Mutation: A mutation is a sudden, heritable change in the DNA sequence of an

organism. It can occur spontaneously or be induced by external agents

(mutagens).

Mutations are a major source of genetic variation and can influence evolution,
breeding, and disease.

Lethal Mutation: A mutation that causes the death of the organism, often before
it can reproduce.

Cause: These mutations disrupt vital functions (e.g., essential enzyme production,
key developmental genes).

Examples: In humans: Tay-Sachs disease (certain alleles can cause early death).

In plants: Albino seedlings (mutation blocks chlorophyll production → plant can’t

photosynthesize → death).

Polyploidy: Condition where an organism has more than two complete sets of
chromosomes.

Types

1. Autopolyploidy – multiple chromosome sets from the same species.

2. Allopolyploidy – chromosome sets from different species (hybridization

followed by chromosome doubling).

Significance: Common in plants; rare and usually harmful in animals. Often results
in larger cell size, bigger fruits, thicker leaves, and sometimes seedlessness.

Examples of polyploid plants: Wheat (hexaploid), cotton (tetraploid), potato

(tetraploid), banana (triploid), strawberry (octoploid).

Mutations can be induced using mutagens:

a) Radiation-induced mutation
Ionizing radiation: X-rays, gamma rays, alpha/beta particles — can break DNA
strands or alter bases.

Non-ionizing radiation: UV light — causes thymine dimers in DNA.

Example: Gamma radiation used to create improved rice and barley strains.

b) Chemical mutagens

Base analogs (e.g., 5-bromouracil) — substitute for normal DNA bases during
replication.

c) Other methods

Biological agents: Certain viruses can insert DNA into host genomes, causing
mutations.

APPLIED GENTICS

Applied genetics, encompassing techniques like genetic engineering and breeding,

has significantly impacted both agriculture and medicine. In agriculture, it's used
to improve crop yields, enhance nutritional value, and develop resistance to pests
and diseases. In medicine, it aids in diagnosing and treating genetic disorders,
developing new therapies, and understanding disease mechanisms.

In Agriculture

Crop Improvement: Genetic engineering allows for the introduction of traits like
pest and disease resistance, herbicide tolerance, and drought tolerance into
crops. This leads to higher yields, reduced reliance on pesticides and herbicides,
and increased food production.

Nutritional Enhancement: Scientists can modify crops to increase their nutritional

content, addressing malnutrition in specific regions.
Enhanced Production: Techniques like selective breeding and artificial
insemination are used to improve livestock, increasing their productivity and
disease resistance.

Examples:

Bt corn: A genetically modified corn variety containing a gene from the bacterium
Bacillus thuringiensis that produces a protein toxic to certain insects, reducing the
need for insecticide sprays, according to a Wikipedia article.

Drought-resistant crops: Genetic engineering can introduce genes that enhance a

plant's ability to withstand dry conditions, improving crop yields in water-scarce
regions.

In Medicine

Disease Diagnosis: Genetic testing, using DNA markers, helps in diagnosing

genetic disorders like cystic fibrosis, Down syndrome, and various cancers.

Gene Therapy: This involves introducing functional genes into patients with
genetic disorders to correct the underlying genetic defect.

Drug Development: Genetically engineered organisms, like bacteria, can produce

proteins used in drug manufacturing, like insulin for diabetes treatment.

Disease Understanding: Studying the genetic basis of diseases helps in

understanding disease mechanisms and developing targeted therapies.

Examples:

Insulin production: Bacteria are genetically engineered to produce human insulin,

which is then used to treat diabetes.

Cancer research: Studying the genetic mutations involved in cancer development

helps in developing targeted therapies that specifically target cancer cells.
EVOLUTION

Evolution is the change in the physical characteristics of a species over numerous

generations and it depend on the process of natural selection. The theory of
evolution is based on the idea that all species are related and progressively
changes over the time.

Evolution relies on genetic variation in a population which affects the physical

characteristics of an organism. Certain physical characteristics may give
advantage to the individuals which can be transferred to their offspring.

The evidence of evolution is one of the fundamental keystones of modern

biological theory. It is the only way which can prove all the proposed theories of
evolution. We have number of evidences to prove the biological evolution namely
fossils, comparative anatomy and embryo development pattern.

Evidence of Evolution

1. Fossils

They are the remains of the non-degraded parts of living beings found within
rocks. The layer from which the fossil is recovered decides the age of the fossil.
The fossils found deeper down are older compared to the ones found in the upper
layers. They give an idea of the condition of the earth in that specific era. The
study of fossils is called palaeontology. Thus, fossils are called paleontological
evidences.

2. Comparative Anatomy

It explains that many organisms have the same ancestor and many different
organisms evolved as a result of natural selection or genetic drift. Two types of
comparative anatomy were observed, namely homologous organs and analogous
organs.

Homologous organs: These organs have the similar structure in different

organisms but perform different functions. Thus, it clearly shows a common
ancestry. One species gave rise to many other species. This type of evolution is
called divergent evolution. For example, the limbs of human, cheetah, whale, and
wings of a bat. They all have different functions but have a similar structure
indicating a common ancestor.

Analogous organs: These organs have different anatomy but perform similar
functions. This shows that different species evolved and adapted to a particular
environment. This type of evolution is called convergent evolution. For example,
the wings of different birds and bats. The wings of birds have feathers for flight
whereas, bats have wings made up of streched skin and lack feathers. But, both
serve the function of flight.

3. Embryonic Development

The embryos of various species show similar structure till a certain period of
gestation. For example, the embryos of humans, pigs, reptiles, and birds show
similar embryonic development. They develop into the respective species as they
grow. This again shows common ancestry.

THE GEOLOGICAL TIME TABLE

The geologic time scale is a system that organizes Earth's history into named units
of time, based on major geological and paleontological events. It's a way to
represent deep time, encompassing the roughly 4.54 billion years of Earth's
existence. These units are arranged hierarchically, from the largest, eons, down to
the smallest, epochs.

MAIN DIVISIONS AND SOME EXAMPLES

Eons: The largest divisions of geologic time. The most recent eon is the
Phanerozoic, which is further divided into eras.

Eras: Subdivisions of eons. The Phanerozoic eon includes the Paleozoic, Mesozoic,
and Cenozoic eras.

Periods: Eras are divided into periods. For example, the Mesozoic era includes the
Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous periods.
Epochs: The smallest divisions of geologic time. The Cenozoic era includes epochs
like the Paleocene, Eocene, Oligocene, Miocene, Pliocene, Pleistocene, and
Holocene.

Examples of Events on the Geologic Time Scale:

Extinction of Dinosaurs: Marks the boundary between the Mesozoic and Cenozoic
eras.

First Appearance of Animals: Occurs in the early part of the Phanerozoic eon.

First Appearance of Plants: Occurs earlier than the first animals, in the Proterozoic
eon.

Formation of Earth's Mountains: A process that has occurred throughout geologic

time, with different mountain ranges forming at different periods.

Ice Ages: Occurred during the Pleistocene epoch.

Rise of Hominins: Began in the Oligocene epoch and continued through the
Miocene and Pliocene.

The geologic time scale is not just a chronological list of time intervals, but also a
record of significant geological and biological events that have shaped our planet.
Trends in Evolution

1. Adaptive Radiation – One ancestral species diversifies into many species

adapted to different environments.

Example: Darwin’s finches on the Galápagos Islands.

2. Convergence – Unrelated species evolve similar traits due to similar

environmental pressures.

Example: Dolphin (mammal) and ichthyosaur (reptile) both have streamlined

bodies for swimming.

3. Co-evolution – Two or more species influence each other’s evolution.

Example: Flowers and their pollinators.

4. Progressive Evolution – Organisms develop more complex structures over time

(though not always; evolution can also simplify).

5. Retrogressive Evolution – Loss of complex structures in organisms that no

longer need them.

Example: Cave fish losing eyesight.

6. Parallel Evolution – Related species evolve in similar ways after diverging.

THEORIES OF EVOLUTION

A. Pre-Darwinism (Before Darwin)

Before Charles Darwin’s On the Origin of Species (1859), there were early ideas
about how life changes:

1. Creationism – Species were individually created by a divine being and were

immutable.
2. Lamarckism (Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, early 1800s) – Organisms change traits
during their lifetime through use and disuse, and pass them to offspring.

Example: Giraffes’ necks lengthen from stretching to reach leaves.

3. Catastrophism (Georges Cuvier) – Earth’s history shaped by sudden, violent

events, explaining extinctions.

4. Uniformitarianism (Charles Lyell) – Earth shaped by slow, continuous processes

(helped Darwin’s thinking).

B. Darwinism (Charles Darwin, 1859)

Natural Selection: Individuals with traits better suited to their environment

survive and reproduce, passing those traits to offspring.

Variation occurs naturally; over generations, advantageous traits become more

common.

C. Neo-Darwinism (Modern Synthesis, early–mid 20th century)

Combines Darwin’s natural selection with Mendelian genetics.

1. Genetic variation arises from mutations and recombination.

2. Evolution occurs through changes in gene frequency within populations.

3. Natural selection, genetic drift, and gene flow shape populations.

4. Speciation occurs through reproductive isolation.