Technical Note No 70
Thermal and moisture performance of cavities
in building envelopes
The use of air cavities in wall construction is commonplace and may provide an improvement in
performance, as well as providing a more robust design. The air cavity may increase the overall
thermal resistance of the wall. It may also provide a means of removing moisture from the wall,
through drainage and/or ventilation. Typical examples are the cavities in a rainscreen system or a
brick/block wall.
This Technical Note describes the thermal and moisture performance of different air cavities within
wall constructions. This Technical Note should be read in conjunction with:
TN 33 Breather membranes and vapour control layers in walls
TN 46 Introduction to building envelope energy transfer
Introduction Moisture transfer
There are two main sources of moisture that A drained and/or externally ventilated cavity
have to be considered when designing a wall. may also be beneficial in the removal of any
These are water from the external moisture that migrates through the wall from
environment, usually in the form of rainwater, the warm moist internal environment.
but may also include the diffusion of moisture
from a wet surface, and moisture vapour The amount of moisture diffusion through the
diffusion. wall can be reduced by incorporating a
correctly detailed vapour control layer (VCL)
In temperate climates such as that found in the as close to the internal surface as possible
UK, the air in the internal environment usually (see TN33 – Breather membranes and vapour
contains more moisture than the outside air. control layers in walls). This however is not a
Therefore moisture vapour will tend to migrate guarantee that moisture will not accumulate
outwards through the construction. within the wall construction as this method
relies on the VCL being installed without gaps
and holes, which is difficult to achieve at
Water penetration resistance junctions and around penetrations. Water
vapour may also be trapped by other materials
There are two main approaches to water with a higher vapour resistance within the wall.
penetration resistance. They are:
• Face sealing
• Secondary defence
Face sealed systems rely on the outer skin of
the construction alone to prevent water
penetration. If there is any moisture ingress
past the external skin, there is no provision to
allow the water to drain back to the outside.
An alternative approach to water penetration
resistance is to provide a secondary defence.
This usually takes the form of a cavity behind
the external face of the wall. The cavity allows
moisture that passes the external face to drain
back to the outside through openings in the
outer surface. The cavity may also have
sufficient openings to allow ventilation, for
increased moisture removal. Figure 1 Principles of cavity construction
© CWCT 2009 October 2009
Thermal and moisture performance of cavities in building envelopes TN69
The introduction of a drained and/or externally and thermal transmittance – Calculation
ventilated cavity will allow any moisture that method.
does get past the internal VCL to be safely
removed to the outside. If such a cavity is not Unventilated air layer
used then there is the risk that moisture An unventilated air layer is one in which there
vapour will be trapped within the wall where it is no express provision for air flow through it.
may condense and the water cause damage
to adjacent materials. An air layer having no insulation layer between
it and the external environment but with small
openings to the external environment shall
Classification of air cavities also be considered as an unventilated air
layer, if these openings are not arranged so as
Air cavities may be classified according to a to permit air flow through the layer and they do
number of different factors. These include the not exceed:
position of the cavity in relation to the main
insulation layer, and the size of the openings • 500 mm2 per m length for vertical air layers;
in the outer surface. • 500 mm2 per m2 of surface area for
horizontal air layers1).
Cold cavities
Cold cavities are located to the cold side of the Note - Drain openings (weep holes) in the form
main insulation layer. Because they are cold of open vertical joints in the outer leaf of a
the moisture content should be kept low to masonry cavity wall are not regarded as
reduce the risk of condensation forming. A ventilation openings.
VCL on the warm side of the insulation will
reduce the moisture content in the cavity. Slightly ventilated air layer
Alternatively they should be ventilated to the A slightly ventilated air layer is one in which
outside to remove moisture and keep the there is provision for limited air flow through it
moisture level close to outside levels. from the external environment by openings of
area, Av, within the following ranges:
Warm cavities
Warm cavities are located to the warm side of • > 500 mm2 but ≤ 1500 mm2 per m length
the major insulation layer. The cavity surfaces for vertical air layers;
will be warmer than those of a cold cavity and • > 500 mm2 but ≤ 1500 mm2 per m2 of
the risk of condensation very much less. A surface area for horizontal air layers1).
vapour control layer may still be required to the
internal face of the cavity in order to keep it Well ventilated air layer
dry. A well ventilated air layer is one for which the
openings between the air layer and the
external environment exceed:
Externally ventilated cavities
• 1500 mm2 per m length for vertical air
BS 5250 classification layers;
The following classifications are taken from • 1500 mm2 per m2 of surface area for
BS 5250: 2002 - Code of practice for control of horizontal air layers1).
condensation in buildings.
1)
For vertical air layers the range is expressed
Vented air space as the area of openings per metre length. For
Cavity or void that has openings to the outside horizontal air layers it is expressed as the area
air placed so as to allow some limited, but not of openings per square metre area.
necessarily through, movement of air.
Ventilated air space Thermal resistance of air cavities
Cavity or void that has openings to the outside
air placed so as to promote through movement A still air layer in a cavity construction will add
of air. to the overall thermal resistance of the element
and therefore reduce the U-value. The
BS EN 6946 classification contribution that the cavity makes will depend
The following classifications are taken from on the level of ventilation between the cavity
BS EN ISO 6946: 2007 - Building components and the external environment and the direction
and building elements – Thermal resistance of the heat flow.
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Thermal and moisture performance of cavities in building envelopes TN69
Unventilated air layer 1500 A v A 500
Design values of thermal resistance are given RT = .R T,u + v .R T,v
in table 1. The values under “horizontal” apply 1000 1000
to heat flow directions up to 30° from the
horizontal plane. The table is taken from BS Where
EN ISO 6946: 2007.
RT,u is the total thermal resistance with an
Thickness Direction of heat flow unventilated air layer
of air layer Upwards Horizontal Downwards
[mm] [m2K/W] [m2K/W] [m2K/W] RT,v is the total thermal resistance with a
0 0.00 0.00 0.00 well-ventilated air layer
5 0.11 0.11 0.11
7 0.13 0.13 0.13
10 0.15 0.15 0.15 Well ventilated air layer
15 0.16 0.17 0.17
The total thermal resistance of a building
25 0.16 0.18 0.19
50 0.16 0.18 0.21 component containing a well-ventilated air
100 0.16 0.18 0.22 layer shall be obtained by disregarding the
300 0.16 0.18 0.23 thermal resistance of the air layer and all other
Note – Intermediate values may be obtained by linear layers between the air layer and external
interpolation. environment, and including an external surface
resistance corresponding to still air.
Table 1 Thermal resistance of an unventilated
air layer The surface resistance is defined in national
standards. For a vertical surface with
The values given in the table 1 apply to an air horizontal heat flow the internal and external
layer which: surface resistance is 0.13 m2K/W and 0.04
m2K/W respectively.
• is bounded by two faces which are
effectively parallel and perpendicular to the
direction of heat flow and which have U-values
emissivities not less than 0.8;
• has a thickness (in the direction of heat The U-value of a cavity construction will vary
flow) of less than 0.1 times each one of the depending on the type of cavity present, and
other two dimensions, and not greater than its location with respect to the main insulation
0.3 m; layer.
• has no air interchange with the internal
environment. The values stated below are 1-dimensional U-
values and therefore do not include the
Note - A single thermal transmittance should additional heat loss due to brackets, fixings
not be calculated for components containing and cavity ties that may be present in the
air layers thicker than 0.3 m. Rather, heat construction. The constructions are
flows should be calculated by performing a considered to be vertical with horizontal heat
heat balance (see BS EN ISO 13789: 2007, flow.
Thermal performance of buildings —
Transmission and ventilation heat transfer Cold cavity construction
coefficients — Calculation method). This type of air cavity will not change the
layered U-value of the construction
If the above conditions do not apply, the significantly because the cavity is to the cold
procedures given in Annex B of side of the main insulation layer (Figure 2).
BS EN ISO 6946: 2007 should be followed.
Slightly ventilated air layer
The effect of ventilation depends on the size
and distribution of the ventilation openings. As
an approximation, the total thermal resistance
of a component with a slightly ventilated air
layer may be calculated as:
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Thermal and moisture performance of cavities in building envelopes TN69
Uunventilated = 0.32 W/m2K;
Uslightly ventilated = 0.56 W/m2K;
Ufully ventilated = 2.07 W/m2K.
An area of openings of 1000 mm2 is assumed
for the slightly ventilated situation.
Ventilation performance of cavities
A sealed cavity will have no provision for
drainage or ventilation so will not improve the
performance of the wall in terms of being a
secondary defence against water penetration
and vapour diffusion.
Figure 2 U-value of a layered construction A cavity that is not either vented or ventilated
with a cold cavity presents a serious risk of moisture collection.
As a comparison an insulating glass unit
For the above example; requires hermetically sealing and the provision
of a desiccant in order to remain condensation
Uunventilated = 0.32 W/m2K; free.
Uslightly ventilated = 0.33 W/m2K;
Ufully ventilated = 0.35 W/m2K. The higher the level of possible ventilation in a
cavity, the more moisture may be removed
An area of openings of 1000 mm2 is assumed from it.
for the slightly ventilated situation.
Liquid water will be removed by;
Warm cavity construction
This type of air cavity will significantly change • Drainage
the layered U-value of the construction (figure • Evaporation
3). This is because the cavity is to the warm
side of the main insulation layer meaning the Moisture vapour will be removed by;
thermal performance of the insulation layer will
be disregarded when the cavity is fully • Diffusion
ventilated. • Mass transfer.
A fully-ventilated cavity will provide the most
reliable means of removing moisture in the
cavity. The air movements will remove
moisture vapour that has migrated from the
internal environment, encourage evaporation
of any liquid water and promote drying of the
cavity.
A vented cavity will have less capacity to
remove excess moisture. It relies on the
diffusion of water vapour in the cavity. Its
performance will therefore be dependent on
the vapour resistance of all materials to the
cold side of the cavity and the size of the
openings between the cavity and the external
environment. The lower the vapour resistance
and the larger the openings, the higher the
rate of transportation will be.
Figure 3 U-value of a layered construction
with a warm cavity The removal of moisture in a vented cavity
may be increased by using a wider cavity.
For the above example: This will improve the air circulation by
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Thermal and moisture performance of cavities in building envelopes TN69
convection as there will be relatively lower on the U-value of the wall. Further information
frictional forces to resist the air movements. on insulated render systems can be found in
CWCT Technical Notes 59 and 60.
It is important that designers and contractors
are aware that the minimum cavity dimension
is the absolute minimum. Building
irregularities, insulation, and framework must
never compromise the cavity gap.
The minimum acceptable air gap should be
such as to allow any water passing the outer
skin of the construction to flow down the back
face of the without wetting the insulation or
backing wall.
A breather membrane may be placed on the
cold side of any cavity insulation in order to
Figure 4 Convection in a wide cavity protect it from direct wetting. The membrane
should be carefully selected so as not to inhibit
There may be an increased risk of material the migration of water vapour outwards
damage with vented compared to ventilated through the wall.
cavities. This is because moisture is likely to
remain in the cavity for longer periods of time.
It is for this reason that the NHBC requires a Cavity partitioning
ventilated cavity to be used with a timber
framed wall. Careful consideration should be given to the
design of the cavity, especially where other
aspects of the wall performance have to be
Cavity width taken into account. A common example of this
is where fire barriers have to be placed within
In order to achieve the desired performance, a the cavity to limit the spread of fire.
minimum cavity width must be maintained.
The CWCT ‘Standard for systemised building A vented cavity will usually only have openings
envelopes’ states minimum cavity widths for at the bottom of each storey or compartment.
different configurations of rainscreen system. Therefore any suitable fire barrier may be
These dimensions shall not be reduced by used, providing each compartment has such
more than fifty per cent at fire barriers and openings.
support rails.
A ventilated cavity allows through movement
The NHBC give advice on cavity dimensions of air, meaning openings are required at the
for external masonry walls. Their advice top and bottom of the cavity. The design of
states that increasing the cavity width for full the cavity/fire barrier therefore becomes more
cavity insulation from 50mm to 75mm or more significant. If a single cavity is required an
greatly reduces the risk of rain passing through intumescent fire barrier may be used which will
the cavity. A nominal cavity of 50mm is always allow the cavity to remain open prior to a fire.
required on the outside of partial cavity Alternatively the cavity may be completely
insulation. Cavities in timber framed walls closed at the fire barriers with ventilation
should be ventilated to avoid damaging the opening provided above and below the closer.
timber.
The NHBC also give guidance on minimum Internally ventilated cavities
cavity dimensions for insulated render
systems. For timber and steel framed backing Warm cavities that are not externally ventilated
walls a cavity of at least 15mm should be may also have openings to the internal
provided between the wall and the insulation environment. This will allow warm moist air
to allow any moisture to drain away. Where into cooler parts of the wall. Although this is a
the backing wall is timber framed the cavity warm cavity, the surfaces will be cooler than
should also be ventilated. Care should be those of the room, and therefore there will be
taken as this will have a considerable impact an increased risk of condensation.
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Thermal and moisture performance of cavities in building envelopes TN69
The risk of condensation will be minimised if References
there are sufficient openings so that the cavity
is fully ventilated to the inside. This will ensure BS EN ISO 6946: 2007, Building components
that the surfaces of the cavity are as close as and building elements – Thermal resistance
possible to the internal surface temperatures. and thermal transmittance – Calculation
method.
A typical example of this type of cavity would
be that created behind an internal fit out. This BS 5250: 2002, Code of practice for control of
may be of particular concern if the fit out is condensation in buildings.
carried out by a different contractor to that
responsible for the rest of the wall. CWCT TN33, Breather membranes and
vapour control layers in layered walls, CWCT,
2003.
CWCT TN46 Introduction to building envelope
energy transfer, CWCT, 2004
NHBC Standards, Part 6, NHBC, 2005.
CWCT, Standard for systemised building
envelopes, CWCT, 2006.
Figure 5 Warm cavity created by internal fit
out
For the example shown above it is possible
that the additional thermal insulation provided
by the internal fit out could reduce the
temperatures behind it to below the dewpoint.
Condensation will then form in the cavity,
where it may damage surfaces and floor
coverings etc.
The risk of condensation will be especially high
if the original internal surface acts as a vapour
control layer. This will prevent the passage
water vapour thus increasing the local vapour
pressure in the cavity. This in turn will require © CWCT 2009
a higher minimum surface temperature in
order to avoid the water vapour condensing. University of Bath, Claverton Down, Bath, BA2 7AY
Tel: 01225 386541; Fax: 01225 386556
Email: cwct@bath.ac.uk;
www.cwct.co.uk
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