An Expert Guide to the NACE CP 2

Cathodic Protection Technician Manual:

Principles, Practices, and Certification
Preparation
Executive Summary: The Mandate of the CP Technician
Corrosion represents a significant threat to the integrity and safety of metallic infrastructure,
leading to substantial economic costs, environmental damage, and potential risks to human life.
The Cathodic Protection (CP) 2 course, the second in a four-level NACE International
certification program, is designed to equip corrosion control personnel with the advanced
theoretical knowledge and practical field skills necessary to effectively mitigate this threat. This
manual serves as a definitive guide for technicians, focusing on the fundamental principles of
corrosion, the application of cathodic protection systems, advanced field testing procedures,
and the critical importance of meticulous data management and recordkeeping.
This report provides a professional and exhaustive analysis of the NACE CP 2 Theory Manual.
It deconstructs the core concepts, from the electrochemical foundation of corrosion to the
intricate details of field surveys and system troubleshooting. The analysis reveals that the
manual is more than a simple guide; it is a framework for professional practice, emphasizing
that effective corrosion control requires a holistic understanding of electrochemical science,
practical system components, diagnostic testing, and rigorous safety and compliance protocols.
The information presented here, structured with the intent to reinforce learning and prepare for
certification, stands as a comprehensive reference for any professional dedicated to protecting
assets and ensuring safety from the adverse effects of corrosion.

Chapter 1: Foundations of Corrosion Control

The NACE CP 2 course is an integral part of the NACE Cathodic Protection Training and
Certification Program, a globally recognized standard for corrosion control professionals. This
intermediate-level course builds upon foundational corrosion theory to focus on advanced field
testing, data collection, and the practical application of cathodic protection systems. The manual
is the primary resource for this education, providing the theoretical and procedural knowledge
necessary to understand and implement corrosion control solutions in real-world scenarios.
NACE International's role in the corrosion industry extends far beyond training and certification.
The organization functions as a premier authority, established upon more than 75 years of
expertise and a global membership of over 37,000 professionals across 140 countries. NACE's
mission is to empower society to safeguard people, assets, and the environment from the
adverse effects of corrosion. It achieves this through a multifaceted approach that includes
developing industry standards and technical reports, hosting international conferences and local
events, and producing leading industry publications such as Materials Performance magazine,
Coatings Pro magazine, and CORROSION journal. This comprehensive ecosystem ensures
that technicians are not only trained in best practices but also have access to a continuous
stream of the latest research and networking opportunities, supporting a career-long
commitment to professional development.
The NACE certification process itself underscores a commitment to both theoretical
understanding and practical competence. The CP 2 course concludes with two examinations: a
written, computer-based test covering the theoretical concepts and a hands-on practical
examination demonstrating proficiency with selected test instruments. Passing the practical
examination is a prerequisite for successful course completion. This two-part assessment model
highlights that a successful CP technician must possess a robust understanding of the
underlying principles and the practical skills to apply them in a field environment.

Certification Q&A

1.​ Question: What is the primary mission of NACE International? Answer: The primary
mission of NACE International is to equip society with the knowledge and resources to
protect people, assets, and the environment from the adverse effects of corrosion.
2.​ Question: How many levels are in the NACE Cathodic Protection Training and
Certification Program, and what is the designation for the second level? Answer: The
program has four levels. The second level is designated as "CP 2 - Cathodic Protection
Technician".
3.​ Question: What are the two final examinations required for the successful completion of
the CP 2 course? Answer: The two final examinations are a written, computer-based test
and a hands-on practical examination covering selected test instruments.
4.​ Question: List three ways NACE International serves the corrosion industry beyond
training and certification. Answer: NACE serves the industry by developing
corrosion-related standards and reports, hosting conferences and events, and producing
technical publications and resources such as magazines and journals.

Chapter 2: Principles of Electrochemical Corrosion

Corrosion is an electrochemical process, fundamentally driven by the flow of electrons and ions.
A complete electrochemical corrosion cell requires four essential components: an anode, a
cathode, an electrolyte, and a metallic path. Metal loss, or oxidation, occurs exclusively at the
anode, while no metal loss takes place at the cathode, where a reduction reaction occurs. The
potential difference between the anode and cathode, known as the electromotive force (emf), is
the driving force for this process.
The tendency of a metal to corrode can be predicted using its position in an electrochemical
series. The Standard emf Series provides a theoretical ranking of metals from most noble (least
reactive) to most active (most reactive) under a standardized set of conditions. However, for
practical field applications, the Practical Galvanic Series is a more reliable guide. Unlike the
theoretical emf series, the galvanic series is empirically derived from the behavior of metals in a
common electrolyte, such as seawater. This distinction is crucial for technicians, as it highlights
that the corrosive behavior of a metal is not static but is profoundly influenced by its
environment and the presence of other materials. This real-world behavior is an outcome of
polarization, which is a change in electrode potential caused by the flow of current. When two
different metals are connected in an electrolyte, they polarize toward a common potential, a
phenomenon that cannot be predicted from the theoretical emf series alone.
The rate of corrosion is not a qualitative observation but a quantitative measure governed by
Faraday's Law. This law establishes a direct relationship between the weight loss of a corroding
metal and the amount of electrical current and time. The manual provides the following formula
to express this relationship:
W=KI~t
●​ W: weight loss of the corroding metal (kg or lbs)
●​ K: electrochemical equivalent (kg/A-yr or lb/A-yr)
●​ I: current (A)
●​ t: time (years)
This law transforms the abstract concept of corrosion into a tangible, measurable rate of
material loss. By understanding this relationship, corrosion control personnel can calculate the
required current for cathodic protection or predict the consumption rate of sacrificial anodes over
a specified period. The manual provides a table of electrochemical equivalents for common
metals, demonstrating the theoretical consumption rates for a given current output.
Polarization is a core concept that dictates the efficacy of any corrosion control system. It is a
change in the potential of an electrode that opposes the current causing it, serving to decrease
the driving force of the corrosion cell. The manual differentiates between two types of
polarization: activation and concentration. Activation polarization results from the kinetic steps of
the reaction itself, while concentration polarization is a product of the diffusion of reactants to, or
reaction products away from, the electrode surface.
Numerous factors influence polarization and, consequently, the rate of corrosion:
●​ Current: As impressed current increases, polarization also increases.
●​ Anode/Cathode Ratio: Polarization is a function of current density (current per unit area).
A small anode connected to a large cathode is undesirable, as the current is concentrated
on a small area, leading to more destructive pitting.
●​ Temperature: Increased temperature tends to speed up chemical reactions, which
depolarizes the electrodes and increases the corrosion current.
●​ Electrolyte/Electrode Movement: Increased movement of the electrolyte serves to
remove reaction products and replenish reactants, leading to a decrease in polarization
and an increase in corrosion current.
●​ Electrolyte Ion Concentration: The concentration of metal ions or cathodic reactants,
such as oxygen or hydrogen, directly affects the polarization of the respective electrodes.
An increase in oxygen concentration, for example, decreases cathodic polarization and
increases corrosion current.

Certification Q&A

1.​ Question: What are the four essential components of a complete electrochemical
corrosion cell? Answer: The four components are the anode, cathode, electrolyte, and a
metallic path.
2.​ Question: How does the Nernst Equation demonstrate the effect of ion concentration on
a metal's potential? Answer: The Nernst Equation shows that the potential of an
electrode is affected by the activity (concentration) of metal ions in the solution.
Specifically, a higher concentration of metal ions makes the metal less active, or more
noble, in that environment.
3.​ Question: List three environmental factors that affect the rate of polarization and explain
how each factor influences corrosion. Answer: Three factors are temperature,
electrolyte/electrode movement, and electrolyte ion concentration. An increase in
temperature and electrolyte movement tends to depolarize the electrodes, increasing
corrosion. An increase in cathodic reactant concentration, such as oxygen, decreases
 cathodic polarization and increases corrosion.
4.​ Question: A 1 A CP system uses a magnesium anode with an electrochemical equivalent
of 3.97 kg/A-yr. How much mass will the anode theoretically lose after 5 years? Answer:
Using Faraday's Law, W = K \times I \times t, the mass lost is 3.97 \text{ kg/A-yr} \times 1
\text{ A} \times 5 \text{ yr} = 19.85 \text{ kg}.

Chapter 3: Safety in the Field

Safety is a foundational principle of cathodic protection work, a discipline in which field activities
expose technicians to a variety of significant hazards. The manual provides a comprehensive
safety analysis framework that extends beyond standard electrical precautions to include
vehicular, environmental, and procedural risks.
Electrical hazards are a primary concern, particularly those associated with rectifiers and
AC-induced voltages on buried structures. Rectifiers can present a lethal risk, as current
through the human body in excess of 100 mA can be fatal. The manual provides a clear
safety-by-design approach, instructing technicians to assume all electrical equipment is
hazardous. A critical procedure is to test a rectifier's case for stray AC voltage before touching it.
When working inside a rectifier, technicians must use insulated probes and the "one-hand
method" to avoid creating a path for current to flow through their body. The manual provides a
definitive warning: simply turning off a rectifier's internal circuit breaker does not de-energize the
entire unit; the outside AC disconnect must be turned off and secured with a Lock Out/Tag Out
(LOTO) procedure before any internal work is performed.
The Lock Out/Tag Out procedure is a critical regulatory and professional habit. LOTO is
designed to prevent power from being inadvertently restored while personnel are working on
equipment. A core rule of LOTO is that the person who installs the lock must be the one to
remove it. This procedure, while seemingly a minor detail, is presented as a fundamental safety
habit, akin to wearing a seatbelt, that instills a constant awareness of hazards and prevents
accidental re-energization.
Explosion and ignition hazards are another serious risk, as CP systems can act as an ignition
source in the presence of combustible atmospheres. This can occur when a current-carrying
conductor is separated, causing a spark. To prevent a disastrous situation, a temporary
electrical bond must be installed around any location where a cathodically protected pipe is to
be cut. This ensures that any potential arcing occurs at the controlled point of the bond before
the pipe is separated. The manual also warns that standard rectifiers and interrupters can be
ignition sources and should not be used in hazardous, explosive atmospheres unless they are
of an oil-immersed, explosion-proof design.
The manual extends its safety guidance to include a detailed analysis of distracted driving. It
categorizes distractions into three types: visual, manual, and cognitive. Citing statistics that
reveal distracted driving is a contributing factor in 80% of vehicle crashes, the manual
emphasizes that cognitive distraction—such as talking on a cell phone—is particularly
dangerous because it draws the driver's mental focus away from the road. The manual
analogizes this phenomenon to the "invisible gorilla test," illustrating how the human brain, when
focused on one task, can completely miss a hazard right in front of it. The report reinforces that
effective field safety is not just about physical actions but also about maintaining a high level of
mental vigilance.

Certification Q&A
 1.​ Question: What is the maximum current that an average-sized body can sustain between
an arm and a leg before losing muscular control (let-go current)? Answer: A current
between 9 mA and 25 mA can cause a lack of muscular control.
2.​ Question: What is the most critical safety procedure to follow before working behind the
panel of a rectifier? Answer: The outside AC disconnect must be turned off and locked
out/tagged out (LOTO).
3.​ Question: How can a cathodically protected structure act as an ignition source, and what
is the primary method to prevent this from happening? Answer: A CP structure can act as
an ignition source if a current-carrying conductor is separated, causing a spark in a
combustible atmosphere. To prevent this, a temporary electrical bond must be installed
around the work location before separating the conductor.
4.​ Question: What are the three categories of distracted driving identified in the manual,
and which is considered particularly dangerous for a CP technician? Answer: The
categories are visual, manual, and cognitive. Cognitive distraction, such as from using a
cell phone, is particularly dangerous because it reduces the driver's response time and
situational awareness.

Chapter 4: The Science of Cathodic Protection

Cathodic protection (CP) is a sophisticated corrosion control strategy rooted in the principles of
electrochemical polarization. The fundamental concept involves applying an external current to
a metallic structure to polarize its potential in an electronegative direction. This process shifts
the potential of the structure’s natural cathodic sites toward the open-circuit potential of its
anodic sites. When all cathodic sites are polarized to a potential equal to the most active anodic
potential on the structure, corrosion is effectively eliminated. The structure itself becomes the
cathode of a newly created, intentional electrochemical cell, and the flow of corrosion current
ceases.
The amount of current required to achieve this state of polarization is not static; it is influenced
by several factors, including the exposed surface area of the metal and the polarization behavior
of the structure in its environment. For example, a coated structure requires significantly less
current than a bare one, as current is only needed to protect holidays (defects) in the coating.
Environmental factors, such as pH, temperature, and the concentration of oxidizers like oxygen,
also have a direct impact on current requirements. An increase in temperature or oxygen, for
instance, has a depolarizing effect, which necessitates a higher current to achieve the desired
protective potential.
Because it is practically impossible to determine the open-circuit potential of every microscopic
anode on a structure, NACE International has developed several pragmatic criteria for
determining adequate cathodic protection. These criteria, which serve as measurable
surrogates for the theoretical ideal, are supported by a combination of laboratory experiments
and empirical field data.
For steel and cast iron, the primary NACE criteria include:
●​ A polarized potential of -850~mV_{CSE} or more negative: This criterion is based on
the observation that the most active corrosion potential for new steel is typically between
-800~mV_{CSE} and -850~mV_{CSE}. Polarizing the entire structure to or beyond this
value effectively ensures that all anodic sites are protected. It is crucial that this
measurement is a "polarized potential," meaning it is free of voltage (IR) drop errors
caused by the applied current.
●​ A minimum of 100~mV of cathodic polarization: This criterion is particularly useful for
 older structures where the natural corrosion potential may be more noble than
-850~mV_{CSE}, making the former criterion overly costly or conservative. The criterion is
met by demonstrating a 100~mV shift in potential away from the natural corrosion
potential. This can be measured as either a polarization decay (the potential shift after
interrupting the CP current) or a polarization formation (the shift that occurs as CP current
is applied).
While providing sufficient current is the goal, applying too much current can be detrimental. This
condition, known as overprotection, can lead to hydrogen damage in some metals, such as
high-strength steel, and can accelerate corrosion in amphoteric metals like aluminum, zinc, and
lead. For coated pipelines, overprotection can also cause the coating to disbond from the
substrate. The manual underscores the importance of precision in CP, where the objective is to
apply just enough current to meet the protective criteria without causing secondary damage.

Certification Q&A

1.​ Question: What is the fundamental principle of cathodic protection in terms of

electrochemical potential? Answer: The fundamental principle is to polarize the
structure's potential in an electronegative direction, shifting the potential of its cathodic
sites toward the open-circuit potential of its anodic sites until corrosion ceases.
2.​ Question: Why are the -850~mV_{CSE} and 100~mV polarization shift criteria
considered "surrogates" for the true criterion? Answer: They are considered surrogates
because it is practically impossible to measure the open-circuit potential of every
microscopic anode on a structure. These values were empirically developed to provide a
measurable and reliable means of achieving the theoretical goal of eliminating corrosion.
3.​ Question: A technician measures a structure's "instant-off" potential as -900~mV_{CSE}.
The depolarized potential (free-corroding potential) is -750~mV_{CSE}. Does the structure
meet the 100~mV polarization criterion? Answer: Yes. The polarization shift is the
difference between the instant-off and depolarized potentials: |-900~mV - (-750~mV)| =
150~mV. Since 150~mV is greater than the required 100~mV, the criterion is met.
4.​ Question: What is overprotection, and what are two potential negative consequences?
Answer: Overprotection is the application of excessive cathodic protection current. It can
lead to hydrogen embrittlement in susceptible metals and accelerated corrosion in
amphoteric metals like aluminum and zinc. For coated pipelines, it can also cause coating
disbondment.

Chapter 5: Road and Railroad Casings

Road and railroad casings present a unique and complex challenge for corrosion control on
underground pipelines. The primary purposes of a casing are to remove external stress from the
carrier pipe, to contain potential leaks, and to facilitate pipe replacement without disturbing the
roadbed. However, this construction also creates a difficult-to-monitor and protect annular
space.
The environment within this space can be atmospheric (moist), partially immersed, or fully
immersed in an electrolyte, such as soil or water. In all three environments, the pipe is
susceptible to corrosion. A critical distinction for a CP technician is between an isolated casing
and a shorted casing.
●​ An isolated casing is one in which the carrier pipe is electrically separated from the
casing by non-metallic spacers and end seals. In this scenario, if the annular space is
 immersed in an electrolyte, CP current can reach the pipe through the electrolyte,
providing protection.
●​ A shorted casing is one in which there is a metallic (electronic) contact between the pipe
and the casing. This contact creates a low-resistance metallic path that bypasses the
electrolyte, effectively shielding the pipe inside the casing from CP current. The manual
provides a quantitative example to illustrate the profound effect of a short: even a high
current of 10 mA will be almost entirely diverted through a short with very low resistance,
leaving an insufficient fraction to provide any meaningful protection to the pipe within the
casing.
The primary goal of a casing test is to diagnose the electrical relationship between the pipe and
the casing. A technician cannot simply measure a potential to determine the status of a short.
The manual explains that a potential measurement on a shorted pipe will be a weighted average
of the casing's outer potential and the surrounding pipeline's potential, which does not provide
accurate information about the pipe's condition inside the casing. Therefore, specialized test
methods are required, including:
●​ Structure-to-Electrolyte Potentials (ON/OFF): This test compares the potentials of the
pipe and casing to a fixed reference electrode. A difference of at least 100~mV between
the pipe and casing potentials typically indicates an isolated casing, while identical
potentials indicate an electronic short.
●​ Casing-to-Pipe Resistance: A precise measurement of the resistance between the pipe
and casing, which is used to confirm an electronic short. The manual states that a
resistance below 0.01~Ω is considered a short.
●​ Voltage (IR) Drop Method: This method involves impressing a current between the pipe
and casing from each end and measuring the resulting voltage drop to estimate the
location of the short. This test is a direct application of Ohm's Law to pinpoint the physical
cause of the problem.
If a short is identified, remedial actions can range from a targeted excavation to clear the
contact to filling the annular space with inhibited gels or vapor phase inhibitors to mitigate
corrosion.

Certification Q&A

1.​ Question: What are the three possible environments that can exist in a road or railroad
casing's annular space? Answer: The three possible environments are atmospheric
(moist), partially atmospheric and immersed, or totally immersed.
2.​ Question: A technician measures the "instant-off" potential of a pipeline as
-950~mV_{CSE} and the casing's potential as -850~mV_{CSE}. Based on these readings,
what is the status of the casing? Answer: The casing is considered isolated because the
difference between the potentials (100~mV) is at least 100~mV.
3.​ Question: Why does an electronic short between a pipe and its casing present a
significant corrosion risk? Answer: An electronic short creates a low-resistance metallic
path that electrically shields the pipe inside the casing, diverting most of the cathodic
protection current away from the pipe and making it susceptible to corrosion.
4.​ Question: What is the primary advantage of using a voltage (IR) drop method to
diagnose a shorted casing? Answer: The method allows a technician to estimate the
precise location of the electrical short between the pipe and casing by impressing a
current and measuring the voltage drop.
Chapter 6: Advanced Pipeline Survey Methods
Pipeline integrity management relies on advanced survey methods to gather high-resolution
data that can pinpoint localized corrosion threats. These techniques are integral to an External
Corrosion Direct Assessment (ECDA) program, where multiple data sources are combined to
form a holistic picture of a pipeline’s health.
A Close Interval Potential Survey (CIPS) is a high-resolution technique that measures the
structure-to-electrolyte potential at very close intervals, typically 1 to 3 meters, along a pipeline.
The purpose of this survey is to identify localized areas of insufficient protection that a standard,
widely spaced survey might miss. The survey utilizes a datalogger and synchronized
interrupters to record both the "ON" (current-applied) and "OFF" (instant-off) potentials,
providing a detailed profile of the structure’s protective state. A crucial aspect of CIPS is the
recognition and correction of pipeline voltage (IR) drop, which is an error introduced by current
flow in the pipeline itself. The manual provides a formula to calculate this IR drop, enabling the
technician to correct the potentials for a more accurate reading.
The Direct Current Voltage Gradient (DCVG) survey is used to pinpoint coating holidays by
measuring the voltage gradient in the soil created by the CP current discharging from a defect.
The survey is conducted with two reference electrodes and a sensitive voltmeter. The
magnitude of the voltage deflection and the direction of the current pinpoint the location and
provide an indication of the size of the defect.
An Alternating Current Voltage Gradient (ACVG) survey operates on a similar principle to
DCVG but uses an AC signal to locate coating holidays. A transmitter applies an AC signal to
the pipe, and a receiver with an A-frame detects the current leaking into the soil from coating
anomalies. This method is highly effective for pinpointing defects and can be performed
concurrently with a Pipeline Current Mapping (ACCA) survey.
Pipeline Current Mapping (ACCA), or AC Current Attenuation, measures the reduction of a
transmitted AC signal along a pipeline to identify coating anomalies or shorted structures. A
sudden increase in signal attenuation indicates a significant current loss at a defect, providing a
precise location for excavation.
These surveys are most powerful when their data is combined and analyzed synergistically. The
manual provides an example of an ECDA plot that superimposes data from CIPS, DCVG,
ACVG, ACCA, and other measurements. This multi-layered approach allows a technician to use
one data set to confirm another, building a comprehensive and reliable assessment of the
pipeline's condition. For instance, a low potential from a CIPS survey might not be alarming on
its own, but if it coincides with a high gradient reading from a DCVG survey and a sudden signal
loss from an ACCA survey at the same location, it provides a compelling case for a serious
coating holiday that requires remediation.

Certification Q&A

1.​ Question: What is the primary purpose of a Close Interval Potential Survey (CIPS), and
why is it preferred over widely spaced potential readings? Answer: The primary purpose
of a CIPS is to obtain a detailed potential profile to assess the level of cathodic protection
at small intervals along a pipeline. It is preferred because it can identify localized areas of
insufficient protection (e.g., at coating holidays) that would be missed by widely spaced
readings.
2.​ Question: Explain the difference in what a DCVG survey and a CIPS survey measure.
 Answer: A CIPS survey measures the structure-to-electrolyte potential, indicating the
level of cathodic protection. A DCVG survey measures the voltage gradient in the soil
caused by current discharging from a coating defect, which helps to pinpoint the defect's
location.
3.​ Question: A technician is using an ACCA survey and notices a sudden, significant loss of
signal current at a specific location on the pipeline. What does this most likely indicate?
Answer: A sudden loss of signal current (attenuation) in an ACCA survey indicates that a
coating anomaly or a shorted structure at that location is allowing a significant amount of
current to leak into the earth.
4.​ Question: What is the primary advantage of performing an In-Line Inspection (ILI) in
conjunction with above-ground surveys like CIPS or DCVG? Answer: The primary
advantage is that an ILI tool can provide direct, non-destructive measurements of external
metal loss and crack detection from inside the pipe, which serves as a crucial validation of
the data collected from the above-ground surveys.

Chapter 7: Cathodic Protection Systems

Cathodic protection is implemented through two primary system types: galvanic and impressed
current. The choice between these two is a strategic decision based on the specific application's
current requirements, environmental conditions, and logistical factors.
Galvanic Cathodic Protection Systems These systems rely on a natural electrochemical
potential difference, or driving force, between two dissimilar metals in a common electrolyte. An
active metal (anode), such as magnesium, zinc, or aluminum, is electrically connected to the
structure to be protected (the cathode). The driving force causes a current to flow from the
anode, through the electrolyte, and onto the structure, effectively protecting it from corrosion.
The anode material is consumed in the process. The system's components include the
sacrificial anode, anode backfill, and a physical connection to the structure. A critical component
is the anode backfill, which is a mixture of materials like gypsum, bentonite clay, and sodium
sulfate. This backfill serves to create a uniform, low-resistivity environment around the anode,
which increases its current output and prevents the formation of a passivating film that would
halt the electrochemical reaction. Galvanic systems are ideal for applications requiring low
current densities in low-resistivity electrolytes, such as pipelines with high-quality coatings,
water heaters, or offshore structures.
Impressed Current Cathodic Protection Systems Impressed current systems use an external
DC power source, such as a rectifier, to force a protective current from an inert anode to the
protected structure. The primary components are the anode, a rectifier, and wiring. Unlike
galvanic anodes, impressed current anodes are typically chosen for their extremely low
consumption rates. Materials include mixed-metal oxide (MMO), high silicon chromium cast iron,
and graphite. These systems are designed for high-current applications, making them suitable
for bare or poorly coated structures, long-distance pipelines, and structures in high-resistivity
soils where a galvanic system would be ineffective. Anode backfill is also a key component in
impressed current systems. Materials like calcined petroleum coke are used to lower the
resistance between the anode and the surrounding electrolyte, which reduces the voltage
required to drive the current and extends the anode's life. Proper wiring and connections are
critical to the system's function, as a positive cable exposed to the electrolyte will become part
of the anode circuit and be consumed.
The selection between these two systems demonstrates a core principle of corrosion
engineering: the solution must be tailored to the problem. A galvanic system provides a simple,
self-regulating solution for a low-current problem, leveraging a natural electrochemical potential.
An impressed current system, by contrast, provides a powerful, adjustable solution for
high-current applications, using external energy to overcome environmental resistance. The
materials, components, and design philosophy of each system are a direct consequence of the
physical requirements of the specific corrosion problem they are designed to solve.

Certification Q&A

1.​ Question: What is the primary difference in the driving force between a galvanic and an
impressed current cathodic protection system? Answer: In a galvanic system, the driving
force is the natural electrochemical potential difference between the anode and the
structure. In an impressed current system, the driving force is supplied by an external DC
power source, such as a rectifier.
2.​ Question: What is the purpose of anode backfill in both galvanic and impressed current
systems? Answer: Anode backfill in both systems is used to lower the resistance
between the anode and the surrounding electrolyte. This increases current output in
galvanic systems and reduces the voltage required in impressed current systems. In
galvanic systems, it also prevents the anode from passivating.
3.​ Question: List two applications where an impressed current system is typically preferred
over a galvanic system. Answer: Impressed current systems are preferred for
applications requiring high current, such as the protection of bare or poorly coated
structures, and for structures located in high-resistivity electrolytes.
4.​ Question: What are three common anode materials used in impressed current cathodic
protection systems? Answer: Three common anode materials are mixed-metal oxide
(MMO), high silicon chromium cast iron (HSCI), and graphite.

Chapter 8: DC Power Sources and Troubleshooting

The rectifier is the most common DC power source for impressed current cathodic protection
systems. Understanding a rectifier's internal components and having a systematic approach to
troubleshooting are critical skills for a CP technician. A rectifier's primary function is to convert
incoming AC power to a controllable DC output.
A rectifier consists of several key components:
●​ Transformer: This component uses an iron core and two sets of windings to step down
the incoming AC voltage to the desired level for rectification. The secondary voltage is
proportional to the ratio of the turns in the secondary and primary windings.
●​ Rectifying Circuit: This circuit converts the stepped-down AC voltage into DC voltage.
The most common type is a full-wave diode bridge circuit, which uses four diodes to
convert the full AC wave into a pulsating DC wave. Silicon-controlled rectifiers (SCRs) are
often used in place of diodes to provide an adjustable DC output by controlling the point at
which the AC wave is allowed to pass. A "free-wheeling" diode is sometimes used in
these circuits to ensure the current wave passes through zero, preventing the SCR from
"latching" on.
●​ Control Panel: This component contains meters to monitor voltage and current, fuses
and circuit breakers for protection, and taps or potentiometers to adjust the DC output to
meet protection criteria.
Troubleshooting a rectifier requires a logical, step-by-step process of elimination. The manual
provides a flowchart-based approach that begins with the most likely and easily verifiable issues
before progressing to more complex internal component failures. A tripped circuit breaker, for
example, is a common issue. The diagnostic process begins by checking if the breaker trips
again when reset. If it does, the technician must determine if the fault is internal to the rectifier
(between the transformer and output) or external in the output circuit.
Other common rectifier issues and their potential causes include:
●​ DC voltage and current both drop to zero: This typically indicates an open circuit in the
external system, such as a broken anode lead, an open fuse in the output, or a faulty
connection.
●​ DC current changes with unchanged DC voltage: This points to a change in the
external circuit's resistance. A decrease in resistance (e.g., from an
anode-to-foreign-structure short) will increase current, while an increase in resistance
(e.g., from an anode failure or drying soil) will decrease current.
●​ Change in both DC current and DC voltage: This can indicate a rectifier problem, such
as a failed diode causing the rectifier to operate at half-wave, which reduces both voltage
and current output by approximately half.
Beyond rectifiers, the manual also discusses alternative DC power sources. Thermoelectric
generators convert heat energy directly into electrical energy. They are often used in remote
locations and typically burn clean fuels like propane or natural gas. Solar panels use
photovoltaic cells to convert sunlight into electrical energy. Both systems require a battery
backup to ensure continuous current, as CP must be applied constantly to be effective.

Certification Q&A

1.​ Question: What are the three primary functions of a rectifier's transformer? Answer: The
transformer's primary functions are to step down the AC supply voltage, provide electrical
isolation, and allow for output voltage adjustment through its secondary windings.
2.​ Question: A CP technician finds a rectifier with a tripped circuit breaker. What are the two
initial diagnostic steps to follow? Answer: The first step is to check if the breaker can be
reset. If it trips again, the second step is to disconnect the DC output cables and reset the
breaker to determine if the fault is internal to the rectifier or external in the output circuit.
3.​ Question: What is the purpose of a "free-wheeling" diode in a rectifier circuit? Answer: A
"free-wheeling" diode is used to ensure the current wave passes through the zero point,
which is necessary to prevent the silicon-controlled rectifiers (SCRs) from "latching" on.
4.​ Question: A rectifier is found to be operating with a significantly lower-than-normal DC
output voltage and current. What is a common rectifier component failure that could cause
this? Answer: A common failure is an open-circuited or shorted diode, which can cause
the rectifier to operate at half-wave, reducing its output and efficiency.

Chapter 9: Monitoring, Recordkeeping, and Integrity Management

A cathodic protection system is only effective if it is operating continuously and performing as
designed. A comprehensive monitoring and recordkeeping program is the only way to ensure
this. The manual distinguishes between detailed surveys and routine inspections and
provides a clear framework for both.
Detailed surveys, often conducted annually, involve extensive data collection to evaluate the
system's overall effectiveness. This includes structure-to-electrolyte potential surveys, line
current surveys, and diagnostic tests to locate faulty isolation or coating holidays. Routine
inspections, performed more frequently, are designed to verify the continuous operation of the
system. For impressed current systems, this involves checking the rectifier's DC current, DC
voltage, and tap settings.
A crucial point for technicians to understand is that even a brief outage can have a lasting
impact on a structure's integrity. The manual provides a compelling example: a rectifier that is off
for two months each year will leave a pipeline unprotected for an accumulated two years over a
twelve-year period. This highlights the necessity of frequent monitoring to reduce system
downtime. Remote Monitoring Units (RMUs) are presented as a modern solution to this
problem. These units can be installed at DC power sources to continuously record operating
data and transmit it to a central location, providing immediate alarms in the event of an outage
and reducing the cost of routine field visits. RMUs can also be equipped with synchronized
interrupters that can be controlled remotely, eliminating the need for multiple trips to set up and
remove them during surveys.
Meticulous recordkeeping is the cornerstone of any effective CP program. The manual stresses
that records are mandatory for three primary reasons:
●​ Technical Purposes: Accurate data is essential for diagnosing problems, evaluating
system performance, and assessing the remaining capacity of the CP system.
●​ Historical Purposes: Records provide a complete history of the system's operation and
performance. This data is invaluable for troubleshooting, planning future system
upgrades, and conducting integrity assessments like External Corrosion Direct
Assessment (ECDA).
●​ Legal Purposes: Impeccable records serve as proof of due diligence in the event of a
legal dispute. The manual provides detailed tables summarizing regulatory requirements
from bodies like the U.S. DOT and Canada’s CSA, which mandate specific inspection
frequencies and record retention periods for regulated pipelines.
For data to be of value, it must be accurate and complete. The manual provides a list of key
information that must be included on every field data sheet for a potential reading: the measured
value, its polarity, the units (Volts, Amperes, etc.), and the type of reference electrode used.
Without this information, the data is of little use for technical analysis, historical review, or legal
defense. The proper collection and management of this data are not a clerical task but a
fundamental professional responsibility that directly contributes to asset integrity and safety.

Certification Q&A

1.​ Question: What are the three primary reasons for keeping complete and accurate
records of a cathodic protection system? Answer: Records are kept for technical,
historical, and legal purposes.
2.​ Question: According to the manual, what four pieces of information must be recorded for
each structure-to-electrolyte potential reading to ensure the data is useful? Answer: The
four pieces of information are the measured value, its polarity, the units, and the type of
reference electrode used.
3.​ Question: According to U.S. DOT regulations (49 CFR 192), how frequently must a
rectifier be inspected? Answer: A rectifier must be inspected at intervals not to exceed
2.5 months, or six times per calendar year.
4.​ Question: What is the primary benefit of installing a Remote Monitoring Unit (RMU) on a
DC power source? Answer: The primary benefit is that an RMU provides continuous
monitoring and can send alarms in the event of an outage, which reduces system
downtime and helps to prevent accelerated corrosion from unprotected periods.