EMAE353: Heat Transfer
Radiation -1
General Considerations
• Thermal radiation: associated with emission from a matter at
an absolute temperature T > 0.
• Emission is due to oscillations and transitions of the electrons
that comprise a matter.
• Emission from a gas or a semitransparent solid or liquid is a
volumetric phenomenon.
• Emission from an opaque solid or liquid can be treated as a
surface phenomenon (emission originates from atoms and
molecules within 1 μm of the surface).
The dual nature of radiation:
• In some cases, the physical manifestations of radiation may be
explained by viewing it as particles (aka photons or quanta).
• In other cases, radiation behaves as an electromagnetic wave.
• In all cases, radiation is characterized by a wavelength and
frequency which are related through the speed at which
radiation propagates in the medium of interest:
λ=c
ν
• For propagation in a vacuum,
8
c c=
= o 2 .998 x 10 m/s
The Electromagnetic Spectrum
• Thermal radiation is confined to the infrared, visible and
ultraviolet regions of the spectrum ( 0.1 < λ < 100µ m ) .
The Electromagnetic Spectrum
• The amount of radiation emitted by an opaque surface varies
with wavelength.
• Spectral distribution.
• Monochromatic/spectral components associated with particular
wavelengths.
Directional Considerations
• Radiation emitted by a surface will be in all directions
associated with a hypothetical hemisphere about the surface
and is characterized by a directional distribution.
Directional Considerations
• Differential solid angle:
dAn
dω ≡
r2
dAn: unit element of surface on a
hypothetical sphere and normal to
the θ ,φ direction.
dAn
2
dAn = r sin θ dθ d φ ω =
d= 2
sin θ dθ d φ
r
– The solid angle ω has units of steradians (sr).
– The solid angle associated with a complete hemisphere is
2π π/2
=ωhemi ∫=
0 ∫0 sin θ dθ dφ 2π sr
• Spectral Intensity: A quantity used to specify the radiant heat flux
( W/m2 ) within a unit solid angle about a prescribed direction ( W/m2 ⋅ sr )
and within a unit wavelength interval about a prescribed
wavelength ( W/m2 ⋅ sr ⋅ µ m ) .
Radiation Intensity
• The spectral intensity I λ ,e associated with emission from a surface element dA1
in the solid angle d ω about θ ,φ and the wavelength interval d λ about λ
is defined as:
dq
I λ ,e ( λ ,θ ,φ ) ≡
( dA1 cos θ ) ⋅ d ω ⋅ d λ
• The spectral heat rate and heat flux associated with emission from dA1 are, respectively,
dq
= I λ ,e ( λ ,θ ,φ ) dA1 cos θ d ω
dqλ ≡
dλ
= λ ,e ( λ ,θ ,φ ) cos θ d ω
dqλ′′ I= I λ ,e ( λ ,θ ,φ ) cos θ sin θ dθ d φ
Emissive Power
• The spectral emissive power ( W/m 2 ⋅ µ m ) corresponds to spectral emission
over all possible directions.
2π π/2
Eλ ( λ ) = ∫ 0 ∫0 I λ ,e ( λ ,θ ,φ ) cos θ sin θ dθ d φ
• The total emissive power ( W/m 2 ) corresponds to emission over all directions
and wavelengths.
∞
E= ∫0 Eλ ( λ ) d λ
• For a diffuse surface, emission is isotropic and
Eλ ( λ ) = π I λ ,e ( λ ) E = π Ie
Irradiation
• The spectral intensity of radiation
incident on a surface, I λ ,i , is defined in
terms of the unit solid angle about the
direction of incidence, the wavelength
interval d λ about λ , and the projected
area of the receiving surface, dA1 cos θ .
• The spectral irradiation ( W/m ⋅ µ m ) is
2
then:
2π π/2
Gλ ( λ ) = ∫ 0 ∫0 I λ ,i ( λ ,θ ,φ ) cos θ sin θ dθ d φ
∞
• The total irradiation ( W/m 2
) is G = ∫ 0 Gλ ( λ ) d λ
Blackbody Radiation
• The Blackbody
– For a prescribed temperature and wavelength, no surface
can emit more radiation than a blackbody: the ideal
emitter.
– A blackbody is a diffuse emitter.
– A blackbody absorbs all incident radiation: the ideal
absorber.
Blackbody Radiation
• The Isothermal Cavity (Hohlraum).
After multiple reflections, virtually all radiation entering the
cavity is absorbed.
Emission from the aperture is the maximum possible emission
achievable for the temperature associated with the cavity and is
diffuse.
The cumulative effect of radiation emission from and
reflection off the cavity wall is to provide diffuse irradiation
corresponding to emission from a blackbody ( Gλ = Eλ ,b ) for
any surface in the cavity.
The Spectral (Planck) Distribution of Blackbody Radiation
• The spectral distribution of the blackbody emissive power
(determined theoretically and confirmed experimentally) is
C1
Eλ ,b ( λ ,T ) π=
= I λ ,b ( λ ,T )
λ 5 exp ( C2 / λT ) − 1
C1 3.742 x 108 W ⋅ µ m 4 / m 2
C2 1.439 x 104 µ m ⋅ K
The Stefan-Boltzmann Law and Band Emission
• The total emissive power of a blackbody is obtained
by integrating the Planck distribution over all
possible wavelengths.
∞
Eb π=
= Ib ∫0 λ σT 4
Eλ ,b d=
the Stefan-Boltzmann law
σ 5.670 x 10−8 W/m 2 ⋅ K 4 → the Stefan-Boltzmann constant
• The fraction of total blackbody emission that is in a
prescribed wavelength interval or band ( λ1 < λ < λ2 )
is λ λ
∫ 02 Eλ ,b d λ − ∫ o1 Eλ ,b d λ
F( λ1 − λ2 ) = F( 0 − λ2 ) − F( 0 − λ1 ) =
σT 4
where, in general,
λ
∫ 0 Eλ ,b d λ
F( 0 − λ ) =
= f ( λT )
σT
and numerical results are given in Table 12.1
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
Surface Emissivity
• Radiation emitted by a surface may be determined by introducing a property
(the emissivity) that contrasts its emission with the ideal behavior of a blackbody
at the same temperature.
• The definition of the emissivity depends upon one’s interest in resolving
directional and/or spectral features of the emitted radiation, in contrast
to averages over all directions (hemispherical) and/or wavelengths (total).
• The spectral, directional emissivity:
I λ ,e ( λ ,θ ,φ ,T )
ε λ ,θ ( λ ,θ ,φ ,T ) ≡
I λ ,b ( λ ,T )
• The spectral, hemispherical emissivity (a directional average):
Eλ ( λ ,T ) ∫ 02π ∫π0 / 2 I λ ,e ( λ ,θ ,φ ,T ) cos θ sin θ dθ d φ
ε λ ( λ ,T ) ≡ =
Eλ ,b ( λ ,T ) ∫ 02π ∫π0 / 2 I λ ,b ( λ ,T ) cos θ sin θ dθ d φ
• The total, hemispherical emissivity (a directional and spectral average):
∞
E (T ) ∫ 0 ε λ ( λ ,T ) Eλ ,b ( λ ,T ) d , λ
ε (T ) ≡ =
Eb (T ) Eb (T )
• To a reasonable approximation, the hemispherical emissivity is equal to
the normal emissivity.
ε ≈ εn
• Representative values of the total, normal emissivity:
Note:
Low emissivity of polished metals and increasing emissivity
for unpolished and oxidized surfaces.
Comparatively large emissivities of nonconductors.
• Representative spectral variations:
Note decreasing ε λ ,n with increasing λ for metals and different
behavior for nonmetals.
• Representative temperature variations:
• The emissivity of conductors increases with increasing
temperature.
• The emissivity of nonconductors may either increase or decrease
with increasing temperature, depending on the specific material.
Response to Surface Irradiation:
Absorption, Reflection, and Transmission
• There may be three responses of a semitransparent medium to irradiation:
Reflection from the medium ( Gλ ,ref ) .
Absorption within the medium ( Gλ ,abs ) .
Transmission through the medium ( Gλ ,tr ) .
Radiation balance
Gλ = Gλ ,ref + Gλ ,abs + Gλ ,tr
• In contrast to the foregoing volumetric effects, the response of an opaque material
to irradiation is governed by surface phenomena and Gλ ,tr = 0.
𝐺𝐺𝜆𝜆 = 𝐺𝐺𝜆𝜆,𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 + 𝐺𝐺𝜆𝜆,𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
• The wavelength of the incident radiation, as well as the nature of the material,
determine whether the material is semitransparent or opaque.
• Unless an opaque material is at a sufficiently high temperature to emit visible
radiation, its color is determined by the spectral dependence of reflection in
response to visible irradiation.
Absorptivity of an Opaque Material
• The spectral, directional absorptivity: Assuming negligible temperature dependence,
I ( λ ,θ ,φ )
α λ ,θ ( λ ,θ ,φ ) ≡ λ ,i ,abs
I λ ,i ( λ ,θ ,φ )
• The spectral, hemispherical absorptivity:
Gλ ,abs ( λ ) ∫ 02π ∫π0 / 2 α λ ,θ ( λ ,θ ,φ ) I λ ,i ( λ ,θ ,φ ) cos θ sin θ dθ d φ
αλ (λ ) ≡ =
Gλ ( λ ) ∫ 02π ∫π0 / 2 I λ ,i ( λ ,θ ,φ ) cos θ sin θ dθ d φ
• The total, hemispherical absorptivity:
∞
G ∫ o α λ ( λ ) Gλ ( λ ) d λ
α ≡ abs =
∫ 0 Gλ ( λ ) d λ
∞
G
Reflectivity of an Opaque Material
• The spectral, directional reflectivity: Assuming negligible temperature
dependence:
I λ ,i ,ref ( λ ,θ ,φ )
ρλ ,θ ( λ ,θ ,φ ) ≡
I λ ,i ( λ ,θ ,φ )
• The spectral, hemispherical reflectivity:
π/2
Gλ ,ref ( λ ) ∫ 02π ∫ 0 ρλ ,θ ( λ ,θ ,φ ) I λ ,i ( λ ,θ ,φ ) cos θ sin θ dθ dφ
ρλ ≡ =
Gλ ( λ ) I λ ,i ( λ ,θ ,φ )
• The total, hemispherical reflectivity:
∞
Gref ∫ 0 ρλ ( λ ) Gλ ( λ ) d λ
ρ≡ =∞
G ∫ 0 Gλ ( λ ) d λ
• Limiting conditions of diffuse and
specular reflection.
Polished and rough surfaces.
Note strong dependence of ρλ ( and α λ = 1 − ρλ ) on λ .
Is snow a highly reflective substance? White paint?
Transmissivity
• The spectral, hemispherical transmissivity: Assuming negligible temperature
dependence, Gλ ,tr(λ )
τλ ≡
Gλ ( λ )
Note shift from semitransparent to opaque conditions at large and small wavelengths.
• The total, hemispherical transmissivity: • For a semitransparent medium,
∞
Gtr ∫ 0 Gλ ,tr ( λ ) d λ 𝜌𝜌𝜆𝜆 + 𝛼𝛼𝜆𝜆 + 𝜏𝜏𝜆𝜆 = 1
τ ≡ = ∞
G ∫ 0 Gλ ( λ ) d λ 𝜌𝜌 + 𝛼𝛼 + 𝜏𝜏 = 1
Kirchhoff’s Law
• Kirchhoff’s law equates the total, hemispherical emissivity of a surface to its
total, hemispherical absorptivity:
ε =α
However, conditions associated with its derivation are highly restrictive:
Irradiation of the surface corresponds to emission from a blackbody at the
same temperature as the surface.
• However, Kirchhoff’s law may be applied to the spectral, directional properties
without restriction:
ε λ ,θ = α λ ,θ
Diffuse/Gray Surfaces
• With ∫ 02π ∫π0 / 2 ε λ ,θ cos θ sin θ dθ d φ
ε λ = 2π π / 2
∫ 0 ∫ 0 cos θ sin θ dθ d φ
and ∫ 02π ∫π0 / 2 α λ ,θ I λ ,i cos θ sin θ dθ d φ
α λ = 2π π / 2
∫ 0 ∫ 0 I λ ,i cos θ sin θ dθ d φ
Under what conditions may we equate ε λ to α λ ?
• With ∞
∫ ε E (λ ) d λ
ε = 0 λ λ ,b
Eb (T )
and ∞
∫ α G (λ ) d λ
α= 0 λ λ
G
Under what conditions may we equate ε to α ?
• Conditions associated with
assuming a gray surface:
