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Top 100 Careers Without a Four year Degree Your
Complete Guidebook to Good Jobs in Many Fields 10th
Edition Laurence Shatkin Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Laurence Shatkin, Michael Farr
ISBN(s): 9781593577841, 1593577842
Edition: 10
File Details: PDF, 14.01 MB
Year: 2011
Language: english
 CAREERS Part of the JIST Top Careers™ Series

Tenth Edition
CAREERS

CAREERS WITHOUT A FOUR-YEAR DEGREE

Without a Four-Year Degree

CAREERS
Discover 100 career options that don’t require four years in college. This “A great resource...to plan
book describes many growing jobs in many different fields, including training and education as well
some that you may not have considered. Whether you’re exploring career
as make a career change.”
or education options, looking for a job, or advancing in your career, you’ll

Tenth Edition
find useful information on top careers without a four-year degree in this —Tech Directions magazine
one time-saving book.
About the Authors
Get Everything You Need to Learn About and Land a Top Job
Laurence Shatkin, Ph.D., has 30
■ Discover the careers that suit you best.

Without a Four-Year Degree

years in the career information field,
■ Research the latest information on top careers that don’t require a four-
presents and blogs on career issues, and
year degree.
is the author of many career books. As a
■ Take seven steps to land a good job in less time.
leading occupational expert, he shares his
Easily Match Yourself to the Right Career knowledge on national news programs, in
online articles, and in print publications.
■ Use checklists and the Job-Match Grid to assess your skills and match them
to the occupations in this book. Follow him on Twitter: @LaurenceShatkin. Your Complete Guidebook to
■ Identify interesting jobs with the list in the table of contents.
Gain eye-opening overviews of trends that will affect your career.
Mike Farr has been teaching, writing, Good Jobs in Many Fields
■ and developing career planning and job
Obtain Authoritative Details on Top Jobs Without a search techniques for more than 20 years. Explore careers that don’t require a bachelor’s degree, assess
His advice is practical, results-oriented, which ones match your skills, and get the job you want quickly.
Four-Year Degree and based on methods proven to cut
■ Learn about the top 100 jobs that don’t require a bachelor’s degree. ■ Detailed, up-to-date descriptions of 100 jobs you can learn without four years in college
job search time in half. He has written
■ Read summaries of a career’s tasks, skill requirements, work environment, more than 20 top-selling books that have ■ Self-assessment to match your personal skills to the jobs
and related jobs, plus websites for additional information. helped millions of job seekers find the ■ Proven advice to cut job search time in half ■ Education, training, and skills required
■ Find facts on education and training, pay, growth, and advancement jobs they want in less time. ■ Current salary ranges ■ Growth projections through 2018 ■ Advancement opportunities
opportunities based on research by the U.S. Department of Labor.
■ Targeted resume examples by professional resume writers
Slash Job Search Time in Half with the Quick Job Search
■ Get results-oriented career planning and job search advice in a special
book-within-a-book section.
■ Develop a “skills language” to describe yourself, learn the two most
effective job search methods, prepare for interviews, and more.
Tenth
■ Create a superior resume by using the examples from professional resume
writers. Edition

Shatkin
Farr
$18.95 Higher in Canada

Laurence Shatkin, Ph.D., and Michael Farr

 Part of JIST’s Top Careers™ Series

Top
100
CAR EERS
Without a Four-Year Degree
TM

Your Complete Guidebook to Good Jobs

in Many Fields

TENTH EDITION

Laurence Shatkin, Ph.D., and

Michael Farr

00 J7841 FM.3.indd i 6/24/11 12:11 PM

 Top 100 Careers Without a Four-Year Degree, Tenth Edition
Your Complete Guidebook to Good Jobs in Many Fields
© 2012 by JIST Publishing
Published by JIST Works, an imprint of JIST Publishing
7321 Shadeland Station, Suite 200
Indianapolis, IN 46256-3923
Phone: 800-648-JIST Fax: 877-454-7839
E-mail: [email protected] Website: www.jist.com

Some books by Michael Farr: JIST’s Top Careers™ Series:

Best Jobs for the 21st Century Top 300 Careers
Overnight Career Choice Top 100 Health-Care Careers
Same-Day Resume 100 Fastest-Growing Careers
Next-Day Job Interview Top 100 Careers Without a Four-Year Degree
The Quick Resume & Cover Letter Book Top 100 Careers for College Graduates
The Very Quick Job Search
Quantity discounts are available for JIST products. Please call 800-648-JIST or visit www.jist.com for a free catalog and more infor-
mation.
Visit www.jist.com for information on JIST, free job search information, tables of contents, sample pages, and ordering information
on our many products.

Acquisitions Editor: Susan Pines

Development Editor: Stephanie Koutek
Database Work: Laurence Shatkin
Cover Photo: IStock
Cover Layout: Alan Evans
Interior Design and Layout: Marie Kristine Parial-Leonardo, Toi Davis
Proofreaders: Chuck Hutchinson, Jeanne Clark
Printed in the United States of America
16 15 14 13 12 11 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, with-
out prior permission of the publisher except in the case of brief quotations embodied in articles or reviews. Making copies of any part of
this book for any purpose other than your own personal use is a violation of United States copyright laws. For permission requests, please
contact the Copyright Clearance Center at www.copyright.com or (978) 750-8400.
We have been careful to provide accurate information throughout this book, but it is possible that errors and omissions have been intro-
duced. Please consider this in making any career plans or other important decisions. Trust your own judgment above all else and in all
things.
Trademarks: All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names, service marks, trademarks, or registered trademarks of
their respective owners.
ISBN 978-1-59357-784-1

00 J7841 FM.3.indd ii 6/24/11 12:11 PM

 Relax. You Don’t Have to
Read This Whole Book!
You don’t need to read this entire book. We’ve organized it into easy-to-use sections so you can get just the infor-
mation you want. You will find everything you need to
★ Learn about the 100 top careers that don’t require a four-year college degree, including their daily tasks,
pay, outlook, and required education and skills.
★ Match your personal skills to the careers.
★ Take seven steps to land a good job in less time.

To get started, simply scan the table of contents to learn more about these sections and to see a list of the jobs
described in this book. Really, this book is easy to use, and we hope it helps you.

Who Should Use This Book?

This is more than a book of job descriptions. We’ve spent quite a bit of time thinking about how to make its contents
useful for a variety of situations, including
★ Exploring career options. The job descriptions in Part II give a wealth of information on many of
the most desirable jobs in the labor market. The assessment in Part I can help you focus your career
options.
★ Considering more education or training. The information helps you avoid costly mistakes in choos-
ing a career or deciding on additional training or education—and it increases your chances of planning
a bright future.
★ Job seeking. This book helps you identify new job targets, prepare for interviews, and write targeted
resumes. The advice in Part III has been proven to cut job search time in half.
★ Career planning. The job descriptions help you explore your options, and Parts III and IV provide
career planning advice and other useful information.

Source of Information
The job descriptions come from the good people at the U.S. Department of Labor, as published in the most recent
edition of the Occupational Outlook Handbook. The OOH is the best source of career information available, and
the descriptions include the most current, accurate data on jobs. The figures on earnings have been updated with
data from the Occupational Employment Statistics survey. Thank you to all the people at the Department of Labor
who gather, compile, analyze, and make sense of this information. It’s good stuff, and we hope you can make good
use of it.

iii

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 Contents
Summary of Major Sections Detailed Contents
Introduction. Provides an explanation of the job
Introduction ............................................1
descriptions, how best to use the book, and other
details. Begins on page 1.
Part I: Using the Job-Match Grid to Choose a Part I: Using the Job-Match Grid
Career. Match your skills and preferences to the to Choose a Career ...............................15
jobs in this book. Begins on page 15. Thinking About Your Skills ...............................................15
Part II: Descriptions of the Top 100 Careers Your Hot List of Possible Career Matches.........................20
Without a Four-Year Degree. Presents thorough Thinking About Other Job-Related Factors .......................20
descriptions of the top 100 careers that don’t If Every Job on Your Hot List Is Now Crossed Off ..........23
require a four-year degree. Education and train- Evaluating Occupations Described in This Book...............23
ing requirements for these jobs vary from on-the- Narrowing Down Your Choices .........................................26
job training to a two-year associate degree. Each The Job-Match Grid ...........................................................26
description gives information on the nature of the
work, working conditions, employment, training, Part II: Descriptions of the Top 100
other qualifications, advancement, job outlook, Careers Without a Four-Year Degree .....31
earnings, related occupations, and sources of
Actors, Producers, and Directors ........................................32
additional information. The jobs are presented in
Advertising Sales Agents ....................................................34
alphabetical order. The page numbers where spe-
Aircraft and Avionics Equipment Mechanics and
cific descriptions begin are listed in the detailed
Service Technicians ........................................................37
contents. Begins on page 31. Animal Care and Service Workers .....................................40
Part III: Quick Job Search—Seven Steps to Get- Artists and Related Workers ...............................................44
ting a Good Job in Less Time. This relatively Assemblers and Fabricators ................................................47
brief but important section offers results-oriented Athletes, Coaches, Umpires, and Related Workers............50
career planning and job search techniques. It Automotive Body and Related Repairers ...........................53
includes tips on identifying your key skills, Automotive Service Technicians and Mechanics...............56
defining your ideal job, using effective job search Barbers, Cosmetologists, and Other Personal
methods, writing resumes, organizing your time, Appearance Workers .......................................................59
improving your interviewing skills, and following Bill and Account Collectors ...............................................62
up on leads. The last part of this section features Bookkeeping, Accounting, and Auditing Clerks ................63
professionally written and designed resumes for Brickmasons, Blockmasons, and Stonemasons ..................65
some of the top jobs that don’t require a four-year Building Cleaning Workers ................................................68
degree. Begins on page 295. Carpenters ...........................................................................71
Carpet, Floor, and Tile Installers and Finishers .................73
Part IV: Important Trends in Jobs and Industries. Cashiers ...............................................................................76
This section includes three well-written articles on Cement Masons, Concrete Finishers, Segmental
labor market trends. The articles are worth your Pavers, and Terrazzo Workers ........................................78
time. Titles of the articles are “Overview of the Chefs, Head Cooks, and Food Preparation and
2008–2018 Projections,” “Employment Trends in Serving Supervisors ........................................................81
Major Industries,” and “Job Outlook for People Child Care Workers ............................................................83
Who Don’t Have a Bachelor’s Degree.” Begins Claims Adjusters, Appraisers, Examiners, and
on page 367. Investigators ....................................................................86

iv

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 Table of Contents v

Clinical Laboratory Technologists and Technicians ..........90 Nursing and Psychiatric Aides .........................................209
Computer Control Programmers and Operators .................93 Office Clerks, General ......................................................211
Computer Network, Systems, and Database Painters and Paperhangers ................................................213
Administrators .................................................................95 Painting and Coating Workers, Except Construction
Computer Support Specialists.............................................98 and Maintenance ...........................................................216
Computer, Automated Teller, and Office Paralegals and Legal Assistants ........................................218
Machine Repairers ........................................................100 Pharmacy Technicians and Aides .....................................221
Construction Equipment Operators ..................................103 Photographers ...................................................................223
Construction Laborers.......................................................105 Plumbers, Pipelayers, Pipefitters, and Steamfitters ..........226
Cooks and Food Preparation Workers ..............................108 Police and Detectives ........................................................228
Correctional Officers ........................................................111 Postal Service Mail Carriers .............................................233
Customer Service Representatives ...................................114 Printing Machine Operators ..............................................234
Dental Assistants...............................................................116 Purchasing Managers, Buyers, and Purchasing Agents ...236
Dental Hygienists ..............................................................118 Radio and Telecommunications Equipment
Desktop Publishers ...........................................................120 Installers and Repairers .................................................239
Diesel Service Technicians and Mechanics......................121 Radiologic Technologists and Technicians ......................242
Drafters .............................................................................124 Real Estate Brokers and Sales Agents ..............................245
Drywall and Ceiling Tile Installers, Tapers, Receptionists and Information Clerks ..............................247
Plasterers, and Stucco Masons ......................................126 Recreation Workers ..........................................................249
Electrical and Electronics Installers and Repairers ..........129 Registered Nurses .............................................................251
Electricians........................................................................132 Retail Salespersons ...........................................................256
Emergency Medical Technicians and Paramedics ...........135 Roofers ..............................................................................258
Engineering Technicians...................................................137 Sales Representatives, Wholesale and Manufacturing .....260
Farmers, Ranchers, and Agricultural Managers ...............141 Sales Worker Supervisors .................................................263
Fire Fighters ......................................................................144 Science Technicians ..........................................................265
Fitness Workers ................................................................146 Secretaries and Administrative Assistants ........................269
Food and Beverage Serving and Related Workers...........149 Security Guards and Gaming Surveillance Officers ........272
Food Processing Occupations ...........................................153 Sheet Metal Workers ........................................................275
Food Service Managers ....................................................157 Shipping, Receiving, and Traffic Clerks ..........................278
Grounds Maintenance Workers ........................................160 Social and Human Service Assistants ..............................280
Heating, Air-conditioning, and Refrigeration Surveyors, Cartographers, Photogrammetrists, and
Mechanics and Installers ...............................................162 Surveying and Mapping Technicians ...........................281
Heavy Vehicle and Mobile Equipment Service Teacher Assistants ............................................................284
Technicians and Mechanics ..........................................166 Teachers—Preschool, Except Special Education .............287
Home Health Aides and Personal and Home Teachers—Self-Enrichment Education ............................288
Care Aides .....................................................................169 Welding, Soldering, and Brazing Workers.......................290
Industrial Machinery Mechanics and Millwrights ...........172 Woodworkers ....................................................................292
Industrial Production Managers ........................................174
Inspectors, Testers, Sorters, Samplers, and Weighers ......177 Part III: Quick Job Search—
Insurance Sales Agents .....................................................179 Seven Steps to Getting a Good
Library Technicians and Library Assistants .....................182
Licensed Practical and Licensed Vocational Nurses ........185
Job in Less Time ............................... 295
Line Installers and Repairers ............................................187
Loan Officers ....................................................................189 Part IV: Important Trends in Jobs
Machine Setters, Operators, and Tenders—Metal and Industries ................................... 367
and Plastic .....................................................................192
Machinists .........................................................................195 Overview of the 2008–2018 Projections ..........................369
Maintenance and Repair Workers, General......................197 Employment Trends in Major Industries ..........................383
Material Moving Occupations ..........................................199 Job Outlook for People Who Don’t Have a
Medical Assistants ............................................................203 Bachelor’s Degree .........................................................395
Medical Records and Health Information Technicians ....205
Musicians, Singers, and Related Workers ........................207 Index .................................................. 409

© JIST Works

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00 J7841 FM.3.indd vi 6/24/11 12:12 PM
 Introduction

This book is about improving your life, not just about selecting a job. The career you choose will have an enormous
impact on how you live your life.
A huge amount of information is available on occupations, but most people don’t know where to find accurate, reli-
able facts to help them make good career decisions—or they don’t take the time to look. Important choices such as
what to do with your career or whether to get additional training or education deserve your time.
If you are considering more training or education—whether additional coursework, an apprenticeship, or a two-
year degree—this book will help with solid information. Training or education beyond high school is now typically
required to get better jobs, and the education and training needed for the jobs in this book vary enormously. This
book is designed to give you facts to help you explore your options.
A certain type of work or workplace may interest you as much as a certain type of job. If your interests and values
lead you to work in health care, for example, you can do this in a variety of work environments, in a variety of
industries, and in a variety of jobs. For this reason, we suggest you begin exploring alternatives by following your
interests and finding a career path that allows you to use your talents doing something you enjoy.
Also, remember that money is not everything. The time you spend in career planning can pay off in higher earnings,
but being satisfied with your work—and your life—is often more important than how much you earn. This book can
help you find the work that suits you best.

Keep in Mind That Your Situation Is Not

“Average”
Projected employment growth and earnings trends are quite positive for many occupations and industries. Keep in
mind, however, that the averages in this book will not be true for many individuals. Within any field, many people
earn more and many earn less than the average.
Our point is that your situation is probably not average. Some people do better than others, and some are willing to
accept less pay for a more desirable work environment. Earnings vary enormously in different parts of the country,
in different occupations, and in different industries. But this book’s solid information is a great place to start. Good
information will give you a strong foundation for good decisions.

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 2 Top 100 Careers Without a Four-Year Degree

Four Important Labor Market Trends That Will

Affect Your Career
Our economy has changed in dramatic ways over the past 10 years, with profound effects on how we work and live.
Part IV of this book provides more information on labor market trends, but in case you don’t read it, here are four
trends that you simply must consider.

1. Education Pays
We’re sure you won’t be surprised to learn that people with higher levels of education and training have higher
average earnings. The data that follows comes from the U.S. Department of Labor. We’ve selected data to show
you the median earnings for people with various levels of education. (The median is the point where half earn more
and half earn less.) Based on this information, we computed the earnings advantage of people at various education
levels over those who did not graduate from high school. We’ve also included information showing the average
percentage of people at that educational level who are unemployed.

Earnings for Year-Round, Full-Time Workers Age 25 and Over, by Educational Attainment
Premium Over High Unemployment
Level of Education Median Annual Earnings School Dropouts Rate
Professional degree................................. $79,508....................................$59,900 ..................................... 2.3%
Doctoral degree ...................................... $79,664....................................$56,056 ..................................... 2.5%
Master’s degree ...................................... $65,364....................................$41,156 ..................................... 3.9%
Bachelor’s degree ................................... $53,300....................................$26,692 ..................................... 5.2%
Associate degree .................................... $39,572....................................$15,964 ..................................... 6.8%
Some college, no degree ......................... $36,348....................................$12,740 ..................................... 8.6%
High-school graduate .............................. $32,552..................................... $8,944 ..................................... 9.7%
High school dropout ............................... $23,608........................................... — ....................................14.6%
Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics

As you can see in the table, the earnings difference between someone who holds an associate degree and someone
with a high school education is $7,020 a year, money that could be used toward a car, a down payment on a house,
or even a vacation. You can understand that this earnings difference, over a lifetime, will make an enormous dif-
ference in lifestyle.
The table makes it very clear that those with more training and education earn more than those with less and experi-
ence lower levels of unemployment. Jobs that require education and training beyond high school are projected to
grow significantly faster than jobs that do not. People with higher levels of education and training are less likely to
be unemployed, and when they are, they remain unemployed for shorter periods of time. There are always excep-
tions, but it is quite clear that more education results in higher earnings and lower rates of unemployment.

2. Knowledge of Computer and Other Technologies Is Increasingly

Important
As you look over the list of jobs in the table of contents, you may notice that many require computer or techni-
cal skills. Even jobs that do not appear to be technical often call for computer literacy. Agricultural managers, for
example, are often expected to understand and use scheduling and estimating software.
In all fields, those without job-related technical and computer skills will have a more difficult time finding good
opportunities because they are competing with those who have these skills. Older workers, by the way, often do not

© JIST Works

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 Introduction 3

have the computer skills that younger workers do. Employers tend to hire people who have the skills they need, and
people without these abilities won’t get the best jobs. So, whatever your age, consider upgrading your job-related
computer and technology skills if they are not up to date—and plan to keep them current on your present and future
jobs.

3. Ongoing Education and Training Are Essential

School and work once were separate activities, and most people did not go back to school after they began working.
But with rapid changes in technology, most people are now required to learn throughout their work lives. Jobs are
constantly upgraded, and today’s jobs often cannot be handled by people who have only the knowledge and skills
that were adequate for workers a few years ago.
To remain competitive, you will need to constantly upgrade your technology and other job-related skills. This may
include taking formal courses, reading work-related magazines at home, signing up for on-the-job training, or par-
ticipating in other forms of education. Upgrading your work-related skills on an ongoing basis is no longer optional
for most jobs, and you ignore doing so at your peril.

4. Good Career Planning Is More Important Than Ever

Most people spend more time watching TV in a week than they spend on career planning during an entire year. Yet
most people will change their jobs many times and make major career changes five to seven times. For this reason,
it is important for you to spend time considering your career options and preparing to advance.
While you probably picked up this book for its information on jobs, it also provides a great deal of information on
career planning. For example, Part III gives good career and job search advice, and Part IV has useful information
on labor market trends. We urge you to read these and related materials because career-planning and job-seeking
skills are the keys to surviving in this new economy.

Tips on Using This Book

This book is based on information from a variety of government sources and includes the most up-to-date and
accurate data available. The entries are well written and pack a lot of information into short descriptions. Top 100
Careers Without a Four-Year Degree can be used in many ways, and we’ve provided tips for these four major
uses:
★ For people exploring career, education, or training alternatives
★ For job seekers
★ For employers and business people
★ For counselors, instructors, and other career specialists

Tips for People Exploring Career, Education, or Training Alternatives

Top 100 Careers Without a Four-Year Degree is an excellent resource for anyone exploring career, education,
or training alternatives. Many people do not have a good idea of what they want to do in their careers. They may
be considering additional training or education but may not know what sort they should get. If you are one of these
people, this book can help in several ways. Here are a few pointers.
Review the list of jobs. Trust yourself. Research studies indicate that most people have a good sense of their
interests. Your interests can be used to guide you to career options you should consider in more detail.

© JIST Works

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 4 Top 100 Careers Without a Four-Year Degree

Begin by looking over the occupations listed in the table of contents. Look at all the jobs, because you may identify
previously overlooked possibilities. If other people will be using this book, please don’t mark in it. Instead, on a
separate sheet of paper, list the jobs that interest you. Or make a photocopy of the table of contents and use it to
mark the jobs that interest you.
Next, look up and carefully read the descriptions of the jobs that most interest you in Part II. A quick review will
often eliminate one or more of these jobs based on pay, working conditions, education required, or other consider-
ations. After you have identified the three or four jobs that seem most interesting, research each one more thoroughly
before making any important decisions.
Match your skills to the jobs in this book using the Job-Match Grid. Another way to identify possible job
options is to answer questions about your skills and job preferences in Part I, “Using the Job-Match Grid to Choose
a Career.” This section will help you focus your job options and concentrate your research on a handful of job
descriptions.
Study the jobs and their training and education requirements. Too many people decide to obtain additional
training or education without knowing much about the jobs the training will lead to. Reviewing the descriptions in
this book is one way to learn more about an occupation before you enroll in an education or training program. If
you are currently a student, the job descriptions in this book can also help you decide on a major course of study or
learn more about the jobs for which your studies are preparing you.
Do not be too quick to eliminate a job that interests you. If a job requires more education or training than you cur-
rently have, you can obtain this training in many ways.
Don’t abandon your past experience and education too quickly. If you have significant work experience,
training, or education, you should not abandon them too quickly. Many times, after people carefully consider what
they want to do, they change careers and find that the skills and knowledge they have can still be used.
Top 100 Careers Without a Four-Year Degree can help you explore career options in several ways. First, care-
fully review descriptions for jobs you have held in the past. On a separate sheet of paper, list the skills needed in
those jobs. Then do the same for jobs that interest you now. By comparing the lists, you will be able to identify
skills you used in previous jobs that you could also use in jobs that interest you for the future. These “transferable”
skills form the basis for moving to a new career.
You can also identify skills you have developed or used in nonwork activities, such as hobbies, family responsibili-
ties, volunteer work, school, military, and extracurricular interests. If you want to stay with your current employer,
the job descriptions can also help. For example, you may identify jobs within your organization that offer more
rewarding work, higher pay, or other advantages over your present job. Read the descriptions related to these jobs,
as you may be able to transfer into another job rather than leave the organization.

Tips for Job Seekers

You can use the job descriptions in this book to give you an edge in finding job openings and in getting job offers—
even when you are competing with people who have better credentials. Here are some ways Top 100 Careers
Without a Four-Year Degree can help you in the job search.
Identify related job targets. You may be limiting your job search to a small number of jobs for which you feel
qualified, but by doing so you eliminate many jobs you could do and would enjoy. Your search for a new job should
be broadened to include more possibilities.
Go through the entire list of jobs in the table of contents and check any that require skills similar to those you have.
Look at all the jobs, as doing so sometimes helps you identify targets you would otherwise overlook.
You may want to answer questions about your skills and job preferences in Part I, “Using the Job-Match Grid to
Choose a Career.” Your results can help you identify career options that may suit you.
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 Introduction 5

Many people are not aware of the many specialized jobs related to their training or experience. The descriptions in
Top 100 Careers Without a Four-Year Degree are for major job titles, but a variety of more-specialized jobs may
require similar skills. The “Other Major Career Information Sources” section later in this introduction lists sources
you can use to find out about more-specialized jobs.
The descriptions can also point out jobs that interest you but that have higher responsibility or compensation levels.
While you may not consider yourself qualified for such jobs now, you should think about seeking jobs that are above
your previous levels but within your ability to handle.
Prepare for interviews. This book’s job descriptions are an essential source of information to help you prepare
for interviews. If you carefully review the description of a job before an interview, you will be much better prepared
to emphasize your key skills. You should also review descriptions for past jobs and identify skills needed in the
new job.
Negotiate pay. The job descriptions in this book will help you know what pay range to expect. Note that local pay
and other details can differ substantially from the national averages in the descriptions.

Tips for Employers and Business People

Employers, human resource professionals, and other business users can use this book’s information to write job
descriptions, study pay ranges, and set criteria for new employees. The information can also help you conduct more-
effective interviews by providing a list of key skills needed by new hires.

Tips for Counselors, Instructors, and Other Career Specialists

Counselors, instructors, and other career specialists will find this book helpful for their clients or students exploring
career options or job targets. Our best suggestion to professionals is to get this book off the shelf and into the hands
of the people who need it. Leave it on a table or desk and show people how the information can help them. Wear
this book out—its real value is as a tool used often and well.

Additional Information About the Projections

For more information about employment change, job openings, earnings, unemployment rates, and
training requirements by occupation, consult the Department of Labor’s Career OneStop website at
www.careeronestop.org. For information about industries, including some references to occupations and
career paths that Top 100 Careers Without a Four-Year Degree does not cover, consult the Career Guide to
Industries, a publication of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, now available only on the Web at
www.bls.gov/oco/cg.

Information on the Major Parts of This Book

This book was designed to be easy to use. The table of contents provides brief comments on each section, and that
may be all you need. If not, here are some additional details you may find useful in getting the most out of this book.

Part I: Using the Job-Match Grid to Choose a Career

Part I features an assessment with checklists and questions to match your skills and preferences to the jobs in this
book. The seven skills covered in the assessment are artistic, communication, interpersonal, managerial, mathemat-
ics, mechanical, and science. The five job characteristics covered in the assessment are economically sensitive,
geographically concentrated, hazardous conditions, outdoor work, and physically demanding.
© JIST Works

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 6 Top 100 Careers Without a Four-Year Degree

Part II: Descriptions of the 100 Top Careers Without a Four-Year

Degree
Part II is the main part of the book and probably the reason you picked it up. It contains brief, well-written descrip-
tions for 100 major jobs typically held by people without a four-year degree. A list of the jobs is provided in the
table of contents. The content for each of these job descriptions comes from the U.S. Department of Labor and
is considered by many to be the most accurate and up-to-date information available. These jobs are presented in
alphabetical order.
Together, the jobs in Part II provide enormous variety at all levels of earnings and interest. One way to explore
career options is to go to the table of contents and identify those jobs that seem interesting. If you are interested in
medical jobs, for example, you can quickly spot those you will want to learn more about. You may also see other
jobs that look interesting, and you should consider these as well.
Next, read the descriptions for the jobs that interest you and, based on what you learn, identify those that most inter-
est you. These are the jobs you should consider, and Parts III and IV will give you additional information on how
you might best do so.

How the 100 Jobs Were Selected

The jobs included in this book are selected from the 251 jobs covered in detail by the Occupational Outlook
Handbook, published by the U.S. Department of Labor. They are jobs that normally require less education than a
bachelor’s degree (at a minimum) and that had a workforce of more than 200,000 people in 2008. (The largest had
a workforce of over 10 million.) Any job that employs at least one-fifth of a million people is going to account for
a lot of job openings and therefore is worth your consideration. Even if overall employment in the job is shrinking,
you can expect many job opportunities because of retirements and turnover.

Details on Each Section of the Job Descriptions

Each occupational description in this book follows a standard format, making it easier for you to compare jobs. The
following overview describes the kinds of information found in each part of a description and offers tips on how to
interpret the information.

Job Title
This is the title used for the job in the Occupational Outlook Handbook.

O*NET Codes
The numbers that appear just below the title of every job description are from the Occupational Information Net-
work (O*NET), a major occupational information system created by the U.S. Department of Labor and used by
state employment service offices to classify applicants and job openings and by some career information centers and
libraries to file occupational information.
At the O*NET site at www.online.onetcenter.org, you can search for occupations that match your skills, or you
may search by keyword or O*NET code. For each occupation, O*NET reports information about tasks performed,
knowledge, skills, abilities, and work activities. It also lists interests; work styles, such as independence; and work
values, such as achievement, that are well suited to the occupation. The O*NET is also available as a book titled the
O*NET Dictionary of Occupational Titles (JIST).

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 Introduction 7

Significant Points
The bullet points in this part of a description highlight key characteristics for each job, such as recent trends or
education and training requirements.

Nature of the Work

What workers do on the job, what tools and equipment they use, and how closely they are supervised are discussed
in this section. Some descriptions mention alternative job titles or occupational specialties.
Work environment. This subsection discusses the workplace, physical activities, and typical hours of workers in
the occupation. It describes opportunities for part-time work, the extent of travel required, special equipment that is
used, and the risk of injury that workers may face.
Information on various worker characteristics, such as the average number of hours worked per week, is obtained
from the Current Population Survey (CPS), a survey of households conducted by the U.S. Census Bureau for the
Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS). Other sources include articles as well as the websites of professional associations,
unions, and trade groups. Information found on the Internet or in periodicals is verified through interviews with
workers; professional associations; unions; and others with occupational knowledge, such as university professors
and career counselors.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement

After gathering your initial impressions of what a job is all about, you need to understand how to prepare for it.
The “Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement” section explains the steps necessary to enter and advance
in an occupation.
Education and training. This subsection describes the most significant sources of education and training, the type
of education or training preferred by employers, and the typical length of training. Note that for a few occupations,
especially those in which skill requirements are advancing rapidly (such as Registered Nurses), this subsection may
point out the advantages of getting a four-year degree to prepare for career entry. However, none of the occupations
in this book requires a four-year degree for entry.
Licensure. The kinds of mandatory licenses or certifications associated with an occupation are described in this
subsection. To be certified or licensed, a worker usually is required to complete one or more training courses and
pass one or more examinations. Most occupations do not have mandatory licensure or certification requirements.
Some occupations have professional credentials granted by different organizations, in which case the most widely
recognized organizations are listed.
Other qualifications. Additional qualifications that are not included in the previous subsections, such as the desir-
able skills, aptitudes, and personal characteristics that employers look for, are discussed in this section.
Advancement. This subsection details advancement opportunities that may be available after you gain experience
in an occupation. Advancement can come in several forms, including advancement within the occupation, such as
promotion to a management position, advancement into other occupations, and advancement to self-employment.
Certain types of certification can serve as a form of advancement. Voluntary certification often demonstrates a level
of competency to employers and can result in more responsibility, higher pay, or a new job.
Information in the “Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement” section comes from interviews with workers;
websites; training materials; and interviews with the organizations that grant degrees, certifications, or licenses or
are otherwise associated with the occupation.

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 8 Top 100 Careers Without a Four-Year Degree

Employment
This section reports the number of jobs the occupation recently provided, the key industries where these jobs are
found, and the number or proportion of self-employed workers in the occupation, if significant. Information in this
section comes from various surveys by the BLS.
When significant, the geographic distribution of jobs is mentioned.

Job Outlook
In planning for the future, you need to consider potential job opportunities. This section describes the factors that
will result in employment growth or decline.
Employment change. This subsection reflects the occupational projections in the National Employment Matrix.
Each occupation is assigned a descriptive phrase based on its projected percent change in employment over the
2008–2018 period. This phrase describes the occupation’s projected employment change relative to the projected
average employment change for all occupations combined.
Many factors are examined in projecting the employment change for each occupation. One such factor is changes in
technology. New technology can either create new job opportunities or eliminate jobs by making workers obsolete.
Another factor that influences employment trends is demographic change. By affecting the services demanded,
demographic change can influence occupational growth or decline.
Another factor affecting job growth or decline is changes in business practices, such as restructuring businesses
or outsourcing (contracting out) work. Corporate restructuring has made many organizations “flatter,” resulting
in fewer middle management positions. Also, in the past few years, jobs in some occupations have been “off-
shored”—moved to low-wage foreign countries. The substitution of one product or service for another can also
affect employment projections. Competition from foreign trade usually has a negative effect on employment. Often,
foreign manufacturers can produce goods more cheaply than they can be produced in the United States, and the cost
savings can be passed on in the form of lower prices with which U.S. manufacturers cannot compete. Another factor
is job growth or decline in key industries. If an occupation is concentrated in an industry that is growing rapidly, it
is likely that that occupation will grow rapidly as well.
Job prospects. In some cases, this book mentions that an occupation is likely to provide numerous or relatively few
job openings. This information reflects the projected change in employment, as well as replacement needs. Large
occupations in which workers frequently enter and leave generally provide the most job openings—reflecting the
need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or who stop working.

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 Introduction 9

Key Phrases Used in the Job Descriptions

This table explains how to interpret the key phrases that describe projected changes in employment. It
also explains the terms for the relationship between the number of job openings and the number of job
seekers.

Changing Employment Between 2008 and 2018

If the statement reads Employment is projected to
Grow much faster than average Increase 20 percent or more
Grow faster than average Increase 14 to 19 percent
Grow about as fast as average Increase 7 to 13 percent
Grow more slowly than average Increase 3 to 6 percent
Little or no change Decrease 2 percent to increase 2 percent
Decline slowly or moderately Decrease 3 to 9 percent
Decline rapidly Decrease 10 percent or more

Opportunities and Competition for Jobs

If the statement reads Job openings compared to job seekers may be
Very good to excellent opportunities More numerous
Good or favorable opportunities In rough balance
May face or can expect keen competition Fewer

Projections Data
The employment projections table lists employment statistics from the National Employment Matrix. It includes
2008 employment, projected 2018 employment, and the 2008–2018 change in employment in both numerical and
percentage terms. Numbers below 10,000 are rounded to the nearest hundred, numbers above 10,000 are rounded to
the nearest thousand, and percentages are rounded to the nearest whole number. Numerical and percentage changes
are calculated using nonrounded 2008 and 2018 employment figures and then are rounded for presentation in the
employment projections table.

Earnings
This section discusses typical earnings and how workers are compensated—by means of annual salaries, hourly
wages, commissions, piece rates, tips, or bonuses. Within every occupation, earnings vary by experience, respon-
sibility, performance, tenure, and geographic area. Information may be given on earnings in the major industries in
which the occupation is employed. Some statements contain additional earnings data from non-BLS sources. Start-
ing and average salaries of federal workers are based on 2009 data from the U.S. Office of Personnel Management.
The National Association of Colleges and Employers supplies information on average salary offers in 2009 for stu-
dents graduating with a bachelor’s, master’s, or Ph.D. degree in certain fields. A few statements contain additional
earnings information from other sources, such as unions, professional associations, and private companies. These
data sources are cited in the text.
Benefits account for a significant portion of total compensation costs to employers. Benefits such as paid vacation,
health insurance, and sick leave may not be mentioned because they are so widespread. Although not as common
as traditional benefits, flexible hours and profit-sharing plans may be offered to attract and retain highly qualified
workers. Less-common benefits also include child care, tuition for dependents, housing assistance, summers off,

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 10 Top 100 Careers Without a Four-Year Degree

and free or discounted merchandise or services. For certain occupations, the percentage of workers affiliated with
a union is listed.

Related Occupations
Occupations involving similar duties, skills, interests, education, and training are listed here. This allows you to look
up these jobs if they also interest you.

Sources of Additional Information

No single publication can describe all aspects of an occupation. Thus, this section lists the mailing addresses of
associations, government agencies, unions, and other organizations that can provide occupational information. In
some cases, toll-free telephone numbers and Internet addresses also are listed. Free or relatively inexpensive publi-
cations offering more information may be mentioned; some of these publications also may be available in libraries,
in school career centers, in guidance offices, or on the Internet.

Part III: Quick Job Search—Seven Steps to Getting a Good Job in Less
Time
If you have ever experienced unemployment, you know it is not pleasant. Unemployment is something most people
want to get over quickly—in fact, the quicker the better. Part III will give you some techniques to help.
We know that most of you who read this book want to improve yourselves. You want to consider career and train-
ing options that lead to a better job and life in whatever way you define this—better pay, more flexibility, work that
is more enjoyable or more meaningful, proving to your mom that you really can do anything you set your mind to,
and other reasons. That is why we include advice on career planning and job search in Part III. It’s a short section,
but it includes the basics that are most important in planning your career and in reducing the time it takes to get a
job. We hope it will make you think about what is important to you in the long run.
The second section of Part III showcases professionally written resumes for some of America’s top jobs for people
without a four-year degree. Use these as examples when creating your own resume.
We know you will resist completing the activities in Part III, but consider this: It is often not the best person who
gets the job, but the best job seeker. People who do their career planning and job search homework often get jobs
over those with better credentials, because they have these distinct advantages:
1. They get more interviews, including many for jobs that will never be advertised.
2. They do better in interviews.

People who understand what they want and what they have to offer employers present their skills more convinc-
ingly and are much better at answering problem questions. And, because they have learned more about job search
techniques, they are likely to get more interviews with employers who need the skills they have.
Doing better in interviews often makes the difference between getting a job offer and sitting at home. And spending
time planning your career can make an enormous difference to your happiness and lifestyle over time. So please
consider reading Part III and completing its activities. We suggest you schedule a time right now to at least read
Part III. An hour or so spent there can help you do just enough better in your career planning, job seeking, and
interviewing to make the difference.

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 Introduction 11

Part IV: Important Trends in Jobs and Industries

This section is made up of three very good articles on labor market trends. These articles come directly from U.S.
Department of Labor sources and are interesting, well written, and short. One is on overall trends, with an emphasis
on occupational groups; another is on trends in major industry groups; and the third discusses the job outlook for
people without a bachelor’s degree. We know they sound boring, but the articles are quick reads and will give you
a good idea of factors that will impact your career in the years to come.
The first article is titled “Overview of the 2008–2018 Projections.” It highlights many important trends in employ-
ment and includes information on the fastest-growing jobs, jobs with high pay at various levels of education, and
other details.
The second article is titled “Employment Trends in Major Industries.” We included this information because you
may find that you can use your skills or training in industries you have not considered. The article provides a good
review of major trends with an emphasis on helping you make good employment decisions. This information can
help you seek jobs in industries that offer higher pay or that are more likely to interest you. Many people overlook
one important fact—the industry you work in is as important as the occupation you choose.
The third article is called “Job Outlook for People Who Don’t Have a Bachelor’s Degree.” It identifies high-paying
and high-growth career options for people who don’t complete four years of college. It includes tables with facts
about specific careers, including the typical entry route—which may be as quick as short-term on-the-job training
or as long as an associate degree program.

Some Additional Jobs to Consider

Here is a list of additional jobs that may not require a four-year degree that you may want to consider. Their descrip-
tions are not included in this book, but you can find them in the Occupational Outlook Handbook, Top 300
Careers, the Enhanced Occupational Outlook Handbook, or online at www.bls.gov.
★ Agricultural Workers ★ Cashiers
★ Air Traffic Controllers ★ Coin, Vending, and Amusement Machine
Servicers and Repairers
★ Aircraft Pilots and Flight Engineers
★ Communications Equipment Operators
★ Announcers
★ Computer Operators
★ Barbers, Cosmetologists, and Other
Personal Appearance Workers ★ Computer, Automated Teller, and Office
Machine Repairers
★ Boilermakers
★ Construction and Building Inspectors
★ Bookbinders and Bindery Workers
★ Counter and Rental Clerks
★ Broadcast and Sound Engineering
Technicians and Radio Operators ★ Couriers and Messengers
★ Brokerage Clerks ★ Court Reporters
★ Bus Drivers ★ Credit Authorizers, Checkers, and Clerks
★ Cardiovascular Technologists and ★ Dancers and Choreographers
Technicians
★ Data Entry and Information Processing
★ Cargo and Freight Agents Workers

© JIST Works

01 J7841 Intro 3.indd 11 6/24/11 12:12 PM

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Practice 1: Practical applications and examples

Learning Objective 1: Practical applications and examples
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Learning Objective 2: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 3: Statistical analysis and interpretation
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- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 4: Literature review and discussion
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 5: Research findings and conclusions
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Historical development and evolution
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 6: Experimental procedures and results
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Study tips and learning strategies
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 8: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Topic 2: Current trends and future directions
Important: Best practices and recommendations
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 12: Ethical considerations and implications
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Experimental procedures and results
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 14: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Experimental procedures and results
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 19: Historical development and evolution
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Appendix 3: Historical development and evolution
Important: Best practices and recommendations
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 21: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Key terms and definitions
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 22: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Best practices and recommendations
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 24: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 24: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Ethical considerations and implications
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 26: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Practical applications and examples
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Key terms and definitions
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Exercise 4: Assessment criteria and rubrics
Important: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 32: Study tips and learning strategies
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 33: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 34: Experimental procedures and results
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Best practices and recommendations
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Literature review and discussion
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Abstract 5: Best practices and recommendations
Important: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Historical development and evolution
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 43: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Ethical considerations and implications
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 44: Experimental procedures and results
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 45: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Case studies and real-world applications
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Ethical considerations and implications
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Ethical considerations and implications
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Lesson 6: Literature review and discussion
Important: Practical applications and examples
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 51: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
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