Proof stress and strain diagram

STUDENT NAME- RAHUL BERA

UNIVERSITY ROLL NO: 34600724013

PAPER NAM: SOLID MECHANICS

PAPER CODE: PC-ME502

SEMESTER: 5th

YEAR: 3rd

STEAM:
Abstract

The study of mechanical properties of materials is a fundamental requirement in

the field of engineering design and structural analysis. One of the most significant
parameters that engineers rely upon is the yield strength, which indicates the stress
level at which a material begins to undergo plastic deformation. However, not all
materials exhibit a distinct yield point on the stress–strain curve. Materials such as
aluminium alloys, copper, and stainless steels often display a smooth transition
from the elastic to the plastic region without a sharp change in slope. In such cases,
it becomes practically difficult to determine the exact onset of yielding. To
overcome this limitation, the concept of proof stress is introduced. Proof stress is
defined as the stress required to produce a small but measurable amount of
permanent strain in the material, most commonly taken as 0.2% of the original
gauge length. For this reason, it is also popularly known as the 0.2% offset yield
strength.

The determination of proof stress is carried out using the conventional tensile test,
which provides the stress–strain curve of the material under gradually increasing
load. After obtaining the curve, a line is drawn parallel to the initial linear portion
of the graph (representing the elastic region), but offset by a strain of 0.002 along
the strain axis. The point where this line intersects the stress–strain curve is taken as
the proof stress. This method provides a convenient and standardized way of
defining yield strength, especially for materials where the elastic limit is not clearly
distinguishable. It also ensures uniformity in testing and allows meaningful
comparison of materials across industries.

The importance of proof stress in engineering applications is significant. Designers

need to ensure that the chosen material can withstand operational stresses without
undergoing undesirable permanent deformation. By adopting proof stress as a
substitute for yield strength, engineers can confidently design mechanical and
structural components such as beams, shafts, pressure vessels, railway components,
and aerospace structures. Proof stress values are widely adopted in material
standards and design codes, thereby making the concept a universal guideline for
safe and reliable material selection.

In conclusion, proof stress serves as an essential mechanical property that bridges

the gap between theoretical material behavior and practical engineering
requirements. By defining yield strength in terms of a small permanent strain, proof
stress not only provides a reliable measure of material performance but also
enhances the safety and longevity of structures and components. The adoption of
the 0.2% offset method has become a global engineering practice, highlighting the
central role of proof stress in modern material testing and structural design.
Stress-Strain Diagrams

Stress-Strain Curves for Ductile Materials

If a ductile bar of uniform cross-sectional area is subjected to gradually increasing
axial tensile force (generally is done in Universal Testing Machine) till failure of
the bar occurs, when the stress-strain curve plots the curve may be divided into
following parts:

Stress-Strain curvein ductile materials

Portion OA: This portion is absolutely straight, where the stress is

proportional to strain and the material obeys Hooke’s law (σ =E ϵ). The value
of stress at point A is called proportional limit. Portion AB: In this portion,
Hook’s law is not obeyed, although the material may still be elastic. The point
B indicates the elastic limit. Portion BC: In this portion, the metal shows a
strain even without increase in stress and the strain is not fully return when
load is removed. Portion CD: Yielding start in this portion and there is a drop
of stress at the point D directly after yielding begins at C. The point D is
termed as lower yield point and C is called upper yield point. Portion DE:
After yielding has taken place at D, further straining takes place at this portion
by increasing the stress and the stress–strain curve continues to rise up to the
point E. Strain in this portion is about 100 times that of portion O-A. At the
point E,
the bar begins to form a local neck. The point E is termed as ultimate tensile
stress point. Portion EF: In this portion, the load is falling off from the
maximum and fracture at F takes place. The point F is termed as fracture or
breaking point and the identical stress is called breaking stress. 2-Stress Strain
Curves for Brittle Materials

Materials which show very small elongation before they fracture are called
brittle materials. The shape of curve for high carbon steel, concrete and high
strength light alloys or any brittle materials is shown in fig. 3. For most brittle
materials the permanent elongation (i.e. increase in length) is less than 10%.

Principal mechanical properties

The characteristics of the materials which describe their behaviour under external
loads are known as Mechanical Properties.
Some mechanical properties are:
1 -Elasticity
Elasticity of a material is power of coming back to original position when the stress
or load is removed. The greatest stress that a material can withstand without
permanent distortion is called elastic limit.
2- Plasticity
The plasticity of a material is ability to undergo some permanent deformation
without failure. Plastic deformation will take place only after the elastic range has
been exceeded, beyond (point c). Plasticity is an important property and widely used
in several mechanical processes like forming, shaping, extruding and many other hot
and cold working processes. In general, plasticity increases with increasing
temperature.
Due to this property various metals can be transformed into different products of
required shape and size. This conversion into desired shape and size is effected either
by the application of pressure or heat or both.
3- Ductility
Ductility of a material their enables to draw out into thin wire with application the
load. Ductile material such as mild steel, wires of gold, silver, copper, aluminium, etc.
are drawn by extrusion or by pulling through a hole in a die due to the ductile
property. The ductility decreases with increase of temperature. The percent elongation
and the reduction in area in tension are often used as empirical measures of ductility.
4-Strength
It is the resistance offered by a material when subjected to external loading, so
stronger the material can be withstand with greater the load. Depending upon the type
of load applied the strength can be tensile, compressive, shear or torsional strength.
The maximum stress that any material will withstand before destruction is called its
ultimate strength (point E as shown in Fig. 1).
5- Brittleness
The brittleness of a material is the property of breaking without much permanent
distortion. There are many materials, which break or fail before much deformation
take place, such as glass, cast iron, etc. Therefore, a non-ductile material is said to be
a brittle material. A brittle material should not be considered as lacking in strength, it
is only shows the lack of elasticity. On stress-strain diagram, these materials don’t
have yield point and value of E is small.
6- Toughness
The toughness of a material is ability to withstand both plastic and elastic
deformations. It is a highly desirable quality for structural and machine parts to
withstand to shock and vibration. Manganese steel, mild steels are tough materials.
For Ex: If a load is suddenly applied to a piece of mild steel and then to a piece of
glass the mild steel will absorb much more energy before failure occurs. Thus, mild
steel is said to be much tougher than a glass.
7- Hardness
Hardness is closely related to strength. It is the ability of a material to resist
scratching, abrasion, penetration with apply external load.
8- Stiffness (Rigidity)
The resistance of a material to deflection is called stiffness or rigidity. Steel is stiffer
or more rigid than aluminium. Stiffness is measured by Young’s modulus E. The
higher value of the Young’s modulus this mean stiffer the material. E is the ratio of
stress over strain and is given by the slope of line O–A.
materials behaviour in stress strain curve
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