 Geodetic Datum and Reference Frames

A geodetic datum ties the ellipsoid model to the Earth. It includes the ellipsoid parameters and the origin/
orientation (translation and rotation) relative to Earth. Local datums (e.g. NAD27, Indian 1960) fit a region
and may have offsets from Earth’s center. Global datums (e.g. WGS84, ITRF) are Earth-centered. The
International Terrestrial Reference Frame (ITRF) is the current global standard realization of Earth’s
reference frame 15 . The U.S. WGS84 datum is nominally Earth-centered and aligned to ITRF to within
centimeters 16 . WGS84’s ellipsoid and axes form the basis of GPS coordinates 17 . In fact, WGS84 (as a

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reference frame) and ITRF are essentially coincident for positioning purposes 17 16 . (Modern updates like
“WGS84(G2139)” align with ITRF2014 at the cm level.)

Regional reference systems often use the GRS80 ellipsoid (which is nearly the same as WGS84) 8 . For
example, NAD83 for North America is defined on GRS80. Many international and national geodetic agencies
now adopt ITRF directly or define local frames tied to ITRF through Helmert transformations.

3.4 Datum Transformations: Helmert and Coordinate Shift

When working with different datums, a datum transformation is needed. The most common is the Helmert
(7-parameter) transformation: three translations (ΔX,ΔY,ΔZ), three small rotations, and one scale factor 18 .
This is a similarity transformation in 3D, mapping one Cartesian frame to another 18 . In practice, survey
points in a regional datum are converted to WGS84 by: 1. Inverse map projection: (if given grid
coordinates) compute geodetic φ,λ.
2. Geodetic→Geocentric: compute X,Y,Z in the source ellipsoid.
3. Helmert transform: apply the 7 parameters to get X′,Y′,Z′ in the target frame.
4. Geocentric→Geodetic: compute φ′,λ′,h′ in the target ellipsoid or reference frame.

For example, converting local (e.g. Gauss–Krüger) coordinates to WGS84 often follows this 4-step process
19 . Similarly, national datums may provide 3- or 7-parameter values to align with ITRF/GPS. The NGA

defines standard WGS84 with zero Helmert offsets to ITRF (by design) 16 .

3.5 Example: Helmert Transformation in GIS

Many GIS and survey software support datum shifts. For instance, Trimble Business Center and Leica Geo
Office allow importing data in one CRS and transforming to another using stored transformation
parameters. In GIS (ArcGIS/QGIS), a datum transformation is specified (often via EPSG codes). For example,
ArcGIS might apply the 7-param “NAD_1983_To_WGS_1984_3” transformation if converting NAD83 data to
WGS84. (Detailed parameter selection is critical – errors yield meter-level misfits.) As a case study, when
merging legacy levelling heights with modern GPS data, one must apply vertical datum shifts (often
provided as grid files) and geoid models (e.g. NAD83(CORS96) adjustments) to bring heights to a common
vertical datum.

4. Satellite Geodesy and GNSS Applications

4.1 Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS)

Satellite geodesy provides highly accurate positioning via GNSS: GPS (USA), GLONASS (Russia), Galileo (EU),
BeiDou (China), etc. Each system broadcasts precise orbital ephemerides referenced to WGS84/ITRF. A GNSS
receiver calculates pseudoranges to multiple satellites, solving for its (X,Y,Z) in an Earth-centered frame and
the receiver clock bias. After processing (e.g. via carrier-phase RTK or PPK), one obtains geocentric
coordinates usually defined in WGS84/ITRF 17 .

Because GNSS measures geometry, the computed heights are initially ellipsoidal. For mapping to
orthometric (sea-level) heights, a geoid model (e.g. EGM96, EGM2008) is applied:

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 Horthometric = hellipsoid − N ,

where N is the geoid height. High-precision GNSS surveys often combine GNSS with local leveling and
gravity data to refine regional geoid models.

4.2 Satellite Reference Frames and Observation Techniques

Precise geodetic reference frames are realized by combining space techniques: VLBI (quasars for Earth
orientation), SLR (satellite laser ranging to geodetic satellites), GNSS (tracking networks), and DORIS
(orbitography). These methods define the ITRF and its time evolution. For example, weekly Global
Positioning System (IGS) solutions tie GPS to ITRF through networks of fiducial stations, ensuring global
consistency 16 .

4.3 Satellite Altimetry and Gravity

Satellite altimetry (radar echoes from the sea surface) measures the mean sea surface relative to an
ellipsoid. These observations, together with gravity field satellites (GRACE, GOCE) and terrestrial gravity,
feed into global gravity models (GGMs). The NGA Earth Gravitational Models (EGM84/96/2008) are spherical
harmonic expansions of Earth’s potential 5 . EGM2008 (n=m=2160) includes altimeter data (GEOSAT,
TOPEX/Poseidon, Jason, etc.) and provides a geoid with few-cm precision 20 21 . In practical surveying, one
often uses these models to interpolate geoid heights across a region (e.g. using NOAA’s GEOID18 in the
U.S., EGM2008 globally) 8 5 .

4.4 Geospatial Software Workflows

Modern survey projects often integrate GNSS, total station, and GIS tools. A typical workflow: - Data
Collection: Measure points with a GNSS receiver and/or total station (e.g. Leica TS/GS or Trimble S/T series).
Ensure the receiver’s coordinate system is set to WGS84 or the local datum.
- Post-Processing: Import raw GNSS observations into processing software (Leica Infinity, Trimble Business
Center, or open tools) to perform baseline solutions or network adjustments. This yields point coordinates
(X,Y,Z) in a chosen reference frame (e.g. ITRF2014). The software handles satellite ephemerides,
tropospheric models, and solves for positions via least-squares.
- Coordinate Transformation: If required, transform the adjusted coordinates into the local project datum
(applying Helmert parameters or grid shifts). Many packages allow specifying the output datum and
automatically apply known 7-parameter transformations 19 .
- Data Integration: Export coordinates to GIS format (e.g. shapefiles or GeoPackages). In GIS (ArcGIS/
QGIS), define the correct CRS (datum+projection) for the data. Use georeferencing tools to overlay survey
points on base maps or other layers. If combining with historical data, ensure consistent datum/
transformation (using authoritative transformation definitions like EPSG codes).
- Height Systems: To obtain orthometric heights, apply a geoid model. For instance, Leica Geo Office can
subtract NGA GEOID values, or GIS tools can apply geoid raster files. This aligns GNSS-derived elevations
with leveling networks.

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5. Surveying Techniques and Applications

5.1 Classical Surveying Concepts

In geodesy, one studies traditional methods (triangulation, trilateration, leveling) as well as modern
techniques. Classical triangulation determines point positions by measuring angles in a network of
triangles, later adjusted by least squares. Triangulation historically tied large baselines. With the advent of
electronic distance measurement (EDM) and total stations, trilateration (distance measurements) became
more efficient. Today, total stations (e.g. Leica, Trimble) perform angle+distance measurement for local
detail, while GNSS covers regional and global networks.

Example problem: Given a baseline and angles, compute the coordinates of a new point. This involves solving
plane/spherical triangles using the law of sines and resection or intersection techniques (hand-calculations
or software). In geodesy, such problems also consider Earth curvature and often use spherical trigonometry
or ellipsoidal approximations for long lines.

5.2 Leveling and Vertical Control

Precise leveling establishes vertical control (heights). Geometric leveling measures height differences by
equal-precision differential leveling (spirit levels). Barometric and trigonometric leveling are less precise. In
modern geodesy, GNSS heights (ellipsoidal) are tied to leveling via geoid models. For example, a leveling
network can determine a geoid–ellipsoid separation at benchmarks. The combined system yields
orthometric heights accurate to millimeters (in leveled regions).

5.3 Case Study – CORS and Reference Stations

Many countries maintain CORS (Continuously Operating Reference Stations) as part of a precise positioning
network. For example, the U.S. has the Continuously Operating Reference Stations (CORS) network
providing real-time or post-processed GNSS corrections in NAD83/ITRF frames. Surveyors using RTK GNSS
fix their rovers by referencing nearby CORS. The underlying datum alignment ensures that different
agencies’ data (NOAA, GPS Survey) are compatible.

In practice, a surveyor might download coordinates of control points from NGS (National Geodetic Survey)
whose positions are given in the NSRS (National Spatial Reference System). These often include both NAD83
(Epoch) coordinates and NAVD88 orthometric heights 22 23 . The surveyor then ties new measurements
into this system, applying the known datum realizations and ensuring the network’s consistency.

5.4 Modern Geodetic Problems

• Plate Motions: GNSS networks detect tectonic motions. Time series of station coordinates reveal
mm/yr motion, requiring time-dependent reference frames (IGS provides ITRF with epoch).
• Space-based Gravity: GRACE satellite data provide temporal gravity variations, influencing geoid
and water storage models.
• Geoid Refinement: Combining gravimetry, GNSS-levelling, and altimetry to improve regional geoid
models (e.g. GeoSURveys).

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 • Datum Modernization: Several agencies are shifting to new datums (e.g., ITRF2020-based). For
example, NOAA’s “NSRS Modernization” defines new geometric and vertical datums (effective 2022)
aligned to ITRF and a geopotential model (CGG2013) 15 5 .

6. Worked Examples and Problem Sets

To solidify these concepts, one should work through problems such as:

1. Ellipse parameters: Given a and f, compute b and e. Example: a=6378137 m, f=1/298.257223563.

Then b = a(1 − f ) , e2 = 1 − (b/a)2 .

2. Radius of curvature: For latitude φ=45°, compute RN and RM for WGS84. Use formulas RN =
a/ 1 − e2 sin2 φ , RM = a(1 − e2 )/(1 − e2 sin2 φ)3/2 12 . Plug in a, e. Check that RN > RM .

3. Coordinate conversion: Given a point at (φ=30°, λ=45°, h=100 m) on WGS84, compute its X,Y,Z. Then
invert using Bowring’s method to recover φ,λ,h (iteratively).

4. Datum shift: A survey network in a local datum has known Helmert parameters to WGS84. Apply a
7-parameter transformation to convert (X,Y,Z). Exercise: Derive the translation/rotation matrix and
scale.

5. Geoid height: Given ellipsoidal height from GNSS and geoid undulation from EGM96 at a point,
calculate orthometric height. Example: If h=50.123 m, N=–30.456 m, then H = h – N = 80.579 m.

6. Software workflow: Outline steps in Leica Infinity to import GNSS observations, define the project
coordinate system (WGS84/UTM), perform network adjustment, and export coordinates. Include
setting geoid model for height.

Each problem should be accompanied by diagrams (triangle geometry, flowcharts), formulas, and
references to the above theory.

7. Global Geodetic Models and Datums

• WGS84: The U.S. Defense-defined global reference frame. Its latest realization is consistent with ITRF
(e.g. “WGS84(G1762)” ≈ ITRF2014) 16 17 . WGS84 serves as the reference for GPS and many
mapping systems. Its ellipsoid parameters and frame definition are standardized 4 17 .
• GRS80: Adopted by IUGG in 1980; the basis for NAD83 and many national datums 8 . It has semi-
major axis 6378137 m (same as WGS84) and flattening 1/298.257222101. Except for minute
differences, WGS84 and GRS80 are effectively the same shape 8 4 .
• ITRF: A kinematic reference frame realized by continuous observations. Each ITRF epoch includes
station coordinates and velocities. ITRF2014 is aligned to within 1 cm of WGS84 at present 16 . All
precise GNSS and geodetic results are ultimately tied to some ITRF realization.
• National Datums: Many countries define their own reference frames tied to global frames. For
example, Canada’s CSRS is aligned to ITRF2014 to cm-level. Australia’s GDA2020 is aligned to
ITRF2014. Datums often provide conversion parameters to ITRF/WGS84.

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8. Current Research and References
The field continually evolves. Recent topics include:
- Datum modernization: Replacing fixed historical datums with Earth-centered, time-dependent systems
15 .

- Tectonic and sea-level studies: Using GNSS and altimetry to monitor crustal motion and sea-level rise.
- Geoid and height system unification: Developing a global vertical reference via gravity missions and
gravimetric datum (e.g. “geopotential datum of 2022”).
- Multi-GNSS: Integrating GPS/GLONASS/Galileo/BeiDou improves precision and resilience.

Key References: For theory and practice, consult geodesy textbooks and agency manuals. G. R. Rapp’s
Geometric Geodesy and Langley’s Geodesy cover ellipsoidal geometry in depth (see RMIT notes crediting Lauf,
Rapp, etc. 24 ). The IAG Technical Notes and IERS Conventions provide up-to-date frame definitions.
Government sources (NOAA NGS, NGA) define datum parameters and offer tools (OPUS, VDatum, GeoTrans)
25 4 . GNSS equipment manuals (Leica/Trimble) and GIS documentation describe practical workflows.

Peer-reviewed journals (e.g. Journal of Geodesy, Survey Review) cover case studies and advances.

Together, these materials form a comprehensive set of lecture notes for Geometric Geodesy (SUG 604) at
the university level, blending mathematical rigor with real-world applications. The above sections should be
supplemented with derivations, diagrams (e.g. ellipsoid cross-sections), formula lists, and example
computations to meet the course requirements.

Sources: Authoritative geodesy texts and agencies were used, including RMIT lecture notes 3 , Ohio State
geodesy notes 2 , NOAA/NGA technical docs 15 23 , and relevant Wikipedia/StackExchange content for
illustrative formulas 13 12 18 5 .

1 3 7 11 24 GEOMETRIC GEODESY
http://www.mygeodesy.id.au/documents/Geometric%20Geodesy%20A(2013).pdf

2 9 Microsoft Word - title_TOC_2016.doc

https://kb.osu.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/404dbfb8-da94-5f09-baf4-dbee438ece83/content

4 16 17 23 NGA Geomatics - WGS 84

https://earth-info.nga.mil/index.php?dir=wgs84&action=wgs84

5 10 20 Earth Gravitational Model - Wikipedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_Gravitational_Model

6 14 Module 3 Geodetic Positions - LESSON 4: GEODETIC POSITIONS A graticule on the Earth as a sphere
or - Studocu
https://www.studocu.com/ph/document/nueva-vizcaya-state-university/geodetic-engineering/module-3-geodetic-positions/
37609904

8 15 22 25 Datums and Reference Frames | Datums | National Geodetic Survey

https://geodesy.noaa.gov/datums/index.shtml

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 12 geodetic - Inconsistent coordinates of centroid were found using the given value of radius of curvature

in the prime vertical and in the meridian - Geographic Information Systems Stack Exchange
https://gis.stackexchange.com/questions/184777/inconsistent-coordinates-of-centroid-were-found-using-the-given-value-of-
radius

13 radiigeo.PDF
https://www.oc.nps.edu/oc2902w/geodesy/radiigeo.pdf

18 19 Helmert transformation - Wikipedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helmert_transformation

21 Remote Sensing | Special Issue : Satellite Altimetry: Technology and Application in Geodesy
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/remotesensing/special_issues/Satellite_Altimetry_Geodesy