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Biosensors and Environmental Health 1st ed. Edition
Victor R. Preedy Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Victor R. Preedy, Vinood B. Patel
ISBN(s): 9781578087358, 157808735X
Edition: 1st ed.
File Details: PDF, 13.60 MB
Year: 2012
Language: english
 Biosensors and
Environmental Health

© 2012 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

 Biosensors and
Environmental Health

Editors
Victor R. Preedy PhD DSc
Professor of Nutritional Biochemistry
School of Medicine
King’s College London
and
Professor of Clinical Biochemistry
King’s College Hospital
UK

Vinood B. Patel
Department of Biomedical Science
School of Life Sciences
University of Westminster
London
UK

p,
A SCIENCE PUBLISHERS BOOK

© 2012 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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© 2012 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

 Preface

Biosensors have a simplistic concept but a great deal of sophistication in

design, manufacture and application. They essentially have a biological
component within them and are used to detect, monitor or quantify
substances. They use a variety of physical platforms and technologies. The
biological components may include enzymes, membranes and cells or any
other naturally occurring biological product. Some have artificial biological
components such as modified molecules or polymers. Biosensors may be
used to detect single or groups of molecules and have wide applicability
to the life sciences. In this book we aim to disseminate the information
on biosensors in a readable way by having unique sections for the novice
and expert alike. This enables the reader to transfer their knowledge base
from one discipline to another or from one academic level to another.
In this book we focus on environmental issues. Chapters in Biosensors
and Environmental Health have an abstract, key facts, applications to
other areas of health and disease and a “mini-dictionary” of key terms
and summary points. The book describes new methods, prototypes and
applications. For example coverage includes: personal toxicity testing, soil
and risk assessment, pesticide, insecticides, parasites, nitrate, endocrine
disruptors, heavy metals, food contamination, whole cell bioreporters,
bacterial biosensors, antibody-based biosensors, enzymatic, amperometric
and electrochemical aspects, quorum sensing, DNA-biosensors, cantilever
biosensors, bioluminescence and other methods and applications.
Contributors to Biosensors and Environmental Health are all either
international or national experts, leading authorities or are carrying out
ground breaking and innovative work on their subject. The book is essential
reading for environmental scientists, toxicologists, medical doctors, health
care professionals, pathologists, biologists, biochemists, chemists and
physicists, general practitioners as well as those interested in disease and
sciences in general.
The Editors

© 2012 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

 Contents

Preface v
List of Contributors ix
1. Immunochips for Personal Toxicity Testing 1
Zhixian Gao, Nan Liu and Rajkumar Rajendram
2. Detection of Pesticide Residues Using Biosensors 21
Javier Ramón-Azcón, Tomoyuki Yasukawa and Fumio Mizutani
3. Biosensors for Ecotoxicity of Xenobiotics: A Focus 41
on Soil and Risk Assessment
Edoardo Puglisi, Mariarita Arenella, Giancarlo Renella and
Marco Trevisan
4. Biosensor-controlled Degradation of Organophosphate 60
Insecticides in Water
Georges Istamboulie, Jean-Louis Marty, Silvana Andreescu
and Thierry Noguer
5. Biosensors for Endocrine Disruptors: The Case of 74
Bisphenol A and Catechol
Marianna Portaccio, Daniela Di Tuoro, Umberto Bencivenga,
Maria Lepore and Damiano Gustavo Mita
6. Biosensors for Detection of Heavy Metals 94
Pavlina Sobrova, Libuse Trnkova, Vojtech Adam,
Jaromir Hubalek and Rene Kizek
7. Whole Cell Biosensors: Applications to 107
Environmental Health
S. Buchinger and G. Reifferscheid
8. Bacterial Whole Cell Bioreporters in Environmental 127
Health
Yizhi Song, Dayi Zhang, Karen Polizzi, Eko Ge Zhang,
Guanghe Li and Wei E. Huang

© 2012 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

 viii Biosensors and Environmental Health

9. Environmental Toxicology Monitoring with Polyazetidine- 149

based Enzymatic Electrochemical Biosensors
Franco Mazzei and Gabriele Favero
10. Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon (PAH) Sensitive 170
Bacterial Biosensors in Environmental Health
Mona Wells
11. Quorum Sensing in Microbial Biosensors 191
Swati Choudhary and Claudia Schmidt-Dannert
12. Biosensors Based on Immobilization of Proteins in 209
Supramolecular Assemblies for the Detection of
Environmental Relevant Analytes
Rosa Pilolli, Maria Daniela Angione, Serafina Cotrone,
Maria Magliulo, Gerardo Palazzo, Nicola Cioffi,
Luisa Torsi and Antonia Mallardi
13. Nanogravimetric and Voltammetric DNA-Biosensors 230
for Screening of Herbicides and Pesticides
Maria Hepel, Magdalena Stobiecka and Anna Nowicka
14. Nitrate Determination by Amperometric Biosensors: 256
Applications to Environmental Health
Erol Akyilmaz and Victor R. Preedy
15. Antibody-based Biosensors for Small Environmental 273
Pollutants: Focusing on PAHs
Candace R. Spier, Michael A. Unger and Stephen L. Kaattari
16. Exoelectrogens-based Electrochemical Biosensor 296
for Environmental Monitoring
Liu Deng, Li Shang and Shaojun Dong
17. Detecting Waterborne Parasites Using Piezoelectric 318
Cantilever Biosensors
Sen Xu and Raj Mutharasan
18. Bioluminescence-based Biosensor for Food 336
Contamination
Jinping Luo, Weiwei Yue, Xiaohong Liu, Qing Tian
and Xinxia Cai
Index 355
About the Editors 359
Color Plate Section 361

© 2012 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

 List of Contributors

Vojtech Adam
Mendel University in Brno, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry,
Zemedelska 1, 61300 Brno, Czech Republic.
E-mail: [email protected]
Erol Akyilmaz
Ege University Faculty of Science Biochemistry Department 35100 Bornova/
Izmir, Turkey.
E-mail: [email protected]
Silvana Andreescu
206 Science Center, Clarkson University, PO Box 5810, Potsdam, NY 13699-
5810 USA.
E-mail: [email protected]
Maria Daniela Angione
Department of Chemistry, University of Bari, Via Orabona 4, I-70126 Bari,
Italy.
E-mail: [email protected]
Mariarita Arenella
Dipartimento di Scienze delle Produzioni Vegetali, del Suolo e dell’Ambiente
Agroforestale, Università di Firenze, Piazza delle Cascine 18, 50144 Firenze,
Italy.
E-mail: [email protected]
Umberto Bencivenga
Istituto of Genetica and Biofisica del CNR, Napoli, Italia.
E-mail: [email protected]
S. Buchinger
German Federal Institute of Hydrology (BfG), Division of Qualitative
Hydrology, Am Mainzer Tor 1, 56068 Koblenz, 56068 Germany.
E-mail: [email protected]

© 2012 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

 x Biosensors and Environmental Health

Xinxia Cai
State Key Laboratory of Transducer Technology, Institute of Electronics,
Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, P.R. China.
E-mail: [email protected]
Swati Choudhary
Department of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology and Biophysics, University
of Minnesota, 140 Gortner Laboratory, St. Paul, MN 55198, USA.
E-mail: [email protected]
Nicola Cioffi
Department of Chemistry, University of Bari, Via Orabona 4, I-70126 Bari,
Italy.
E-mail: [email protected]
Serafina Cotrone
Department of Chemistry, University of Bari, Via Orabona 4, I-70126 Bari,
Italy.
E-mail: [email protected]
Liu Deng
State Key Laboratory of Electroanalytical Chemistry, Changchun Institute
of Applied Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun, Jilin,
130022, P. R. China.
E-mail: [email protected]
Shaojun Dong
State Key Laboratory of Electroanalytical Chemistry, Changchun Institute
of Applied Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun, Jilin,
130022, P. R. China.
E-mail: [email protected]
Gabriele Favero
Department of Chemistry and Drug Technologies, Sapienza University of
Rome, P.le Aldo Moro, 5 – 00185 Roma, Italy.
E-mail: [email protected]
Zhixian Gao
Tianjin Key Laboratory of Risk Assessment and Control Technology for
Environment and Food Safety, Tianjin Institute of Health and Environmental
Medicine, No. 1 Dali Road, Heping District, Tianjin, China.
E-mail: [email protected]
Maria Hepel
Department of Chemistry, State University of New York at Potsdam,
Potsdam, New York 13676, USA.
E-mail: [email protected]

© 2012 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

 List of Contributors xi

Wei E. Huang
Kroto Research Institute, Department of Civil and Structural Engineering,
North Campus, University of Sheffield, Broad Lane, Sheffield S3 7HQ,
UK.
E-mail: [email protected]
Jaromir Hubalek
University of Technology in Brno, Department of Microelectronics.
E-mail: [email protected]
Georges Istamboulie
IMAGES EA 4218, Biosensors group, Building S, Université de Perpignan
Via Domitia, 52 Av Paul Alduy 66860 Perpignan cedex – France.
E-mail: [email protected]
Stephen L. Kaattari
Virginia Institute of Marine Science, Department of Environmental and
Aquatic Animal Health, College of William & Mary, PO Box 1346, Gloucestor
Point, Virginia 23062-1346 USA.
E-mail: [email protected]
Rene Kizek
Mendel University in Brno, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry,
Zemedelska 1, 61300 Brno, Czech Republic.
E-mail: [email protected]
Maria Lepore
Dipartimento di Medicina Sperimentale, Seconda Università di Napoli,
Napoli, Italia.
E-mail: [email protected]
Guanghe Li
Department of Environmental Science & Technology, Tsinghua University,
Beijing 100084, P.R. China.
E-mail: [email protected]
Nan Liu
Tianjin Key Laboratory of Risk Assessment and Control Technology for
Environment and Food Safety, Tianjin Institute of Health and Environmental
Medicine, No. 1 Dali Road, Heping District, Tianjin, China.
E-mail: [email protected]
Xiaohong Liu
Graduate School of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100080, P.R.
China.
E-mail: [email protected]

© 2012 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

 xii Biosensors and Environmental Health

Jinping Luo
State Key Laboratory of Transducer Technology, Institute of Electronics,
Chinese Academy of Sciences, Bejing 100190, P.R. China.
E-mail: [email protected]
Maria Magliulo
Department of Chemistry, University of Bari, Via Orabona 4, I-70126 Bari,
Italy.
E-mail: [email protected]
Antonia Mallardi
CNR-IPCF, Istituto per i Processi Chimico-Fisici, Via Orabona 4, I-70126
Bari, Italy.
E-mail: [email protected]
Jean-Louis Marty
IMAGES EA 4218, Biosensors group, Building S, Université de Perpignan
Via Domitia, 52 Av Paul Alduy 66860 Perpignan cedex – France.
E-mail: [email protected]
Franco Mazzei
Department of Chemistry and Drug Technologies, Sapienza University of
Rome, P.le Aldo Moro, 5 – 00185 Roma, Italy.
E-mail: [email protected]
Damiano Gustavo Mita
Dipartimento di Medicina Sperimentale, Seconda Università di Napoli,
Napoli, Italia.
E-mail: [email protected]
Fumio Mizutani
Graduate School of Material Science, University of Hyogo, 3-2-1 Kouto,
Kamigori-cho, Ako-gun, Hyogo 678-1297, Japan.
E-mail: [email protected]
Raj Mutharasan
Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Drexel University,
Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA.
E-mail: [email protected]
Thierry Noguer
IMAGES EA 4218, Biosensors group, Building S, Université de Perpignan
Via Domitia, 52 Av Paul Alduy 66860 Perpignan cedex – France.
E-mail: [email protected]

© 2012 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

 List of Contributors xiii

Anna Nowicka
Department of Chemistry, State University of New York at Potsdam,
Potsdam, New York 13676, USA.
Permanent address: Department of Chemistry, University of Warsaw, PL-
02-093 Warsaw, Poland.
E-mail: [email protected]
Gerardo Palazzo
Department of Chemistry, University of Bari, Via Orabona 4, I-70126 Bari,
Italy.
E-mail: [email protected]
Rosa Pilolli
Department of Chemistry, University of Bari, Via Orabona 4, I-70126 Bari,
Italy.
E-mail: [email protected]
Karen Polizzi
Division of Molecular Biosciences & Centre for Synthetic Biology and
Innovation, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, UK.
E-mail: [email protected]
Marianna Portaccio
Dipartimento di Medicina Sperimentale, Seconda Università di Napoli,
Napoli, Italia.
E-mail: [email protected]
Victor R. Preedy
Diabetes and Nutritional Sciences, School of Medicine, Kings College
London, Franklin Wilkins Buildings, 150 Stamford Street, London SE1
9NU, UK.
E-mail: [email protected]
Edoardo Puglisi
Istituto di Microbiologia, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Via Emilia
Parmense 84, 29122 Piacenza, Italy.
E-mail: [email protected]
Rajkumar Rajendram
Locum Consultant Physician, Department of Medicine, John Radcliffe
Hospital, Oxford OX3 9DU, UK.
E-mail: [email protected]
Javier Ramón-Azcón
Graduate School of Material Science, University of Hyogo, 3-2-1 Kouto,
Kamigori-cho, Ako-gun, Hyogo 678-1297, Japan.
E-mail: [email protected]

© 2012 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

 xiv Biosensors and Environmental Health

G. Reifferscheid
German Federal Institute of Hydrology (BfG), Division of Qualitative
Hydrology, Am Mainzer Tor 1, 56068 Koblenz, 56068 Germany.
E-mail: [email protected]
Giancarlo Renella
Dipartimento di Scienze delle Produzioni Vegetali, del Suolo e dell’Ambiente
Agroforestale, Università di Firenze, Piazza delle Cascine 18, 50144 Firenze,
Italy.
E-mail: [email protected]
Claudia Schmidt-Dannert
Department of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology and Biophysics, University
of Minnesota, 140 Gortner Laboratory, St. Paul, MN 55198, USA.
E-mail: [email protected]
Li Shang
Institute of Applied Physics and Center for Functional Nanostructures
(CFN), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Wolfgang-Gaede-Strasse
1, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany.
E-mail: [email protected]
Pavlina Sobrova
Mendel University in Brno, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry,
Zemedelska 1, 61300 Brno, Czech Republic.
E-mail:[email protected]
Yizhi Song
Department of Environmental Science & Technology, Tsinghua University,
Beijing 100084, P.R. China.
E-mail: [email protected]
Candace R. Spier
Virginia Institute of Marine Science, Department of Environmental and
Aquatic Animal Health, College of William & Mary, PO Box 1346, Gloucestor
Point, Virginia 23062-1346 USA.
E-mail: [email protected]
Magdalena Stobiecka
Department of Chemistry, State University of New York at Potsdam,
Potsdam, New York 13676, USA.
E-mail: [email protected]
Qing Tian
State Key Laboratory of Transducer Technology, Institute of Electronics,
Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, P.R. China.
E-mail: [email protected]

© 2012 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

 List of Contributors xv

Luisa Torsi
Department of Chemistry, University of Bari, Via Orabona 4, I-70126 Bari,
Italy.
E-mail: [email protected]
Marco Trevisan
Istituto di Chimica Agraria ed Ambientale, Università Cattolica del Sacro
Cuore, Via Emilia Parmense 84, 29122 Piacenza, Italy.
E-mail: [email protected]
Libuse Trnkova
Masaryk University, Brno, Department of Chemistry.
E-mail: [email protected]
Daniela Di Tuoro
Dipartimento di Medicina Sperimentale, Seconda Universita di Napoli,
Napoli, Italia.
E-mail: [email protected]
Michael A. Unger
Virginia Institute of Marine Science, Department of Environmental and
Aquatic Animal Health, College of William & Mary, PO Box 1346, Gloucestor
Point, Virginia 23062-1346 USA.
E-mail: [email protected]
Mona Wells
Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research, Department of Environmental
Microbiology, PermoserstraDe 15, Leipzig, 04318, Germany.
E-mail: [email protected]
Sen Xu
Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Drexel University,
Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA.
E-mail: [email protected]
Tomoyuki Yasukawa
Graduate School of Material Science, University of Hyogo, 3-2-1 Kouto,
Kamigori-cho, Ako-gun, Hyogo 678-1297, Japan.
E-mail: [email protected]
Weiwei Yue
State Key Laboratory of Transducer Technology, Institute of Electronics,
Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, P.R. China.
E-mail: [email protected]

© 2012 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

 xvi Biosensors and Environmental Health

Dayi Zhang
Kroto Research Institute, Department of Civil and Structural,
Engineering, North Campus, University of Sheffield, Broad Lane,
Sheffield S3 7HQ, UK.
E-mail: [email protected]
Eko Ge Zhang
Fetal and Maternal Medicine, Imperial College NHS Trust, London SW7
2AZ, UK.
E-mail: [email protected]

© 2012 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

 1
Immunochips for Personal
Toxicity Testing
Zhixian Gao,1,a Nan Liu1,b and Rajkumar Rajendram2

ABSTRACT
People are exposed to many chemicals in the course of day-to-day life.
Measurement of the exposure of the environment and its inhabitants
to pollutants is a useful estimate of the toxic effects of environmental
pollution on health. The microarray is a sensitive and precise device
which can be used to obtain this information from complex biological
samples. Microarrays can thus be used to assess the “health” of the
environment or an individual person. The use of microarrays allows
complex, automated, high-throughput processes to be performed in
small devices. The “immunochip” is a one of the formats of protein
microchip based on the molecular specific immunological recognition
of antigens (Ags) by antibodies (Abs) immobilized on a certain surface
that together respond in a concentration-dependent manner. Recent
work from our laboratory demonstrated that immunochip technology
can simultaneously detect at least five different chemicals. This chapter
discusses the various types of immunochips available and their
application in personal toxicity testing. The definition, main features,

1
Tianjin Key Laboratory of Risk Assessment and Control Technology for Environment and
Food Safety, Tianjin Institute of Health and Environmental Medicine, No. 1 Dali Road, Heping
District, Tianjin, China.
a
E-mail: [email protected]
b
E-mail: [email protected]
2
Locum Consultant Physician, Department of Medicine, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford OX3
9DU, England.
E-mail: [email protected]
List of abbreviations after the text.

© 2012 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

 2 Biosensors and Environmental Health

and probes of “conventional” immunochips, “Lab-on a chip” and

“suspension arrays” are included. “Lab-on a chip” integrates several
laboratory processes including preparation, incubation, detection and
analysis on a single microchip. This eliminates the need for several
different pieces of laboratory equipment to prepare and analyze a
biological sample. The “high-throughput suspension” array is a novel
method for multi-analysis of veterinary drugs. It is easy to use, very
sensitive and inexpensive. However, immunochips are difficult to use
in the field. A high-quality Ab with good bioactivity and specificity is
the key reagent in the production of immunochips. Although further
investigation is required, the potential advantages of immunochip
technology for the detection of chemicals for environmental assessments
are of great interest.

INTRODUCTION
Millions of chemicals have been created as civilization has advanced
and industry and agriculture have developed. Modernization has
simultaneously facilitated human existence and wrought havoc on the
environment. Pollution is a global phenomenon of major concern.
The air quality of large- and medium-sized cities is poor worldwide. Air
pollution affects many countries but is the worst in the developing world.
Soil is commonly contaminated with solvents, hydrocarbons derived from
petrochemicals, heavy metals and pesticides. Organic pollutants are a major
problem affecting water quality. Eutrophication occurs naturally as bodies of
water age, but the process is accelerated by pollution. Many lakes in China
are in the intermediate or advanced stages of eutrophication. Pollution
from industry, agriculture and domestic life damages the ecosystem and
is a major hazard to human health. Air pollution increases excess mortality
rates especially in the developing countries. The incidence of gastrointestinal
tract tumors is increased with consumption of contaminated water. Many
environmental contaminants, pollutants and toxins interfere with immune
defense, immune signal transduction, and induce hypoimmunity and do
harm to population health.
The general population is exposed to many chemicals in the course
of day-to-day life. Measurement of the exposure of the environment and
its inhabitants to pollutants is a useful estimate of the toxic effects of
environmental pollution on health. “Safe” levels of exposure for many
chemicals have yet to be determined. Newly synthesized compounds are
released regularly and data on their intermediate products and by-products
are scanty. However, relationships between levels of exposure and adverse
effects on health remain unclear. So, even when guidance is available,
standards for safe or acceptable concentrations or levels of exposure often

© 2012 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

 Immunochips for Personal Toxicity Testing 3

vary between countries. Assessment of the toxicity of chemicals in vivo is

urgently in need of further research.
Personal toxicity testing is used to detect environmental toxins/
pollutants/contaminants and/or their metabolites and biomarkers.
Chromatogram (Koblížek et al. 2002), liquid chromatography with mass
spectrometry (LC-MS) technology (Ramos et al. 2003) and enzyme-linked
immunoadsorbent assay (ELISA) (Estévez et al. 2006; Mart’ianov et al.
2005) are widely employed for the detection of chemicals. However, these
techniques require meticulous sample preparation and are complex to
perform, so are expensive and time consuming. These shortcomings cannot
be easily overcome.
The use of recently developed scientific techniques such as proteomics,
metabolomics and metallomics could enhance personal toxicity testing and
environmental assessments. The research, development and use of these
and other new techniques, could improve monitoring of environmental
pollution and the effects on human health. The recent production of
microchips which can perform these techniques has enabled production
of small, automated analytical systems for this purpose.
Microarray or biochip technology allows the simultaneous monitoring
of several biological processes in a single experiment. These sensitive and
precise, automated techniques can obtain vast amounts of data from each
biological sample. Small, high-throughput systems utilizing microarrays
can be used to detect and analyze samples containing bacteria (Song and
Dinh 2004), viruses (Zhou et al. 2005), veterinary drug residues (Du et al.
2005) and tumor biomarkers (Ghobrial et al. 2005; Huang et al. 2004; Miller
et al. 2003; Ghobrial et al. 2005; Huang et al. 2004).
Biochips have several uses in the agricultural, veterinary, healthcare,
and medical sectors. DNA microarrays, which contain single strand
nucleotide probes bound to a solid substrate, are used to identify DNA or
RNA. DNA arrays function on the principle of nucleic acid hybridization
on a surface-immobilized template. Protein arrays (protein microchips)
contain various proteins probes imprinted on solid surface and can detect
interactions between different proteins (Chiem and Harrison 1998; Wildt
et al. 2000).
The immunochip is a protein microchip based on the specific recognition
of Ags by Abs immobilized on a solid planar surface (e.g. glass) that responds
in a concentration-dependent manner to a chemical target. Although plastic,
gold and silicon have been used, and several novel surfaces have been
developed including porous polyacrylamide gel pad slides (Arenkov et al.
2000) and microwells (Zhu et al. 2000), the most common surface used for
immobilization of bio-recognition agents is the glass microscope slide.
When complementary Ags or Abs react with probes on the array, the
resulting array image or fluorescent intensity (FI) can be captured by laser

© 2012 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

 4 Biosensors and Environmental Health

scanner and analyzed by software. Microarray images are necessarily of

high resolution and are therefore large (typically at least 1500 × 3500 pixels).
Multifunctional data analysis software such as GenePix Pro, ScanAlyze and
BlueFuse can be used to analyze FI data.
Several modifications of the conventional immunochip platform
have been described. These include the “lab-on a chip” (Du et al. 2005), a
hydrogel-based immunochip (Rubin et al. 2005) and the suspension array
(Connolly et al. 2010; Kalogianni et al. 2007) which immobilizes bio-active
materials on a fluorescent coded bead/microsphere.
High-output, automated, sensitive, analysis of several chemicals can be
performed simultaneously. The potential scope for use of the immunochip is
therefore remarkable. Although immunochip platforms are fairly versatile,
configurations are limited as chips must be designed to detect a specific
group of compounds. Abs with good bioactivity and specificity are the
best probes currently available. The use of high titres of Abs with high
specificity; especially monoclonal Ab (mAb), can significantly increase the
accuracy and sensitivity of the immunochip. Phage display technology and
ribosome display technology are tools for the generation of high-quality
Abs. However, acquiring the key reagent, i.e. the specific Ab required, is
still a limiting factor in the production of immunochips.
The Luminex (xMAP®) suspension array is another type of immunochip.
It is a microarray on a microsphere surface which enables greater efficiency
and output than a glass slide (planar, solid microarray). This system is based
on internally color-coded microspheres with surface linked Abs, receptors,
or oligonucleotides. Beads containing one of 100 specific dye sets can be
differentiated by flow-cytometry. Binding of the surface label indicates
analyte binding and can also be detected using a second, shorter-wavelength
dye and a dual laser detector (Dasso et al. 2002).
It is inexpensive, versatile and considered as an open platform that has
been widely employed for multiplex analysis of ribosomal RNA (rRNA),
microRNA, cytokines and single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP);
selecting and screening of mAbs; detection and testing for Abs, bacterial
toxins, polysaccharides and autoantigens in serum, cerebrospinal fluid,
dried blood spot specimens, and stool samples (Liu et al. 2009).
Binding to the solid support of ELISA or other microarrays denatures or
dries bioactive materials. However, due to robust multiplexing, the Luminex
suspension array can obtain more data more quickly from samples in the
aqueous phase. Analysis of samples in the aqueous phase maintains their
bioactivity for probes. Suspension array technology also offers several
other advantages over traditional methods. It is versatile, flexible, accurate,
reproducible and high-throughput.

© 2012 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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 Statistics - Formula Sheet
Third 2022 - Faculty

Prepared by: Lecturer Johnson

Date: July 28, 2025

Review 1: Practical applications and examples

Learning Objective 1: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 1: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Learning Objective 2: Case studies and real-world applications
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Learning Objective 3: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 4: Best practices and recommendations
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 5: Key terms and definitions
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Study tips and learning strategies
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Historical development and evolution
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Ethical considerations and implications
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Ethical considerations and implications
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 10: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Review 2: Literature review and discussion
Remember: Current trends and future directions
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Case studies and real-world applications
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 12: Study tips and learning strategies
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 13: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Experimental procedures and results
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 17: Study tips and learning strategies
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 18: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Current trends and future directions
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Case studies and real-world applications
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Appendix 3: Practical applications and examples
Important: Key terms and definitions
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Practical applications and examples
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 23: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Current trends and future directions
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Historical development and evolution
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Historical development and evolution
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Historical development and evolution
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Historical development and evolution
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Research findings and conclusions
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Discussion 4: Historical development and evolution
Practice Problem 30: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Practical applications and examples
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 33: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Literature review and discussion
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 35: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 35: Historical development and evolution
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 38: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Current trends and future directions
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Introduction 5: Current trends and future directions
Remember: Experimental procedures and results
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 41: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 41: Ethical considerations and implications
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 44: Ethical considerations and implications
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Practical applications and examples
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 48: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 48: Research findings and conclusions
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 49: Research findings and conclusions
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 50: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Module 6: Critical analysis and evaluation
Practice Problem 50: Ethical considerations and implications
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Practical applications and examples
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Study tips and learning strategies
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 55: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Important: Current trends and future directions
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 58: Case studies and real-world applications
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Historical development and evolution
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Discussion 7: Learning outcomes and objectives
Important: Experimental procedures and results
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Historical development and evolution
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 62: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Definition: Case studies and real-world applications
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Best practices and recommendations
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Current trends and future directions
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 67: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Current trends and future directions
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Historical development and evolution
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Practical applications and examples
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Appendix 8: Assessment criteria and rubrics
Example 70: Best practices and recommendations
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Experimental procedures and results
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 72: Research findings and conclusions
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Experimental procedures and results
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 74: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 74: Case studies and real-world applications
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Historical development and evolution
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 76: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Best practices and recommendations
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Unit 9: Statistical analysis and interpretation
Practice Problem 80: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 81: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 82: Study tips and learning strategies
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 83: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 84: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Historical development and evolution
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 86: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Current trends and future directions
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 89: Best practices and recommendations
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 90: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
References 10: Current trends and future directions
Remember: Case studies and real-world applications
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Study tips and learning strategies
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 92: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 92: Key terms and definitions
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 94: Study tips and learning strategies
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Research findings and conclusions
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 96: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 96: Research findings and conclusions
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 97: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 98: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Literature review and discussion
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Section 11: Theoretical framework and methodology
Definition: Research findings and conclusions
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Case studies and real-world applications
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Best practices and recommendations
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 103: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 104: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 105: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 105: Key terms and definitions
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 106: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Experimental procedures and results
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 109: Key terms and definitions
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 110: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Discussion 12: Practical applications and examples
Remember: Ethical considerations and implications
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 111: Experimental procedures and results
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Key terms and definitions
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Current trends and future directions
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Key terms and definitions
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Key terms and definitions
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 116: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 117: Practical applications and examples
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 118: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Ethical considerations and implications
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Section 13: Fundamental concepts and principles
Practice Problem 120: Key terms and definitions
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
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