Created by Turbolearn AI

Geology

Rock Cycle
The rock cycle illustrates how rocks change over time through various processes.

Sedimentary Rocks: Formed at or near the Earth's surface from sediment

deposits that are compacted and cemented together.
Magmatic Rocks: Formed from the solidification of magma.
Metamorphic Rocks: Formed from pre-existing rocks that undergo
mineralogical and structural transformations while remaining in a solid state
due to high pressure, temperature, or circulating fluids.

Sedimentary Rocks
Formation involves two key phases:

Sedimentogenesis:

Encompasses physical and chemical processes that prepare materials to

form sedimentary rocks, including their transport and deposition.
Erosion: Removal of weathered materials by erosive agents.
Sedimentation: Deposition of materials, now termed sediments,
typically in horizontal layers or strata. Denser and heavier materials
deposit first.

Diagenesis:

Physical and chemical processes after sedimentation where sediments

evolve into coherent sedimentary rocks.
Sediments undergo compaction, dehydration, and cementation, binding
them together.

Magmatic and Metamorphic Rocks

Page 1
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Magmatic Rocks:

Magma, a complex mixture of molten minerals, suspended crystals, and

gases, forms within the Earth.
Being less dense than surrounding rocks, magma can rise towards the
crust and solidify.
Intrusive (Plutonic) Rocks: Formed from magma solidifying inside
the crust. Slow cooling at depth allows for large, visible mineral
development (e.g., granite).
Extrusive (Volcanic) Rocks: Formed from magma solidifying at the
surface. Rapid cooling results in small minerals and potentially
uncrystallized material (e.g., basalt).

Metamorphic Rocks:

Form when rocks are displaced to zones with different conditions.

Increased pressure, temperature, and chemical environments alter the
rocks while maintaining their solid state.

Measuring Geological Time

Relative Dating:

Based on the principle of superposition and the presence of index fossils

in strata.
Principle of Superposition: In an undeformed sedimentary
sequence, the stratum on top is younger than the one below.

Absolute (Radiometric) Dating:

Based on the decay of radioactive isotopes.

Half-life: The time it takes for half of the parent isotopes in a rock to
decay into stable daughter isotopes.

Earth: A Changing Planet

Page 2
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Catastrophism: Earth's surface changes are due to occasional catastrophes.

Uniformitarianism: Earth's surface changes are due to gradual and slow natural
processes.
Principles of Uniformitarianism:
Natural laws are constant in space and time.
Actualism: Causes of past phenomena are identical to those of the
present.
Most geological changes are gradual and slow.
Neocatastrophism: Current theory accepting uniformitarianism while
acknowledging the role of catastrophic events in shaping the Earth's surface.

Geological Mobilism
Lithosphere: Earth's rigid outer layer, consisting of the crust (continental and
oceanic) and the upper part of the mantle.
Asthenosphere: A solid but plastic layer in the upper mantle.

レート Lithospheric Plate Boundaries

Divergent Boundaries: Located at oceanic ridges where new crust is generated.
Often feature a central rift valley with material upwelling.
Convergent Boundaries: Where lithospheric plates are destroyed via
subduction. The denser plate (usually oceanic) descends under the less dense
one (continental).
Conservative Boundaries: Occur at transform faults where plates slide past
each other horizontally without creating or destroying crust.

Formation of the Solar System

Nebular Theory: A nebula of gases and dust flattened and increased its
rotation speed due to gravitational forces, forming a proto-sun at its center.
Denser material concentrated near the center, and less dense material
moved farther out.
Material collided and aggregated to form planetesimals, which continued
to collide, forming protoplanets. Further accretion and differentiation led
to the formation of planets.

Page 3
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Planets, Asteroids, and Comets

Main Planets: Orbit directly around the Sun.
Secondary Planets (Satellites): Orbit around the main planets.
Asteroids: Irregularly shaped rocky bodies mostly located between Mars and
Jupiter.
Comets: Primitive rocky bodies with highly eccentric orbits, consisting of a
nucleus, coma, and tail.
Meteoroids: Space debris that becomes incandescent when entering the
atmosphere, creating a meteor. If any part reaches the surface, it's called a
meteorite.

Meteorite Composition

Composition Percentage

Siderites (Iron)
Fe-Ni Alloys 90%
Troilite (SFe)
Cobalt
Aerolites
Olivine 40%
Pyroxenes 30%
Fe-Ni Alloys 10-20%
Plagioclases 10%
Troilite 6%
Siderolites
Silicates 50%
Ferromagnesian Minerals 50%

Earth: Accretion and Differentiation

Page 4
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Differentiation was caused by:

Heat from planetesimal impacts.

Heat from compression.
Heat from radioactive decay.

The Earth transformed from a homogeneous body into a zoned body with a
dense, iron-rich core, a mantle of intermediate density, and a crust of less dense
materials.

Atmosphere and hydrosphere also formed as a result of differentiation.

Earth-Moon System
Fission Theory: Early Earth rotated so fast that a piece broke off due to
centrifugal force, forming the Moon.
Co-accretion (Binary) Theory: Earth and Moon formed simultaneously from the
condensation of the primitive solar nebula.
Capture Theory: The Moon formed elsewhere in the solar system and was
captured by Earth's gravity.
Collision with Ejection Theory: (Most accepted theory) A large planetesimal
impact caused the ejection of material from Earth's interior and surface, which
then accreted and differentiated to form the Moon.
The Moon lacks atmosphere and hydrosphere due to low gravity. Its surface has
dark "seas" (basalts) and bright "continents" (feldspathic rocks).

Earth's Surface
Continental Areas:
Shields: Exposed rocks forming the cores of continents.
Stable Platforms: Shield areas covered by sediments.
Recent Orogenic Belts: Mountain chains from continent-continent or
ocean-continent collisions.
Oceanic Floors:

Continental vs. Oceanic Domains

Page 5
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Continental Domain:
Continental Platform: Part of the continental crust extending under the
sea.
Continental Slope: Boundary of the submerged continental domain with
a steep incline.
Oceanic Domain:
Abyssal Plains: Depths between 2500 and 6000m, sometimes with
trenches.
Ridges: Located in the mid or edge of oceans, containing a central rift
valley.

Methods to Study the Geosphere

Direct Methods:
Surface observations and studies.
Exploration of mineral deposits in mines and excavations.
Soundings.
Indirect Methods:
Planetology and Astrogeology: Techniques used to study other planets
applied to Earth.
Geophysical Methods:
Gravimetry: Study of variations in Earth's gravitational field.
Density: Comparing rock densities at various depths.
Geomagnetism: Study of changes in Earth's magnetic field.
Seismology: Study of earthquakes and seismic wave propagation.
Geothermics: Study of Earth's thermal energy.

Vulcanology

Page 6
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Eruptive Volcanism:

Volcanoes form when solid material in the mantle becomes liquid due to
pressure and temperature imbalances and rises to the surface.
Magma can fill chambers within the crust. Pressure on surrounding rocks
(country rocks) causes eruptions.
Magma rises through crustal fractures. Lava is magma that reaches the
surface.
Successive eruptions deposit lava, ash, and rock fragments around the
crater, forming the volcanic cone.
Active Volcano: Recently erupted or during historical periods.
Extinct Volcano: No recorded activity and heavily eroded.
Dormant Volcano: Not fully eroded with no recent activity.
Calderas: Large depressions at the top of volcanoes formed by the
collapse of the central part after major eruptions.
Fissure Eruptions: Lava expelled through elongated cracks.

Types of Eruptions:

Explosive Eruptions: Highly viscous lava impedes gas release, causing

violent explosions. Lava may not flow, forming domes or volcanic plugs.
Effusive Eruptions: Fluid lava allows easy gas release, resulting in calm
eruptions with abundant lava flow. Can form lava fields or lava flows.
Mixed Eruptions: Intermediate aspects between explosive and effusive
eruptions, with alternating phases.

Residual Volcanism:

Fumaroles: Emissions of gases and vapors.

Sulfataras: Abundant sulfur compounds.
Mofetas: Abundant carbon dioxide.
Geysers: Intermittent eruptions of water and steam.
Thermal Springs: Underground water heated by volcanic activity. Juvenile
waters originate from magma.

Volcanoes and Plate Tectonics:

Divergent boundaries: Predominantly effusive.

Convergent boundaries: Predominantly explosive.
Intraplate volcanism: Effusive, associated with hot spots and mantle
plumes.

Page 7
 Created by Turbolearn AI

震 Sismology
Earthquake: A sudden, vibratory movement of the Earth's crust due to energy
release, often from lithospheric plate movements.
Hypocenter (Focus): The point of energy release.
Epicenter: The surface point directly above the hypocenter.
Aftershocks: Secondary ruptures after the main shock.
Foreshocks: Weak tremors preceding the main shock.
Macroseisms: Earthquakes felt by the population.
Microseisms: Imperceptible earthquakes causing no significant damage.

Causes of Earthquakes
Tectonic Earthquakes: Due to tectonic movements.
Compressive Forces: Materials are compressed, reducing distance
between rock masses.
Extensional Forces: Stretching and elongation of material, increasing
distance between rock masses.
Shearing: Horizontal pressures causing horizontal movements and
elongation in the direction of movement.
Collapse Earthquakes: Due to cave-ins or rockslides.
Volcanic Earthquakes: Caused by pressures before eruptions and magma
movements.

Effects of Earthquakes: Seismic Waves

Page 8
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Seismic Waves: Vibratory movements propagating from the focus in concentric

surfaces.
Body Waves (Depth):
P-Waves (Primary):
Particles vibrate parallel to the direction of propagation.
Propagate through compression and expansion.
Travel through all media (solids, liquids, gases).
S-Waves (Secondary):
Particles vibrate perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
Only travel through solids.
Surface Waves (L-Waves):
Rayleigh and Love Waves: Result from the interference of P and S
waves.
Love Waves: Particles vibrate horizontally.
Rayleigh Waves: Particles move elliptically.

Seismogram
Used to determine epicentral distance.
Formula for epicentral distance (for distances > 100km):

DE = [(S − P ) − 1] ∗ 1000

Where:

DE is the epicentral distance in kilometers

S is the arrival time of the S wave

P is the arrival time of the P wave

レート Earthquakes and Plate Tectonics

Convergent Boundaries
Intraplate Regions
Divergent Boundaries
Transform Boundaries

Internal Discontinuities of the Geosphere

Page 9
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Seismic wave velocity changes with depth depending on the composition and
physical properties of the materials.
Seismic wave velocity increases with material rigidity and decreases with
density.
Mohorovicic Discontinuity: Separates the crust from the mantle.
Gutenberg Discontinuity: Separates the mantle from the outer core.
Wiechert/Lehmann Discontinuity: Separates the outer core from the
inner core.
Seismic Shadow Zone: Area between 103º and 143º epicentral angles where
direct P and S waves are not received.

Internal Structure of the Geosphere

Composition-Based Structure:
Crust: Metamorphic rocks, granites, sedimentary rocks, and basalt.
Mantle: Peridotites.
Core: Iron and nickel.
Physical Properties-Based Structure:
Lithosphere: Solid and rigid.
Asthenosphere: Solid but less rigid and plastic.
Mesosphere: Rigid.
Outer Core: Liquid.
Inner Core: Solid.

Biology

Biosphere
Living Being: An organism that uses energy and matter, reacts to
environmental changes, reproduces, and has a cellular structure.
Characteristics: Born, reproduce, die, react to stimuli, maintain internal
consistency, interact with the environment, and have cellular structure.
Trophic relationships form the basis of ecosystem evolution.
Matter cycles constantly between biotic and abiotic ecosystem components.
Energy is transferred unidirectionally and does not re-enter biotic components.

Biological Organization

Page 10
 Created by Turbolearn AI

1. Atom: Fundamental unit of matter.

2. Molecule: Structure of atoms.
3. Cell: Basic unit of life.
4. Tissue: Group of similar, interdependent cells performing one or more
functions.
5. Organ: Group of tissues interacting to perform one or more functions.
6. Organ System: Group of organs performing specific functions together.
7. Organism: Group of interdependent organ systems functioning as a whole.
8. Population: Group of organisms of the same species in a defined area at a given
time.
9. Community: Group of organisms of various species interacting in a defined area
at a given time.
10. Ecosystem: All living organisms and their interactions within a specific
environment.
11. Biosphere: All life forms on Earth.

Cellular Basis of Life

Cell Theory:
The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all living beings.
All cells come from pre-existing cells.
The cell is the unit of reproduction, development, and heredity.
Cellular Organization:
Prokaryotic Cells: Lack a defined, organized nucleus.
Eukaryotic Cells: Have an organized nucleus delimited by a nuclear
membrane.
Animal vs. Plant Cells: Plant cells possess a cell wall, plastids
(chloroplasts), and vacuoles, whereas animal cells lack plastids and
cell walls, and have small vacuoles (if present).

Cellular Constituents

Page 11
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Cell Membrane (Plasma Membrane): Regulates exchanges between intra- and

extracellular environments.
Cytoplasm: Contains organelles responsible for cellular activities. The
cytoplasm has a semifluid matrix, the hyaloplasm.
Mitochondria: Organelles where aerobic respiration occurs, producing ATP
(energy).
Golgi Complex: Stack of flattened sacs associated with spherical vesicles,
storing secretory substances.
Lysosomes: Small spherical vesicles from the Golgi complex containing
digestive enzymes.
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): Communication pathway within the cell, a
network of flattened sacs and vesicles.
Rough ER: Contains ribosomes for protein synthesis.
Smooth ER: Lacks ribosomes.
Vacuoles: Cavities delimited by a membrane, usually containing water and
dissolved substances. Sites of intracellular digestion.
Inclusions:
Lipid Inclusions: Liquid droplets or solid particles.
Secretion Granules: Substances secreted by glandular cells.
Cilia and Flagella: Locomotory organelles. Cilia are numerous and thin, while
flagella are long and few.
Plastids: Dynamic organelles found only in algae and plant cells, involved in
various types of metabolism.
Chloroplasts: Ovoid organelles containing photosynthetic pigments,
primarily chlorophyll, giving them a green color.
Nucleus: Contains the information that regulates cellular activities, delimited by
a nuclear envelope.
Cell Wall: Present in some cells, external to the cell membrane, made of
cellulose.

Biomolecules: Molecules of Life

Page 12
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Functions of Nutrients:
Energy supply
Cell renewal
Substance replacement
Regulation
Cell multiplication
Inorganic Compounds: Water and minerals.
Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.

Water
Involved in chemical reactions as an essential metabolite.
Acts as a diffusion medium.
Regulates temperature.
Participates in hydrolysis reactions.
Excellent solvent (the "universal solvent").

Organic Compounds
Macromolecules, often polymers, consisting of chains of basic units
(monomers).
Synthesis and Hydrolysis of Polymers:
Monomers join to form polymers through condensation reactions,
releasing water.
Polymers break down into monomers through hydrolysis reactions,
consuming water.

Carbohydrates or Glúcidos
Ternary compounds of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen (COH).
Types of Glúcidos:
Monosaccharides: Structural units classified by the number of carbon
atoms.
Oligosaccharides: 2 to 10 monosaccharides linked together.
Polysaccharides: Polymers of monosaccharides (e.g., cellulose, starch,
glycogen).

Page 13
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Glúcidos

Type Description

Monosaccharides Simple sugars like glucose, ribose, and deoxyribose.

Oligosaccharides Short chains of monosaccharides.
Complex carbohydrates like cellulose (plant cell walls), starch
Polysaccharides
(plant storage), and glycogen (animal storage).

Biological Importance of Glúcidos

Structural function.
Energy function.

脂肪 Lípidos
Poorly soluble in water, soluble in organic solvents.
Types of Lípidos:
Fats: Reserve lipids composed of three fatty acids and glycerol.
Phospholipids: Structural function in membranes, containing carbon,
oxygen, hydrogen, phosphorus, and nitrogen. They are amphipathic
molecules with hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions.

Biological Importance of Lípidos

Energy reserve.
Structural function.
Protective function.
Vitamin and hormonal function.

蛋白質 Prótidos

Page 14
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Quaternary compounds of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen.

Amino acids are the building blocks, linked by condensation reactions to form
peptides and proteins.
Amino acids contain an amine group (NH2) and a carboxyl group (COOH)
attached to the same carbon.
Peptides: Amino acids linked by peptide bonds.
Proteins: Macromolecules composed of one or more polypeptide chains.
Primary Structure: Linear sequence of amino acids.
Secondary Structure: Polypeptide chain coiled into a helix.
Tertiary Structure: Helix folds and coils upon itself, becoming globular.
Quaternary Structure: Multiple globular polypeptide chains interact.

Biological Importance of Proteins

Structural function
Enzymatic function
Transport function
Hormonal function
Immunological function
Motor function
Food reserve function

DNA Ácidos Nucleicos

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)
RNA (Ribonucleic Acid)
Chemical Nature:
Phosphate group
Pentoses (deoxyribose and ribose)
Nitrogenous bases

DNA vs RNA

Page 15
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Feature DNA RNA

Acid Phosphoric acid Phosphoric acid

Sugar Deoxyribose Ribose
Nitrogen Adenine, thymine, guanine, Adenine, uracil, guanine,
Bases cytosine cytosine
Nucleic acids are nucleotide polymers.

Biological Importance of Nucleic Acids

DNA is the universal carrier of hereditary information.
DNA and RNA participate in protein synthesis.

Obtaining Matter: Heterotrophy

Autotrophic Beings: Capable of producing organic matter from inorganic
substances.
Heterotrophic Beings: Must obtain organic molecules from other organic
matter.
Constant flow from autotrophs (producers) to heterotrophs (consumers).
Decomposers transform organic matter into inorganic matter used by producers.

Exchange of Matter Between Cells and the Environment

Cell Membrane Functions:
Separation barrier between intra- and extracellular environments.
Exchange surface for substances, energy, and information.
Membranes are lipoprotein complexes, often containing carbohydrates.
Lípidos

Cell Membrane Structure

The cell membrane is primarily composed of phospholipids, along with glycolipids,
both of which have a polar, hydrophilic end and an apolar, hydrophobic end.
Membrane proteins also have both hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions.

Historical Models

Page 16
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Sandwich Model (Danielli and Davson, 1952)

Fluid Mosaic Model (Singer and Nicholson, 1972) - The currently accepted
model.

Phospholipid Bilayer
Phospholipids form a bilayer in water, with polar heads facing the intra- and
extracellular environments and hydrophobic tails facing each other.

Danielli and Davson Model: The phospholipid bilayer stabilizes hydrophobic

chains, and proteins bind to the hydrophilic ends of lipids. Interruptions in the
bilayer create passages for ions and polar substances, while nonpolar
substances pass directly through the bilayer.
Singer and Nicholson Model: Protein molecules (intrinsic proteins) are
inserted into the phospholipid bilayer. Other proteins (peripheral or extrinsic
proteins) are on the membrane surface. Carbohydrates attached to proteins
form glycoproteins, and those attached to lipids form glycolipids.

Membranes are not static; both phospholipids and proteins exhibit movement, with
phospholipids showing lateral mobility.

Selective Permeability
A fundamental property of the membrane is its selective permeability, which
facilitates the passage of certain substances while hindering others. Cells constantly
exchange substances with their environment through various mechanisms,
depending on the substances' configuration.

Membrane Transport Mechanisms

Mediated Transport
Involves permeases (specific membrane proteins).

Page 17
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Facilitated Diffusion: Substances cross the membrane along the concentration

gradient (from high to low concentration) without the cell expending energy.
This process is faster than simple diffusion and involves permeases that bind to
the transported substances. The process includes:
1. Combination of the molecule with the permease on the membrane's
external face.
2. Passage of the molecule through the membrane and separation from the
permease.
3. Return of the permease to its initial form.
Active Transport: Transports substances against the concentration gradient,
requiring energy and involving transport proteins.

Bulk Transport
Endocytosis: Material is enclosed by invagination of the plasma membrane,
forming an endocytic vesicle.
Phagocytosis: Inclusion of molecular aggregates via pseudopods ("false
feet") that surround the material, creating a phagocytic vesicle.
Pinocytosis: Substances enter in solution.
Exocytosis: The reverse process of endocytosis.

Non-Mediated Transport
Simple Diffusion: Particles move from areas of higher concentration to areas of
lower concentration until a uniform distribution is achieved. Movement is driven
by thermal agitation.
Osmosis: Movement of water through a semi-permeable membrane
(permeable to solvent but not solutes) from a hypotonic to a hypertonic
medium.

Osmosis in Detail

Page 18
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Water moves from a hypotonic medium (lower solute concentration) to a

hypertonic medium (higher solute concentration) until the concentrations
equalize, creating isotonic media.
In plant cells:
Turgid: When a plant cell absorbs water via osmosis and reaches
equilibrium. The cell contents exert turgor pressure, balanced by the cell
wall's resistance.
Plasmolysis: When a plant cell loses water in a hypertonic solution, the
cytoplasm contracts and remains attached to the cell wall by Hecht's
filaments.

Concentration Gradients Explained

Hypertonic: A solution with a higher concentration of solutes compared to
another.

Hypotonic: A solution with a lower concentration of solutes compared to

another.

Isotonic: Solutions with equal concentrations of solutes.

Ingestion, Digestion, and Absorption

Ingestion: Introduction of food into the organism.
Digestion: Transformation of complex food molecules into simpler molecules
through hydrolysis reactions catalyzed by enzymes.
Absorption: Passage of substances resulting from digestion into the internal
environment.

Types of Digestion

Page 19
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Intracellular Digestion: Cells engulf food particles via endocytosis. Enzyme

proteins formed in the endoplasmic reticulum are incorporated into vesicles like
lysosomes, which transport them to the Golgi complex, forming a digestive
vacuole where digestion occurs. In unicellular organisms, digestion can occur
through pseudopods.
Extracellular Digestion: Can be extracorporal (e.g., fungi secreting enzymes to
digest food externally) or intracorporal. A complete digestive tube has two
openings (mouth and anus), while an incomplete tube has only one.

Advantages of a Complete Digestive Tube

Food moves in one direction, allowing sequential digestion and absorption.
Digestion occurs in multiple organs with different enzymes and mechanical
treatments.
More efficient absorption along the tube.
Undigested residues accumulate and are expelled through the anus.

Obtaining Matter - Autotrophy

Photosynthesis: Requires light energy; performed by photoautotrophic
organisms.
Chemosynthesis: Requires chemical energy; performed by chemoautotrophic
organisms.

Both processes transform inorganic matter into organic matter.

ATP: The Cell's Energy Currency

ATP (adenosine triphosphate) consists of:

Adenine (nitrogenous base)

Ribose (five-carbon sugar)
Three phosphate groups (inorganic compounds)

Hydrolysis of ATP releases a phosphate group, forming ADP (adenosine

diphosphate). Further hydrolysis forms AMP (adenosine monophosphate).

ATP hydrolysis is exoenergetic (releases energy).

ATP formation from ADP and phosphate is endoenergetic (requires energy).

Page 20
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Exoenergetic reactions at the cellular level form ATP, while endoenergetic reactions
use the energy transferred during ATP hydrolysis.

Photosynthesis Detailed

$12H_2O + 6CO_2 \xrightarrow{light, chlorophylls} C_6H_{12}O_6 + 6O_2 + 6H_2O$

Photosynthetic organisms capture water and carbon dioxide from the environment
and synthesize organic matter using light energy. Chloroplasts are found in plant
leaves, and stomata regulate water and gas exchange.

Chloroplast Structure
Chloroplasts: Organelles delimited by a membrane similar to the plasma
membrane. The inner membrane forms thylakoids, which contain
photosynthetic pigments. Thylakoids are immersed in the stroma, which
contains starches and lipids.

Photosynthetic Pigments

Pigment Type Color Distribution

Chlorophyll a Green Plants, algae, some bacteria

Chlorophyll b Green Plants, green algae
Chlorophyll c Green Brown algae, diatoms
Chlorophyll d Green Red algae
Carotenes Orange Photosynthetic organisms (except bacteria)
Xanthophylls Yellow Brown algae, diatoms
Phycoerythrin Red Red algae, some bacteria
Phycocyanin Blue Red algae, some bacteria

Phases of Photosynthesis

Photochemical Phase

Page 21
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Light energy is captured and converted into biologically usable energy.

Photolysis of Water: Water molecules are split into oxygen (released),

hydrogen ions, and electrons in the presence of light. Water is the primary
electron donor.

light
+ − 1
H2O
− → 2H + 2e + O2
2

Oxidation of Chlorophyll a: Chlorophyll a, excited by light energy, emits

electrons and becomes oxidized.
Electron Flow: Electrons pass through transport chains, reducing their energy
level. This energy phosphorylates ADP to ATP (photophosphorylation).
Reduction of NADP+: Protons from water photolysis and electrons from the
transport chain reduce NADP+ (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate)
to NADPH.

Chemical Phase (Calvin Cycle)

Reactions that do not depend on light, where CO₂ is integrated into organic
compounds.

Chemosynthesis Explained
Chemosynthesis uses energy from the oxidation of mineral compounds rather than
solar energy. Mineral compounds are the primary electron donors instead of water.

Plant Transport Systems

Two groups of plants:

Non-vascular plants: Poorly differentiated organisms without conductive

tissues.
Vascular plants without seeds: Have conductive tissues and greater
differentiation.

Later evolved:

Vascular plants with seeds

Vascular plants with flowers

Page 22
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Location of Transport Systems

Vascular plants have a double system for conducting water and solutes using
specialized tissues in conductive bundles, located in all plant organs. These include:

Xylem: Specialized for conducting water and minerals (xylem sap or raw sap).
Phloem: Specialized for transporting organic substances in water (phloem sap
or elaborated sap).

Xylem Components
The most important conductive elements are the xylem vessels. Each is formed by a
series of dead cells placed end-to-end, with transverse walls that have disappeared
partially or totally. Lateral walls have thickenings of lignin, an impermeable
substance.

Phloem Components
The conductive elements are the sieve tubes, formed by sieve cells. These are living
cells with cellulose walls, elongated and placed end-to-end, where transverse walls
have perforations forming sieve plates. Companion cells are also present in the
phloem.

Root, Stem, and Leaf Bundle Arrangement 🪴

Roots: Simple and alternating conductive bundles (xylem or phloem only,
placed alternately).
Stems: Double and collateral bundles (xylem and phloem placed side by side).
Leaves: Double and collateral bundles, with the xylem facing the upper side.

Leaf Structure
The outer surface of leaves has a layer of living cells forming the epidermis. The
internal structure includes conductive tissues and chlorophyll-containing tissue
(mesophyll) with photosynthetic cells. The epidermis has stomata, structures formed
by guard cells that delimit an opening (ostiole) connecting to an internal space
(stomatic chamber). Gas exchange occurs through the stomata.

Page 23
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Water and Solute Absorption

The efficiency of water uptake by the root is due to root hairs (extensions of
epidermal cells) that increase the contact area with the soil. The solute concentration
inside root cells is higher than outside, so water enters by osmosis into the xylem
vessels. Mineral ions enter root cells by simple diffusion or active transport (against
the concentration gradient), requiring energy.

Xylem Transport
Plants lose a large amount of water as vapor through leaves and other organs, which
is replaced by water transported from the root to the leaves via the xylem. Dissolved
substances are passively transported in the xylem.

Root Pressure Hypothesis

Osmotic forces in the root create pressure that drives water up the xylem. Active
transport of ions into the root increases solute potential, causing water to move in.
The accumulation of water generates root pressure, forcing water up the xylem.
When root pressure is high, water can be released in the leaves via guttation.

Tension-Cohesion-Adhesion Hypothesis
Mesophyll cells lose water, creating a water deficit and negative pressure
(tension). Solute concentration and osmotic pressure increase.
Mesophyll cells become hypertonic relative to the xylem and pass water to
these cells.
Water molecules remain united by cohesion (between water molecules) and
adhesion (between water and xylem), forming a continuous column adhering to
vessel walls.
Water movement in the mesophyll moves the water column (transpiration
stream). Faster transpiration means faster ascent.
Water ascent creates a water deficit in the root xylem, increasing water flow
from the outside into the plant.
Water flows passively from areas of higher water potential to areas of lower
water potential.

Page 24
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Transpiration Control
The guard cell walls contacting the ostiole are thicker than those contacting the
epidermis, making them more elastic. This allows the stoma to open or close based
on guard cell turgidity.

Turgid cells: Increased volume causes turgor pressure on the cell wall,
distending the thin wall area and opening the stoma.
Flaccid cells: Water loss causes the stoma to return to its original shape and
close.

Phloem Transport
Substances produced in photosynthetic organs are transported through phloem
tissues. Phloem sap consists of sugars (mainly sucrose) and other substances.

Mass Flow Hypothesis (Münch)

Phloem transport occurs due to a sucrose concentration gradient between a source
(where sucrose is produced) and a sink (consumption or storage location).

Glucose made in photosynthetic organs is converted to sucrose.

Sucrose enters the phloem via active transport.
Solute concentration increases in the phloem, raising osmotic pressure higher
than surrounding cells.
Water moves from these cells into the sieve tubes, increasing turgor pressure.
Turgor pressure moves water to areas of low osmotic pressure.
Sucrose is removed from the phloem to consumption or storage locations via
active transport.
As sucrose leaves, water exits the sieve tubes via osmosis into surrounding
cells.
In consumption or storage organs, sucrose is converted to glucose.

Animal Transport Systems

All animal cells are surrounded by interstitial fluid, which facilitates material
exchange. Simpler animals lack specialized transport systems, relying on simple
diffusion. Larger animals have specialized organs for substance transport.

Page 25
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Components of a Transport System

Circulating fluid (e.g., blood)
Blood-propelling organ (e.g., heart)
System of vessels or spaces for fluid circulation

Blood + Interstitial Fluid = Internal Environment

Functions of the Circulatory System

Nutrient transport
Oxygen transport from respiratory surfaces to living cells
Removal of cellular metabolic waste
Hormone transport from endocrine glands to target cells
Defense against foreign bodies
Distribution of metabolic heat

Types of Transport Systems

Open Transport Systems: Blood directly bathes cells, exiting vessels.
Closed Transport Systems: Blood remains within vessels throughout its
circulation.

Vertebrate Transport
Features a closed transport system with a ventrally located heart.

Simple Circulation 🫀
Example: Fish
The heart has two chambers: one atrium and one ventricle.
Only venous blood passes through the heart once per circulation.

Venous blood enters the atrium, which propels it into the ventricle. The ventricle
pumps the blood to the gills, where it is oxygenated and then passes to the dorsal
aorta, branching to the body. Blood pressure decreases after passing through gill
capillaries, resulting in slower flow to other organs.

Page 26
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Double Incomplete Circulation ‍

Example: Amphibians
The heart has three chambers: two atria and one ventricle.
The right atrium receives venous blood from organs, and the left atrium receives
arterial blood from the lungs.

Blood passes through the heart twice in two different pathways:

Pulmonary Circulation: Blood from the ventricle goes to the lungs for
oxygenation, returning to the left atrium via pulmonary veins.
Systemic Circulation: Blood from the ventricle goes to all organs, returning to
the right atrium as venous blood.

Partial mixing of venous and arterial blood can occur in the ventricle.

Double Complete Circulation ‍

Example: Mammals
The heart has four chambers: two atria and two ventricles.
No blood mixing occurs.

The oxygenation of blood reaching cells is higher, allowing greater energy capacity.
Capillary walls are very thin, facilitating substance exchange. Arteries have thick,
elastic walls, while veins have flaccid and thinner walls than arteries.

Cardiac Dynamics
The heart generates pressure that drives blood flow. Valves ensure unidirectional
flow, preventing backflow. Rhythmic contractions (systole) and relaxations (diastole)
create pressure differences for blood circulation.

Blood Pressure
The pressure exerted by blood on vessel walls is highest in arteries, decreasing
through arterioles and capillaries, and nearly zero in the vena cava.

Blood pressure is determined by:

Page 27
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Pressure exerted by ventricles during systole

Resistance offered by arterioles to flow

Mechanisms for Venous Return

Skeletal muscles compress veins, increasing pressure on the blood.
Valves prevent backflow.
Respiratory movements.
Pressure decrease in atria during diastole.

Circulating Fluids: Blood

Consists of:

Plasma (water, proteins, and transported substances)

Cellular elements:
Erythrocytes (red blood cells) - Transport carbon dioxide and oxygen
Leukocytes (white blood cells) - Defend the organism
Platelets - Facilitate coagulation

Circulating Fluids: Lymph

Not in direct contact with cells; instead, cells are bathed in interstitial lymph (a clear,
transparent fluid).

Due to the structure of blood capillaries, substance exchange between blood and
interstitial lymph is facilitated. The movement of materials into and out of capillaries
is regulated by blood pressure and osmotic pressure differences.

Blood pressure forces plasma and small dissolved molecules through capillary
walls into the tissues, joining the interstitial lymph. Leukocytes also exit blood
capillaries and join the interstitial lymph.
Excess interstitial lymph diffuses into lymphatic capillaries, becoming
circulating lymph.

Lymph also has defense functions through its leukocytes.

Diapedesis: The process by which leukocytes cross capillary walls.

Page 28
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Cellular Metabolism
Materials arriving at cells enable numerous chemical reactions and energy transfers,
constituting cellular metabolism.

Anabolism: Endoenergetic reactions that synthesize complex molecules from

simpler ones.
Catabolism: Exoenergetic reactions that degrade complex molecules into
simpler ones.

ATP formation is ensured by endoenergetic processes that transfer energy from

organic compounds, partially available in ATP molecules.

Fermentation vs. Aerobic Respiration

Glycolysis: A common step in both fermentation and aerobic respiration. It is a
sequence of chemical reactions where a glucose molecule (6 carbons) is broken down
into two pyruvic acid molecules (3 carbons each). Glycolysis releases energy to
synthesize two ATP molecules from two ADP and two inorganic phosphates,
occurring in the cytoplasm.

Feature Fermentation Aerobic Respiration

Chemical process leading to incomplete

Catabolic pathway with
Process oxidation of organic substances (e.g.,
oxygen.
glucose) without oxygen.
Glycolysis: Forms pyruvic
Initial Step Glycolysis: Forms pyruvic acid.
acid.
Reduced directly or indirectly, forming
Enters mitochondria for a
organic compounds still rich in energy
Pyruvic Acid sequence of redox reactions
(e.g., ethanol and CO₂ in alcoholic
Fate with oxygen as the final
fermentation, lactic acid in lactic
electron acceptor.
fermentation).
End Ethanol and CO (alcoholic), Lactic acid
and H
2
CO2 2O
Products (lactic)
Energy Yield 2 ATP molecules per glucose molecule. 38 ATP molecules.
Main ATP
--- Mitochondria.
Production

Page 29
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Mitochondria and Aerobic Respiration

Pyruvic acid molecules entering the mitochondrial matrix are oxidized and
decarboxylated, forming an intermediate compound involved in the Krebs cycle. The
synthesis of two ATP molecules occurs per degraded glucose molecule.

Hydrogen-carrying molecules transfer captured electrons to electron transport chains

(respiratory chains) in the inner mitochondrial membrane. Electrons flow from the
last carrier to oxygen, which captures protons to form water. Part of the transferred
energy synthesizes ATP molecules (oxidative phosphorylation).

Gas Exchange in Multicellular Organisms

Multicellular organisms with aerobic respiration have a constant flow of oxygen into
cells and CO₂ removal to the outside. In plants, gas exchange occurs mainly through
stomata. In animals, gas exchange occurs through direct or indirect diffusion at
respiratory surfaces.

Direct Diffusion: Respiratory gases pass directly from the respiratory surface to
cells.
Indirect Diffusion: Respiratory gases pass from the respiratory surface to a
circulating fluid and then to cells.

Types of Respiratory Surfaces 🫁

Integument: The body surface is richly vascularized, allowing indirect diffusion.
Tracheal System: Consists of a network of tracheae (spiracle → trachea →
tracheole) branching into finer tubes throughout the body. Air circulates in the
tracheal system, enabling direct diffusion to cells.
Gills: Highly vascularized respiratory surfaces with a large area for indirect
diffusion. In many fish, gills are housed in branchial chambers on either side of
the head.
Pulmonary System: Lungs have numerous alveoli with thin, vascularized walls
for efficient indirect gas exchange.

Animal Regulation: Nervous and Hormonal

Page 30
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Homeostasis: Maintaining internal conditions within life-compatible limits.

Homeostatic mechanisms ensure minimal internal condition fluctuations despite
significant external changes.

Nervous Coordination
Utilizes a network of neurons and information circulation. Organisms communicate
with and react to the environment through the nervous system.

Vertebrate Nervous System

Central Nervous System: Brain and spinal cord (protected by skeletal
formations).
Peripheral Nervous System: Nerves.

Neural Coordination

Hypothalamus-Pituitary Connection
The hypothalamus is the main coordinator of homeostasis in vertebrates. It connects
to the pituitary gland via a pedicle, which contains blood vessels and nerve
formations.

Neural Pathways
Afferent pathways: Nerve pathways that transmit messages from receptors to
nerve centers.
Efferent pathways: Nerve pathways that transmit messages from nerve
centers to effectors.

Nerve Structure
A nerve fiber consists of the axon or certain dendrites of a nerve cell. Nerve fibers
can form bundles surrounded by membranes, where blood vessels circulate. Nerves
are made up of several groups of these fiber bundles, enclosed by a membrane.

Page 31
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Nerve Impulse
Nerve impulse (or influx): Information circulating along neurons.

Transmission of nerve impulse: Neurons have a transmembrane electrical

potential difference between the outer and inner faces of the membrane.

This difference is the resting potential, resulting from an unequal

distribution of ions on both sides of the membrane.

When a stimulus occurs, ionic movements are triggered across the membrane,
causing a local change in membrane potential – action potential.

Action potential: A sharp and localized reversal of membrane

polarization, making the interior of the membrane positive relative to the
exterior.

This process advances sequentially, causing a new polarity reversal in the immediate
vicinity, thus propagating the nerve message. Upon reaching the end of the axon, the
nerve impulse passes to another cell (neuron or effector cell).

Transmission of Nerve Messages

Nerve information is transmitted at a synapse, where there is no direct contact
between cells.

In the pre-synaptic cell, there are vesicles storing substances produced

by neurons called neurotransmitters.

When the nerve impulse reaches the pre-synaptic cell, the vesicles fuse with the
membrane and release the neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft. The
neurotransmitters bind to specific receptors on the post-synaptic membrane.

Hormonal Coordination

Hormones

Page 32
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Hormones are organic molecules produced by endocrine glands that are

released directly into the blood and act only on target cells, where
specific receptors for a given hormone exist.

The binding of a hormone to specific receptors on the target cell triggers

corresponding physiological responses. Hormones contribute to maintaining the
integrity of the organism.

Neuro-Hormonal Integration
Most physiological processes, such as homeostatic mechanisms, are regulated by the
nervous system and the hormonal system, which interact through the hypothalamus-
pituitary complex, triggering specific responses.

Homeostatic Mechanisms

Thermoregulation
Thermoregulation is a set of mechanisms that maintain body temperature
when there is considerable variation in external temperature, which
influences metabolic chemical reactions.

Homeothermic/endothermic animals: Body temperature is practically constant

and depends on the metabolic rate.
Poikilothermic/exothermic/ectothermic animals: Body temperature depends
on external heat sources (varies with the external temperature).

Control of Thermoregulation
Thermoregulation is controlled by the nervous system and sometimes by the
hormonal system.

A thermoregulation system consists of:

Page 33
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Superficial thermal receptors of a nervous nature.

Information messenger system consisting of sensitive or afferent nerves.
Regulatory center, the hypothalamus, receives information and activates
responses.
Messenger system: motor or efferent nerves that conduct messages from the
hypothalamus to the effector organs.
Effector organs that trigger actions to correct deviations caused by detected
changes.

Osmoregulation
Osmoregulation is a set of mechanisms that control the concentrations of
water and solutes, i.e., the osmotic pressure of the internal environment.

Osmoconformers: Animals that do not have the ability to regulate the osmotic
pressure of the internal environment, which varies according to the osmotic
pressure of the external environment.
Osmoregulators: Animals that have the ability to control internal osmotic
pressure in the face of variations in external osmotic pressure. This function is
performed by the excretory system.

Osmoregulation in Vertebrates

Environment Characteristics

The internal environment is hypertonic relative to the external. Water

moves into the body by osmosis. Does not drink water. Possesses
Freshwater
well-developed glomeruli where a large amount of water is filtered –
very dilute urine.
The internal environment is hypotonic relative to the external, so
Marine there is water loss by osmosis. Ingests salt water and excretes
Environment excess salts by active transport. Glomeruli are reduced or non-
existent to reduce water loss by filtration.
Water loss through evaporation. Osmoregulation mechanisms focus
Terrestrial
on conserving water from the internal environment.

Birds lose a lot of water due to their metabolic rate and produce hypertonic urine
relative to the internal environment to compensate for this loss.

Page 34
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Osmoregulatory Organs
The elimination of waste and regulation of osmotic pressure in any excretory system
is ensured by: filtration, reabsorption, and secretion.

Earthworm Excretory System

Consists of a pair of organs called nephridia in each body segment. Each nephridium
is made up of a tubule open at both ends and quite coiled. The internal end is the
ciliated funnel, and the external end is an excretory pore at the level of the next
segment. Around each nephridium, there is a network of blood capillaries.

The ciliated funnel collects body fluid.

The fluid moves along the tubule, and necessary substances are reabsorbed
into the capillaries; excretions are secreted from the blood.

The nephridia produce abundant and diluted urine, compensating for the excess
water that enters through the skin by osmosis, thus performing osmoregulation.

Human Kidneys
Three regions in the structure of the kidney:

Cortical zone: The most superficial, light, and granular layer.

Medullary zone: The more internal region, with a slightly striated appearance,
consisting of pyramid-shaped structures.
Renal pelvis: The central zone where the pyramid-shaped structures converge,
from which the ureter originates.

Nephron
The nephron is the basic unit of the kidney, consisting of a uriniferous
tubule and associated blood vessels.

Structure of a uriniferous tubule:

Page 35
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Bowman's capsule: The initial zone, cup-shaped, with a double wall, located in
the cortical zone.
Proximal convoluted tubule: The tubular portion following Bowman's capsule,
also located in the cortical zone.
Loop of Henle: The "U"-shaped portion of the uriniferous tubule, consisting of a
descending limb and an ascending limb, both located in the medullary zone of
the kidney.
Distal convoluted tubule: The terminal zone of the uriniferous tubule located in
the cortex.

Several uriniferous tubules end in a collecting tubule.

Vascular portion of the nephron:

Glomerulus of Malpighi: Results from the capillarization of an afferent arteriole

inside Bowman's capsule.
Peritubular capillary network: Located around the uriniferous tubule.

Processes underlying urine formation:

Filtration: Occurs in Bowman's capsule. Plasma passes through the walls of

the glomerular capillaries and the inner wall of the capsule into the uriniferous
tubule.
Reabsorption: Occurs in the convoluted tubules and the loop of Henle. Water
passes into the blood by osmosis, mineral salts by diffusion and active
transport, and glucose and urea by diffusion.
Secretion: The cells of the uriniferous tubule wall secrete substances from the
plasma to be excreted. Occurs at the level of the distal convoluted tubule and
the collecting tubule.

Plant Hormones
Plant growth and development are influenced by light, gravity, contact with other
plants or objects, etc. As a response, they perform movements called tropisms.
These can be gravitropisms or phototropisms.

Action of Phytohormones

Page 36
 Created by Turbolearn AI

The first portion of the seedling that emerges from the soil is the coleoptile, which
can be sensitive to light. The apex of the coleoptile controls the growth and response
of the seedling in relation to light. This control is exerted by a hormone (auxin)
produced in the apex.

Effects of Plant Hormones

Hormone Actions

Stimulate cell elongation, root formation, and the start of flowering and
Auxins
fruiting in certain plants. Inhibit leaf and fruit drop.
Stimulate stem elongation, seed germination, flowering in some plants,
Gibberellins
and fruit development.
Stimulates fruit ripening and the fall of leaves, flowers, and fruits.
Ethylene
Inhibits the growth of roots and lateral buds.
Stimulate cell division and the development of lateral buds. Prolong the
Cytokinins life of leaves, flowers, and fruits. Inhibit root formation and retard leaf
fall.
Abscisic Stimulates root formation and the closing of stomata. Inhibits seed
Acid germination.

Flowering Process
Photoperiod refers to the number of hours of daily illumination.

Short-night plants, corresponding to long-day plants.

Long-night plants, corresponding to short-day plants.

Short-night plants: Flowering occurs when the duration of the night is less than or
equal to the critical period of darkness. The critical period of darkness marks a
maximum number of hours of continuous darkness for plants to flower.

Long-night plants: Flowering occurs when the duration of the night is greater than
or equal to the critical period of darkness. The critical period of darkness marks a
minimum number of hours of continuous darkness for plants to flower.

Application of Phytohormones for Economic Purposes

Page 37
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Hormone Actions

Eliminate weeds in cereal crops (chemical weeding). Promote uniform

Auxins
flowering and fruiting in orchards. Inhibit the production of lateral buds.
Stimulate seed germination, for example, of cereals. Increase the size
Gibberellins and separation of berries in grape bunches. Increase the flowering of
certain ornamental plants. Control the size of stems.
Stimulates the start of flowering in plantations, for example, of
Ethylene pineapple. Stimulates, over the years, the maturation of fruits harvested
green and kept in an atmosphere with carbon dioxide.

Cellular Growth and Renewal

Universality and Variability of DNA

Differences exist at the level of the amount of DNA that constitutes the genetic
information, the organization, and the location of DNA in the cell between
prokaryotes and eukaryotes.

In prokaryotes, DNA is found in the hyaloplasm as a circular molecule without

associated constituents – the nucleoid.

The nucleus of eukaryotic cells is separated from the cytoplasm by the nuclear
envelope, which consists of a double membrane.

At certain locations, the two membranes fuse, forming nuclear

pores that regulate the movement of macromolecules between the
nucleus and the cytoplasm. The nuclear envelope is continuous with
the rough endoplasmic reticulum.

Within the nucleus, nucleoli may exist – regions composed of nucleic acids and
proteins. The fundamental substance of the nucleus is the nucleoplasm.

The nucleus contains chromatin, a fibrous and easily stainable material

made up of DNA filaments associated with proteins.

The structural units of chromatin are the chromosomes.

Page 38
 Created by Turbolearn AI

DNA is a molecule belonging to the category of nucleic acids. Its structure

contains, in code, the information that programs all cellular activities and
is transmitted from generation to generation.

Chemical Nature and Structure of DNA

Nucleotide:

Phosphoric acid
Pentose (deoxyribose)
Nitrogenous bases (adenine, cytosine, guanine, thymine, and uracil)
Pyrimidic bases – C, T, and U
Puric bases (double ring) – A and G

Each nucleotide acquires the name of the nitrogenous base that constitutes it (in
DNA).

Nucleotides are linked by covalent bonds established between the

phosphate group of one nucleotide and the pentose of the next
nucleotide. The growth of the DNA chain occurs in the 5' → 3' direction.

It is in the nucleotide sequences (number and order of nucleotides) that the genetic
information defining the characteristics of each individual is encoded.

Structure of DNA vs RNA

RNA molecule: Single strand of polynucleotides.
DNA molecule: Two strands of polynucleotides, spirally wound around an
imaginary axis, forming a double helix. The pentoses and phosphate groups are
oriented towards the outside of the chains, and the nitrogenous bases pair
inside the helix, where hydrogen bonds are established. Adenine pairs with
thymine (A = T), and guanine with cytosine (G ≡ C). The two strands are
antiparallel, i.e., the 3' end of one strand corresponds to the 5' end of the other.

RNA molecules are smaller than DNA molecules and can occur in different structural
forms that perform different functions, like messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA
(tRNA), and ribosomal RNA (rRNA).

Page 39
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Feature DNA RNA

Structure Double strand Single strand

Sugar Deoxyribose Ribose
Adenine, thymine, guanine, Adenine, guanine, cytosine,
Bases
cytosine uracil
Chain Length Long chains Short chains
Primary Nucleus, mitochondria,
Hyaloplasm
Location chloroplasts

DNA Replication
The DNA molecule has the ability to copy its own information, i.e., to replicate.

According to the semi-conservative replication hypothesis, the double

strand of DNA separates, in the presence of specific enzymes (DNA
polymerases), by breaking hydrogen bonds. Each strand serves as a
template for the formation of a new strand from free nucleotides in the
cell. The complementary strands develop in an antiparallel direction in
relation to the strand that serves as a template.

At the end of the process, two DNA molecules are formed, identical to the original
molecule. In each of the new molecules, one of the strands belongs to the initial
molecule.

Protein Synthesis
Proteins determine the structure and metabolic activity of cells.

transcription translation

DN A
−
− → mRN A → P rotein

Protein synthesis occurs in ribosomes, non-membranous organelles formed by

ribosomal RNA and proteins, found in the cytoplasm or associated with the rough
endoplasmic reticulum.

Page 40
 Created by Turbolearn AI

The sequence of nucleotides in DNA contains information in the form of

the genetic code, a code of correspondence between nucleotides and
amino acids. Each triplet (the smallest unit of genetic message, consisting
of three nucleotides) of DNA is called a codogene.

Transcription: Synthesis of mRNA from DNA. The DNA molecule serves as a

template for the synthesis of the mRNA molecule, which is a copy of the
instructions in the DNA. RNA polymerase causes the opening of the DNA
molecule and initiates the synthesis of RNA from free nucleotides. The mRNA
molecule carries the message to the cytoplasm, where protein synthesis occurs.
Each triplet of mRNA (complementary to the codogenes) is a codon that can
encode an amino acid or order the start or end of synthesis. Before mRNA is
formed, pre-messenger RNA is formed, from which introns (non-coding
sequences) are removed and exons (coding sequences) are joined together.
Translation: Genetic message translation.

Cell Cycle
The cell cycle corresponds to the set of transformations that occur from
the moment a cell is formed until it divides, giving rise to two daughter
cells.

The cell cycle consists of two main phases:

Interphase
Mitotic phase

Interphase
Interphase is the period between the end of one cell division and the
beginning of the next cell division.

It is the longest phase of the cell cycle, corresponding to about 90% of the total
duration of the cycle. During this phase, metabolic activity is intense; the cell grows
and duplicates its DNA. The chromosomes are dispersed in the nucleus and are not
visible.

The stages of interphase are:

Page 41
 Created by Turbolearn AI

G1 phase (post-mitotic): Cell growth and organelle formation. Occurs between

the end of mitosis and the start of DNA replication. Biosynthetic activity is
intense, especially of proteins, enzymes, and RNA. There is also the formation
of cellular organelles. After this stage, cells can proceed to the S phase of the
cycle or enter the G0 phase (a stage in which cells remain metabolically active
but do not divide).
S phase (DNA synthesis): Replication of DNA with duplication of
chromosomes. The DNA of the cell replicates. Proteins associate with the new
DNA molecules, and each chromosome becomes composed of two chromatids.
G2 phase (pre-mitotic): Cell growth. Occurs between the end of DNA
replication and the start of mitosis. Synthesis of molecules necessary for cell
division and other cellular constituents occurs. The volume of the cell practically
doubles.

Mitotic Phase (M Phase)

The cellular content, duplicated during interphase, is divided between the
daughter cells.

This phase includes the division of the nucleus and the division of the cytoplasm.

The mitotic phase is split into:

Mitosis or Karyokinesis: Division of the nucleus.

Cytokinesis: Division of the cytoplasm.

Mitosis
Mitosis is the set of transformations that lead to the division of the nucleus of
eukaryotic cells. Although this process is continuous, it is conventionally divided into
four subphases:

Page 42
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Prophase: The chromosomes, consisting of two chromatids united by a

centromere, gradually condense, becoming shorter and thicker. The
centrosomes of the cell begin to move towards opposite poles, and the
achromatic or mitotic spindle forms between them. The nuclear envelope
breaks down.
Metaphase: The chromosomes reach their maximum state of condensation and
align in the equatorial plane (a plane equidistant from the poles of the cell),
with the "arms" facing outwards, forming the equatorial plate and ready to
divide. The centrosomes reach the poles of the cells. The development of the
achromatic spindle is completed, with fibers attached to the chromosomes and
others uniting the two poles.
Anaphase: The two chromatids of each chromosome separate, becoming
independent chromosomes. The fibers attached to the chromosomes shorten,
and the chromosomes move away towards the poles. At the end of anaphase,
there is an identical set of chromosomes at each pole.
Telophase: The final stage of mitosis. The nuclear membrane reorganizes
around the chromosomes at the two poles of the cell, and the nucleoli reappear.
The achromatic spindle dissolves. The chromosomes decondense, becoming
less visible. The cell consists of two nuclei.

Cytokinesis
During anaphase and telophase, in animals, a contractile ring of protein filaments
forms in the region of the equatorial plane. These contract and pull the membrane
inwards, causing a cleavage furrow that constricts the cytoplasm until the two
daughter cells separate.

In plant cells, due to the presence of a rigid skeletal wall, division of the cytoplasm by
constriction is not possible. In this case, vesicles from the Golgi complex align in the
equatorial plane of the cell, constituting the phragmoplast. The vesicles fuse and
form the plasma membrane of the daughter cell. By the deposition of cellulose fibrils,
cellulosic walls are formed, which form from the central part to the external part of
the cell until they connect to the cell wall of the mother cell. The wall formed is not
continuous and has pores through which substances are exchanged between the
cells.

Differences between animal and plant cell division

Page 43
 Created by Turbolearn AI

In higher plants, such as onions, visible centrioles do not exist. The regions
corresponding to the polar zones act as microtubule-organizing centers that will
originate the fibrils of the achromatic spindle.

Cell Differentiation

How is gene expression regulated?

In the case considered, there are:

Three structural genes (D, E, and F) that encode the production of the three
enzymes necessary for lactose metabolism.
A regulatory gene (A) responsible for the production of a repressor, which is a
protein.
An operator gene (C) where the repressor binds, preventing the transcription of
the three structural genes.
A promoter gene (B) where RNA polymerase binds to initiate the transcription
of the structural genes.

In the absence of lactose, the repressor binds to the operator gene (C), preventing the
transcription of the structural genes D, E, and F responsible for lactose metabolism.

In the presence of lactose, the lactose binds to the repressor, altering its structure
and preventing it from binding, and transcription of the genes D, E, and F occurs,
producing the enzymes necessary for lactose metabolism.

Asexual Reproduction
A single progenitor produces offspring through cell divisions in which the nucleus
divides by mitosis. The descendants are genetically identical to each other and
identical to the progenitor. The stability of characters from one generation to another
is maintained.

The processes of asexual reproduction can be considered cloning processes since the
organisms are genetically identical.

Page 44
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Living
Process Main Characteristics Examples
Beings

Unicellular
An individual divides into two with
Binary Fission beings and Anemones
similar dimensions. (Mitosis)
invertebrates
Formation of expansions, called
Yeasts, corals,
Budding buds, that grow and detach. Each
freshwater hydra
bud gives rise to a new individual.
Division of the progenitor's body into
fragments, each regenerating the
Fragmentation Starfish
missing parts, giving rise to a new
being.
Similar to fragmentation; a part of
Vegetative the organism, such as a portion of
Plants
Propagation stem, leaf, or root, can give rise to
the complete plant.
Formation of reproductive cells –
Sporulation spores – that, upon germination, Fungi
give rise to new individuals.
The ovum develops, giving rise to a
Parthenogenesis new organism, without fertilization Bees
having occurred.

Advantages of Asexual Reproduction

Isolated organisms can produce offspring.
Numerous offspring in a short period of time, allowing rapid colonization of a
habitat.
Perpetuates organisms well-adapted to favorable and stable environments.

Sexual Reproduction
Sexual reproduction mixes part of the genomes of two individuals and
produces offspring that differ from each other and also differ from the
progenitors.

Page 45
 Created by Turbolearn AI

The mixing of genomes is due to fertilization: the fusion of two cells, the gametes,
one from each progenitor. The cell resulting from the fusion of the gametes is the
egg or zygote. Gametes are haploid cells – they possess half the number of
chromosomes characteristic of the species. Fertilization restores the number of
chromosomes characteristic of the species; thus, the zygote is a diploid cell.

The formation of gametes occurs through meiosis: cell division that

reduces the number of chromosomes in cells by half, giving rise to 4
haploid cells.

Meiosis
(Before meiosis, interphase occurs)

Page 46
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Reductional division

Prophase I: The chromosomes condense, and the homologs pair up,

forming a set consisting of four chromatids – the tetrad or bivalent.
Crossing points appear between two chromatids of homologous
chromosomes (chiasmata), and equivalent segments are exchanged
(crossing over). The nucleolus and the nuclear envelope break down.
Metaphase I: The bivalents attach to microtubules of the achromatic
spindle by the centromeres. The orientation of the chromosomes of each
bivalent is random. The chiasmata are located in the equatorial plane.
Anaphase I: The two homologous chromosomes of each bivalent
separate, and each chromosome (consisting of two chromatids) migrates
to one of the poles of the cell.
Telophase I: At each pole of the cell, a haploid set of chromosomes is
constituted, with two chromosomes each; the chromosomes decondense;
the nuclear envelope and the nucleoli reorganize; the achromatic spindle
disappears. Cytokinesis may occur, forming two haploid cells.

Equational division

Prophase II: The chromosomes condense. The achromatic spindle forms.

The nuclear envelope and the nucleoli break down.
Metaphase II: The chromosomes align on the equatorial plate. The
centromeres are located in the equatorial plane.
Anaphase II: The two chromatids of each chromosome separate by the
centromere and migrate to opposite poles of the cell. Each of the
chromatids becomes a chromosome.
Telophase II: The chromosomes decondense. The nuclear envelope
reorganizes around each set of chromosomes.

At the end of meiosis, four haploid cells are formed, different from each other and
different from the original, each containing one chromosome from each pair of
homologs.

Chromosomal Mutations
Chromosomal mutations may occur during:

Page 47
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Reductional division, by non-separation of homologs.

Equational division, by non-separation of chromatids.
Crossing-over.
Type of
Description
Mutation

Numerical
Deletion (loss of part), Inversion (change of order), Translocation,
Structural
Duplication

Mutations can be harmful to the individual carrying them or to their descendants, but
they can also be beneficial. On the other hand, they are a source of genetic variability
that allows diversity of organisms and evolution of species.

Mitosis vs. Meiosis

Events Mitosis Meiosis

Occurs during Occurs only during interphase before the

DNA Replication
interphase reductional division
Number of Divisions 1 2
Pairing of
Homologous - Prophase I
Chromosomes
2, identical to each 4, different from each other and from the
Cells Formed other and to the mother cell, with half the number of
mother cell chromosomes of the mother cell
Function in the Growth, repair of
Production of gametes or spores
Organism structures
Introduces Variability - Yes

Sexual Reproduction and Variability

Page 48
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Independent segregation of homologous chromosomes: The migration of

chromosomes to the poles of the cell is random. Thus, in the gametes formed,
the chromosomes originating from one or the other progenitor are combined
randomly, resulting in a wide variety of possible combinations.
Crossing-over: Homologous chromosomes exchange segments. Therefore, the
two chromatids of each chromosome are different and are separated randomly
in anaphase II.
Fertilization: The random joining of a female gamete and a male gamete
increases variability.

Diversity of Strategies in Sexual Reproduction

Sexual reproduction involves the formation of gametes in specialized structures:
gonads (in animals) or gametangia (in plants). The female gonads are the ovaries,
and the male gonads are the testes. Female gametes are the ova (relatively large and
immobile), and male gametes are the spermatozoa (smaller and mobile). Animal
gametes are haploid.

The female gametangium is the archegonium, and the male gametangium is the
antheridium. The female gamete is the oosphere (only one exists in the
archegonium), and the male gametes are the antherozoids, which are released into
the environment when mature. These move in a humid environment to the oosphere,
which is fertilized inside the archegonium.

There are hermaphroditic beings (possessing both female and male reproductive
systems simultaneously), which can be sufficient hermaphrodites (self-fertilization
occurs) or insufficient hermaphrodites (cross-fertilization occurs).

In animals in which unisexualism occurs, fertilization can be:

External fertilization: Occurs in a liquid medium; the gametes are released into
the medium where fertilization occurs.
Internal fertilization: Occurs inside the female's organism; the male deposits
the gametes inside the female's reproductive system where fertilization occurs.

Flower Structure
Flowers typically consist of:

Page 49
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Petals
Anther
Filament
Ovaries
Receptacle
Peduncle
Sepal
Style
Stigma

Sexual vs Asexual Reproduction

Type of
Advantages Disadvantages
Reproduction

Ensures the formation of clones since

The diversity of individuals in
mitosis is the process of division that
the population is practically
occurs. All individuals can produce
null. Difficult adaptation to
Asexual descendants. Fast process and
changes in the environment.
implies little energy expenditure.
Does not favor the evolution of
Rapid colonization of habitats with
species.
constant conditions.
Provides a great variability of Slow process. Enormous
characteristics in the offspring. The expenditure of energy in the
Sexual diversity of characteristics allows production of gametes and in
species not only a greater capacity for the processes that trigger
survival but also provides evolution. fertilization.

Life Cycles
There are diverse life cycles that can occur in organisms, uniting the concepts of
ploidy and reproduction.

Life Cycles
The life cycle of an organism spans from its formation to the moment it produces
offspring.

Page 50
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Asexual vs. Sexual Reproduction

In asexual reproduction, the number of chromosomes remains unchanged.
In sexual reproduction, the life cycle involves an alternation of nuclear phases:
haplophase and diplophase.
Haplophase: The period between meiosis and fertilization.
Diplophase: The period between fertilization and meiosis.

The development of the haploid phase relative to the diploid phase depends on
when meiosis occurs. Meiosis can be:

Post-zygotic
Pre-gametic
Pre-sporic

Depending on the relative development of the two nuclear phases, organisms are
classified as:

Haplonts
Diplonts
Haplodiplonts

Diplontic Life Cycle

Example: Humans

Only gametes are haploid cells.

Meiosis is pre-gametic.
The zygote is diploid and gives rise to all somatic cells of the organism through
mitosis.

Haplontic Life Cycle

Example: Spirogyra

Gametes are haploid and fuse, forming a zygote.

The zygote undergoes meiosis, giving rise to cells that, through successive
mitoses, form a haploid organism that produces gametes by mitosis.
The only diploid structure is the zygote, and meiosis is post-zygotic.

Page 51
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Haplodiplontic Life Cycle

Example: Ferns

Alternation of generations with multicellular haploid and diploid stages.

Diploid generation: Sporophyte
Produces haploid spores by meiosis (pre-sporic meiosis).
Spores germinate and divide by mitosis, giving rise to a haploid generation:
Gametophyte.
The gametophyte produces gametes by mitosis.
Formation of a diploid zygote, which undergoes mitoses and develops into the
sporophyte.

From Prokaryotic to Eukaryotic Cells

Two models explain the origin of eukaryotic cells:

Autogenic Model
The endomembrane system of eukaryotic cells evolved from specialized
invaginations of the plasma membrane of prokaryotic cells.

Supported by the fact that the face of the membrane facing the interior of
intracellular compartments is similar to the external face of the plasma
membrane and vice versa.

Endosymbiotic Model
Eukaryotic cells are the result of the symbiotic association of several
prokaryotic ancestors.

The endomembrane system originated from invaginations of the plasma

membrane.
Mitochondria and chloroplasts developed from prokaryotic cells that
established an endosymbiotic relationship with larger host cells, living inside
them.
Ancestors of mitochondria were heterotrophic aerobic prokaryotes.
Ancestors of chloroplasts were photosynthetic prokaryotes.

Page 52
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Advantages of the Association

Host cell (anaerobic and heterotrophic) with the ancestors of mitochondria and
chloroplasts:
Greater capacity for aerobic metabolism in an environment with increasing
free oxygen concentration.
Easier access to nutrients produced by the autotrophic endosymbiont.
Interdependence between the host and the endosymbiont led to the formation
of a single organism.

Evidence Supporting the Endosymbiotic Model

Mitochondria and chloroplasts resemble bacteria in shape, size, and membrane
structures.
Both produce their own internal membranes.
They divide independently of the cell and contain DNA in circular molecules,
not associated with proteins.
The ribosomes of chloroplasts and mitochondria are more similar to those of
prokaryotes in biochemical characteristics and size.
Symbiotic associations between eukaryotes and bacteria are still found today.

From Unicellularity to Multicellularity

Internal membranes of eukaryotic cells partially addressed the problem of surface
area relative to cell volume. However, cell size cannot increase indefinitely.

Greater structural and metabolic complexity was achieved through the

development of multicellular organisms.
The first step was the association of unicellular organisms into colonies.
Specialization and cooperation allow cells to combine, forming an organism
with more capabilities than each of its constituent parts.

Mechanisms of Evolution: Fixism vs.

Evolutionism

Fixism

Page 53
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Considers that the different species of living beings are permanent,

perfect, and immutable, and that they originated independently of each
other.

Evolutionism
Argues that the living beings that currently exist on Earth are the result of
the modification of living beings that existed in the past. Species of living
beings relate to each other and change over time.

Fixist Theories

Creationism
Fixist explanation for the origin of species based on scriptures, defending
that living beings were created by God in their definitive form and have
not changed since.

Spontaneous Generation
Considers that all living beings originate from inert matter under certain
special conditions, by the action of an active principle.

Evolutionary Theories

Lamarckism
Law of Gradualism: There is a succession in the appearance of organisms; first,
the simplest ones appeared, and only then the more complex ones.
Law of Use and Disuse: Parts of the body extensively used by an organism
develop, and those not used atrophy.
Law of Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics: Characteristics that an
organism acquires throughout its life are transmitted to its offspring.

Page 54
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Criticisms of Lamarckism
Attributes intentionality to living beings, which develop an "effort of
adaptation" to the environment.
The law of use and disuse is not true in all cases, and organs developed by use
regress when they are no longer used.
Acquired characteristics are not inherited by descendants (experimental
verification).

Arguments in Favor of Lamarckism

Development of organs through use (musculature, for example).
Existence of vestigial structures in organisms (appendix, for example).

Darwinism
Main Aspects:
The various forms of life arose from ancestral species through
modifications in descent.
The mechanism of modification is natural selection, acting over long
periods of time.

Darwin's Theory
Organisms in a given population exhibit variability.
Populations produce more offspring than the resources available in the
environment can support. Consequently, a large part of the individuals does not
survive.
Organisms in the population with characteristics that allow them a better
adaptation to the environment have more advantages in the struggle for
survival and, therefore, leave more descendants.
The increase in the number of individuals with favorable characteristics leads to
the modification of the population over time.
Natural selection favors certain characteristics to the detriment of others.
Individuals with characteristics more suited to the environment survive better
and reproduce more, which causes these characteristics to exist in a greater
number of individuals in the next generation.
The increase in the frequency of these characteristics leads to evolution.

Page 55
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Neodarwinism or Synthetic Theory of Evolution

According to Neodarwinism, the sources of variability in populations are mutations
and genetic recombination.

Mutations: Primary source of variability due to their ability to create new genes
and, consequently, new characteristics.
Genetic Recombination: Mixes existing genes, creating new combinations.
Sexual reproduction is the mechanism that enables genetic recombination
through meiosis and fertilization.

Variability and Natural Selection

Factors that increase the genetic variability of a population promote evolution,
since the greater the variability of a population, the greater the probability that
a certain gene set will be advantageous in the interaction it establishes with the
environment, being the target of natural selection.
The units of evolution are populations (evolution can be quantified by the
alteration of the relative proportion of hereditary variations of a population in a
succession of generations).
The factors on which natural selection acts are situational.

Classification Systems
Systematics is the study of biological diversity in an evolutionary context. It includes:

Taxonomy: Classification and nomenclature of species.

Phylogeny: Evolutionary history of a species or several related species.

Diversity of Classification Systems

Horizontal Classifications
Static classifications that considered structural characteristics and did not take into
account the time factor. They assumed the immutability of species.

Page 56
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Practical Classifications: Group living beings according to their usefulness to

humans.
Rational Classifications: Group living beings according to characteristics.
Artificial Classifications: Based on one or a few characteristics. The groups
formed by them are very heterogeneous.
Natural Classifications: Based on a large number of characteristics, which
transmit more information than artificial classifications.

The evolutionary ideas led to:

Vertical/Phylogenetic Classifications
Group living beings according to the degree of kinship between them.
They take into account the time factor. They interpret the similarity of
living beings as a consequence of the existence of a common ancestor
from which the groups diverged.

Taxonomy and Nomenclature

Linnaeus's Classification System

Hierarchy of taxonomic categories.
Binomial nomenclature of species.

Taxonomic Categories or Taxa

Kingdom → Phylum → Class → Order → Family → Genus → Species

Species: The basic unit of classification, representing a natural group consisting

of individuals reproductively isolated from individuals of different species, but
which can interbreed, giving rise to fertile offspring.

Basic Rules of Nomenclature

Page 57
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Designation of taxa in Latin (a dead language that does not evolve; allows
universal nomenclature, i.e., constant in space and time).
Species are designated according to a binomial nomenclature. The first word of
the name corresponds to the genus (initial capital letter), and the second is the
epithet or specific restritive.
Designation of groups above the species is uninominal.
The name of the family is obtained by adding -idae to the root of one of the
genera.
When the species has subspecies, the nomenclature is trinominal.
The names of genera, species, or subspecies are written in a different font from
the text: italic or underlined.

Whittaker's Classification System

Five kingdoms:

Animalia
Plantae
Fungi
Protista
Monera

Anthropic Occupation and Planning Problems

River Basins
River Bed: Terrain normally occupied by water.
Floodplain: Area occupied by water during floods, when rainfall is very
abundant.
Dry Bed: Area occupied by water when the amount of water decreases, for
example, during the summer.
Margins: Strips of land contiguous to the river bed.

Rivers Are Included In

Hydrographic Networks: Set of all water courses, confluents, of a certain
region.
Hydrographic Basins: Area drained by a certain hydrographic network.

Page 58
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Geological Activity of Rivers

Erosion: Removal of materials resulting from the alteration of the rocks of the
river bed and margins. Erosion is due to the pressure that water exerts on the
projections of the bed and margins.
Transport: Displacement, by the current, of the debris removed by erosion.

Solid Load of a Water Course

Dissolved materials
Suspended materials
Materials that undergo traction (heavier and coarser materials)
Dragging
Rolling
Saltation

Sedimentation
Deposition of materials along the bed and margins when the transport
capacity of the river decreases.

Deposition of materials on the margins is mainly important when floods occur.

Alluvium (sediment deposits) are formed on the floodplain, making the margins
more fertile.
Sedimentation is influenced by the size and weight of the debris and the speed
of the current.
The densest and heaviest materials are the first to be deposited, depositing
more upstream (towards the source), and the lighter debris deposits more
downstream (towards the mouth).

Flood Damage Prevention

Regulation of construction and occupation of floodplains.
Construction of dams and canalizations.

Dams

Page 59
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Advantages
Regularize the flow, preventing floods.
Cause water retention, forming reservoirs upstream of the dam, which regulate
the flow downstream of the dam.
Accumulated water can have various uses:
Hydroelectric power production
Supply to populations
Recreational activities
Irrigation of agricultural land

Disadvantages
Deposition of materials at the bottom of the reservoir → reduction of water
storage capacity; reduction of the amount of debris discharged into the sea.
Useful life period after which they cause security problems.
Negative impact on terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.

Canalizations
Regularization, deepening, widening, and removal of obstacles in areas of the river
bed.

Extraction of Inerts

Consequences
Disappearance of river beaches.
Undermining of bridge pillars, which can lead to their collapse.
Changes in currents.
Reduction in the amount of sediments that reach the sea.

Coastal Zones

Litoral Strip

Page 60
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Transition zone from the continent to the ocean.

Cliffs: High and steep coasts, consisting of consolidated rocky material and
scarce vegetation cover.
Beaches: Low areas where sediment accumulates, of various sizes, most of
which is of fluvial origin.
The littoral strip suffers marine abrasion - wear caused by the breaking of
waves on the rocks. This is particularly intense when the waves transport
particles that are thrown against the rocks.
Abrasion Platforms: Relatively flat surfaces close to sea level where large
sediments resulting from the collapse of cliffs are found. (located at the base of
the cliffs)

The Coastline
A dynamic zone that evolves naturally but is also forced to modify due to human
factors, such as:

Occupation of the coastal strip with constructions.

Decrease in the amount of sediments due to the construction of dams and/or
exploitation of inerts in rivers.
Destruction of natural defenses such as dunes and coastal vegetation.

Combating Coastal Erosion

Construction of transverse works such as groynes and works parallel to the
coastline such as seawalls, which are adherent or detached works such as
breakwaters.
Stabilization of cliffs.
Artificial feeding of beaches with inerts.
Recovery of dunes.
The protection conferred by seawalls, groynes, and breakwaters is limited in
time and space, since the accumulation of sediments transported by the sea is
verified on one side of the structure and its erosion on the opposite side. Other
measures such as dune recovery and artificial feeding of beaches allow more
efficient and prolonged protection.

Slope Zones

Page 61
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Slope Zones: Zones of steep slope.

Mass Movements: Sudden displacements of a large mass of solid materials in
inclined terrains.

Natural Factors Involved in Mass Movements

Gravity
Inclination of the terrains
Type and characteristics of the rocks (disposition in the terrain, orientation,
degree of alteration)
Amount of water in the soil
Sudden events such as earthquakes or storms

Human Actions That Favor Mass Movements

Destruction of the vegetation cover of the terrains, with consequent increase in
soil erosion.
Uncontrolled removal of land for urbanization or road construction.
Saturation of land by excess irrigation.

Prevention of Mass Movements

Elaboration of land use maps, with definition of the areas suitable for different
human activities.
Elaboration of geological risk maps.
Removal or containment of geological materials that may constitute a danger,
through support walls, nets, and anchoring.

Minerals
Mineral – crystalline, natural, inorganic solid, formed by geological
processes, with a fixed or variable chemical composition within defined
limits and a specific internal structure.

Crystalline Structure of Minerals

Characterized by a regular, repetitive, and three-dimensional arrangement of the
atoms that constitute it.

Page 62
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Crystalline matter is constituted by particles arranged in an orderly manner.

Vitreous matter is constituted by particles arranged in a disordered manner.

Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentogenesis
Formation of sediments

Detrital or Clastic Sediments: Fragments of various sizes, coming from the

physical weathering of other rocks.
Sediments of Chemical Origin: Resulting from the precipitation of substances
dissolved in water.
Biogenic Sediments: Sediments composed of remains of living beings, such as
shells or skeletal pieces, fragments of plants, pollen, etc.
Weathering: The set of physical and chemical processes that alter the
characteristics of a rock on or near the Earth's surface. By erosion, the particles
are removed from the site.

Physical Weathering
Leads to the fragmentation of rocks into increasingly smaller pieces, but which
maintain the characteristics of the original material.

Factors That Cause Physical Weathering of Rocks

Expansion of rocks at the surface as a consequence of the decrease in pressure.
Thermal dilations and contractions.
Freezing of water in cracks, which causes their widening due to the increase in
volume.

Chemical Weathering
Leads to the chemical decomposition of the constituent minerals of the
rocks, and removal or introduction of elements may occur.

Page 63
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Living beings can intervene in these processes, so this type of weathering can
also be called biochemical weathering.

Mechanisms of Chemical Weathering

Carbonation
Hydrolysis
Oxidation

Carbonation
Acidified waters (resulting, for example, from the interaction of water with
atmospheric carbon dioxide) can react with minerals, forming soluble
products.

When carbonic acid reacts with calcium carbonate, calcium ions and hydrogen
carbonate ions are removed in solution.

Hydrolysis
Occurs when H+ ions replace others in the structure of minerals, which
alters their chemical composition and breaks their atomic structure.

H+ ions can originate from water or an acid (usually carbonic acid – H2CO3).

Oxidation
Many minerals contain iron in their composition, which can be easily
oxidized.

Oxygen combines with these minerals, forming, for example, hematite.

Weathering gives rise to sediments that can be loose solid particles or particles
dissolved in water, which will be transported and deposited.

Transport

Page 64
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Movement of sediments by agents such as water, wind (…), during which

the sediments undergo rounding, due to the shocks between them, and
granotriagem, that is, they are separated according to their size, shape,
and density.

Sedimentation
Occurs when the transporting agent loses energy and the sediments are
deposited.

It can occur in terrestrial environments, but it is more important and frequent in

aquatic environments.
Sedimentation occurs, as a rule, according to superimposed, horizontal, and
parallel layers.
The layers originated are called strata, which, when formed, compress the
lower layers.
The surfaces of separation of strata are called stratification joints.
Each stratum is between two others, the upper one being called the ceiling and
the lower one, the wall.
There are also cases of cross-stratification, which reveals a variation in the
intensity of the force or the direction of the transporting agent.

Diagenesis
Diagenesis is a set of physical-chemical processes that occur after
sedimentation and by which sediments are transformed into cohesive
sedimentary rocks.

Compaction and Dehydration

New layers are superimposed on others during sedimentation, which increases
the pressure to which the lower layers are subjected.
Due to the weight of the sediments that overlap, the water included in the
interstices of the materials is expelled, and the particles are closer, decreasing
the volume of the rock, which becomes more compact and denser.

Cementation

Page 65
 Created by Turbolearn AI

The empty spaces between the debris are filled by a cement that
precipitates between them.

Diversity of Sedimentary Rocks

Inherited Minerals: Minerals coming from pre-existing rocks.
Neoformation Minerals: New minerals, formed during the sedimentogenesis or
diagenesis process.

Identification of Minerals
Color: There are idiocromatic minerals (they have a characteristic and own
color) and minerals that do not have a constant color, called allocromatic
minerals.
Streak: Color of the mineral when it is reduced to powder.
Brightness: Consists of the effect produced by the quality and intensity of the
light reflected on a surface of recent fracture of the mineral. The brightness can
be metallic or non-metallic (silky, vitreous, adamantine, pearly, resinous, waxy,
greasy).
Cleavage and Fracture: Cleavage is the tendency of a mineral to divide
according to flat and bright surfaces, in certain directions. Fracture consists of
the disintegration of a mineral into more or less irregular surfaces, revealing
that all the connections are equally strong.
Density
Hardness: Consists of the resistance that the mineral offers when scratched by
another mineral or certain objects.

Hardness According to Mohs

Page 66
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Hardness Mineral

1 Talc
2 Gypsum
3 Calcite
4 Fluorite
5 Apatite
6 Orthoclase
7 Hyaline Quartz
8 Topaz
9 Hyaline Corundum
10 Diamond

Classification of Sedimentary Rocks

Detrital Sedimentary Rocks: Predominantly constituted by debris from other
rocks.
Chemogenic Sedimentary Rocks: Formed by precipitation of minerals in
solution.
Biogenic Sedimentary Rocks: Result from the consolidation of remains of living
beings.

Detrital Sedimentary Rocks

Consolidated: Formed by sediments joined by a cement.
Non-Consolidated: Formed by loose sediments.

Non-Consolidated Sediments
Ballast
Sands
Silts
Clays

Consolidated Sediments

Page 67
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Conglomerates: Formed by the union of sediments of various sizes. They are

sediments of larger sizes cemented or joined with smaller sediments such as
sands and clays.
Sandstone: Formed by the union of sands.
Siltstones: Formed by silt sediments.
Argilites: Formed by the union of clay grains, which result from the chemical
weathering of rocks.

Chemogenic Sedimentary Rocks

The precipitation of dissolved materials can occur due to the evaporation of
water or due to the alteration of solution conditions, such as the variation of
pressure or temperature.
The rocks formed by crystals that precipitate during the evaporation of water
have a crystalline texture and are called evaporites.

Precipitation Limestones
Limestones are rocks essentially constituted by calcite (calcium carbonate
mineral), which result from the precipitation of this mineral.

Acidified waters cause the chemical weathering of limestones. As a result of

this reaction, grooves and cavities appear, constituting, on the surface, a
characteristic modeling known as lapiaz. Caves can also be formed.
The dripping from the roof of a cave causes the successive accumulation of
calcium carbonate, giving rise to stalactites. This continuous dripping, on the
floor of the cave, causes the formation of stalagmites. In the water that flows
over the floor of the cave, there may also be precipitation, forming a limestone
rock called travertine.

Saline Rocks – Evaporites

Gypsum: Chemically it is calcium sulfate di-hydrate (CaSO4.2H2O), forming
transparent crystals or white masses, of silky, fibrous, or granular aspect.
Rock Salt: Constituted essentially by halite, sodium chloride (NaCl). Rock salt is
not very dense and is very plastic. The deep deposits of this evaporite, when
under pressure, can ascend through fragile zones of the crust, forming large
masses of salt, called saline domes or diapirs.

Page 68
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Biogenic Rocks
The sediments that constitute the biogenic rocks can be constituted by
organic debris or by materials resulting from a biochemical action. Some
authors call these rocks chemobiogenic rocks.

Biogenic Limestones
Many aquatic organisms fix carbonates. After death, these beings are
deposited at the bottom of the sea, forming a biogenic sediment. The
organic part is normally decomposed, and the shells end up being
cemented, evolving into consolidated limestones.

Biogenic Limestones Include

Nummulitic Limestones: Originating from marine fossils that resemble coins of

5mm or more in diameter).
Conchiferous Limestone: Formed by the accumulation of mollusk shells,
subsequently cemented.
Reef Limestone: Formed from coral reefs.

Coals
Formed in continental marshy environments, or areas of difficult water
drainage.

In these areas, the lower part of mosses and other herbaceous plants
transforms, due to the action of anaerobic microorganisms, into a carbonaceous
product, rich in volatile materials, called peat.
The evolution of coal from peat is called incarbonization and proceeds through
the stages of lignite, bituminous coal, and anthracite.
In the incarbonization process, the plant material of the peat undergoes
biochemical transformations, by the action of microorganisms. The deepening of
the plant material leads to alterations of the pressure and temperature
conditions and initiates geochemical transformations, in which the loss of water
and volatile substances, decrease in porosity, and increase in the concentration
of carbon are verified.

Page 69
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Petroleum
Formed from organic matter of aquatic origin.

The death of the organisms leads to the deposition of organic matter at the
bottom of a sedimentary environment where it undergoes partial
decomposition, due to the fact that the environment is anaerobic or the material
is quickly covered by sediments.
The continuation of sedimentation leads to the sinking of the organic matter,
which is subjected to the increase of temperature and pressure.
The physical and chemical properties of the organic matter are altered, and it is
converted into liquid hydrocarbons, such as petroleum, some gaseous, such as
natural gas, and others solid, such as bitumens or asphalts.

Petroleum Trap
This evolution occurs in the source rock, which is a rock of fine granulometry.
The low density of hydrocarbons causes them to migrate from the source rock,
accumulating in a reservoir rock that is porous and permeable.
Above this, there is another rock, not very permeable, which prevents the
progression of petroleum to the surface, being called a cover rock.
Petroleum traps are geological structures favorable to the accumulation of
petroleum, which prevent its migration to the surface.

Sedimentary Rocks, Historical Archives of the Earth

Page 70
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Sedimentary rocks are usually stratified and contain most of the fossils.
Stratification reflects the alterations that occurred on Earth, and fossils tell the
story of the evolution of life and give information about past environments
(paleoenvironments).
In the stratification joints, there are frequently marks that testify to the
existence of pauses or interruptions in sedimentation:
Ripple Marks: The ripple marks observed on current beaches appear
preserved in some ancient sandstones, giving us information about the
sedimentary environment in which the rock was generated, about the
original position of the layers and about the direction of the currents that
produced them.
Desiccation Cracks or Retraction Cracks: These cracks, which are
frequently observed in current clay soils, often appear preserved in
ancient rocks.
Raindrop Marks: Often evident in ancient rocks, with an aspect identical to
what happens today.
Footprints, Crawling Tracks, Fossilized Feces: Provide information about
sedimentary environments of the past and about animal habits, types of
food, etc.
All these characteristics make sedimentary rocks fundamental in the
reconstruction of the History of the Earth, applying the principle of current
causes or the principle of actualism.

Fossils and the Reconstruction of the Past

Fossils
Remains of living beings or their activity that, at a certain moment, lived
on our planet.

The existence of hard parts in organisms and their immediate inclusion in fine
sediments are factors that favor fossilization.
The fossils that allow dating the rocks or strata in which they are present are
called age fossils.
These fossils belong to organisms that lived on the surface of the Earth during
a relatively short and defined period of geological time and that had a large
area of dispersion.
When fossils allow inferring the environment of formation of the rock in which
they are found, they are called facies fossils.

Page 71
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Processes of Fossilization

Process Description

Organisms or parts of them are preserved without alteration or with

small modifications. This process happens when the organism is
Mummification
totally involved in an aseptic medium, such as fossil resin or amber,
ice, tar…
The constituents of hard parts are replaced by minerals transported in
Mineralization
solution in the underground waters and that precipitate.
The organism or parts of it imprint a mold in fine sediments that
Molding
involve or fill it.
Sediments fill the shell, which is subsequently dissolved, leaving only
Internal Mold
the mold.
The shell imprints the mold of the external surface in the sediments,
External Mold being then removed. Counter-molds of the external and internal
molds can also be formed.
Footprints, crawling marks, fossilized feces that constitute evidence of
Marks
the existence of the living being that left that mark.

Relative Dating of Rocks

Principle of Superposition: In a non-deformed sedimentary stratigraphic
sequence, the oldest strata are those located below, and the most recent ones
are those located above.
Principle of Continuity (Lateral): A sedimentary stratum remains laterally equal
to itself or varies continuously.
Principle of Paleontological Identity: Admits that groups of fossils appear in a
defined order and that a period of geological time can be recognized by the
characteristics of the fossils. Strata that present identical fossils are of the same
age. These are age fossils, corresponding to living beings that lived during short
time intervals and that had a large area of dispersion.
Principle of Intersection and Principle of Inclusion: Every structure that
intersects another is more recent than it.

Magmatism – Magmatic Rocks

Page 72
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Diversity

Magmatism - Magmatic Rocks

Magmatic rocks are formed by the cooling and crystallization of magma.

Magma is molten rock, typically rich in silica, with dissolved gases and
some crystals. It originates from the partial melting of the lower portion of
the crust or the upper portion of the mantle.

The formation of magmatic rocks is related to the mobility of the lithosphere and
typically occurs at convergent and divergent boundaries of lithospheric plates. These
movements, associated with specific pressure and temperature conditions, influence
the melting of rocks.

Intrusive rocks (plutonites) and extrusive rocks (volcanites) are formed by the
consolidation of magma.

Types of Magma
Basaltic magmas (poor in silica): Upon consolidation, they give rise to the
oceanic floors. They are mainly expelled in rifts and hot spots, originating from
mantle rocks like peridotite. If these magmas solidify at depth, they form
gabbros.
Andesitic magmas (intermediate composition): They form in subduction zones
and are related to highly volcanic areas. The composition of these magmas
depends on the amount and type of subducted material. When they solidify at
depth, they form diorites; when they solidify at the surface or near it, they form
andesites.
Rhyolitic magmas (rich in silica): They form from the partial melting of the
continental crust and tend to be very rich in gases, in zones of plate
convergence. At depth, they form granites; at the surface or near it, they form
rhyolites.

Consolidation of Magmas
Main factors that influence crystallization:

Page 73
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Temperature
Time
Agitation of the medium
Available space
Nature of the material

Crystalline structure implies an ordered arrangement of atoms or ions, forming a

three-dimensional network that follows a geometric model characteristic of each
mineral species. The network consists of parallelepiped-shaped units that constitute
the elementary mesh or crystalline motif, which repeats. In a crystal, the nodes
correspond to elementary particles, the rows are alignments of particles, and the
reticular planes are planes defined by two non-parallel rows.

Sometimes, particles do not reach the crystalline state. The texture remains
disordered, and the material in these conditions is designated as having an
amorphous or vitreous texture.

Silicates
The most common basic structure of all silicates is the tetrahedron (SiO ) . These
4
4−

tetrahedra are not electrically neutral, and neighboring tetrahedra tend to unite with
each other through a series of cations, meaning they have a tendency to polymerize.

Isomorphism and Polymorphism

Isomorphism: Occurs when there are variations in the chemical composition of
minerals without changes in the crystalline structure. Substances with these
characteristics are called isomorphous substances. A set of minerals like these
is called an isomorphous series or solid solution, and the crystals formed are
called mixed crystals, solid mixtures, or isomorphous mixtures. An example of
minerals that constitute an isomorphous series is plagioclase, which are
silicates in which N a and Ca can be interchanged.
+ 2+

Polymorphism: Occurs when minerals have the same chemical composition but
different crystalline structures.

Magmatic Differentiation

Page 74
 Created by Turbolearn AI

A single magma can give rise to different types of rocks because it consists of a
complex mixture that, upon solidification, forms different associations of minerals.
One of the processes involved in magmatic differentiation is fractional crystallization.
When magma cools, different minerals crystallize at different temperatures in a
defined sequence that depends on the pressure and composition of the molten
material. The crystalline fraction separates from the remaining liquid due to
differences in density or the effect of pressure, leaving a residual magma different
from the original magma. Thus, the same magma can originate different rocks.

Bowen's Reaction Series

A series that reflects the sequence in which minerals crystallize in a cooling magma.
According to Bowen, there are two series of reactions:

Ferromagnesian minerals series (discontinuous branch): As cooling occurs,

the previously formed mineral reacts with the residual magma, giving rise to a
mineral with a different chemical composition and structure, which is stable
under the new temperature conditions.
Plagioclase series (continuous series): There is a change in the ions of
plagioclase without altering the internal structure of the minerals.

There are several ways in which the originated crystals can be separated from the
residual liquid.

If pressure compresses the location where the crystals form, the residual liquid tends
to escape through small fissures, while the crystals remain in the place of their
genesis.

If the crystals are denser or less dense than the residual liquid, they move to the
bottom or top of the magma chamber, respectively. They accumulate in order of their
formation and densities – gravitational differentiation.

The last fractions of magma, consisting of water with volatiles and other substances
in solution, constitute hydrothermal solutions and can fill fissures in the rocks, giving
rise to veins.

🪨 Diversity of Magmatic Rocks

Page 75
 Created by Turbolearn AI

The classification of magmatic rocks is based on mineralogical composition and

texture.

Mineralogical Composition
The classification of the rock is based on the percentage of each of the minerals
present.

Mineral
Characteristics
Type

Light-colored, low-density minerals like quartz, feldspar, and

Felsic
muscovite.
Dark-colored minerals rich in iron and magnesium, such as biotite,
Mafic
pyroxenes, amphiboles, and olivine.
Leucocratic Rocks predominantly composed of felsic minerals, typically acidic.
Melanocratic Basic rocks with a predominance of mafic minerals.
Mesocratic Rocks with an intermediate coloration.

Texture
Texture is the general appearance of the rock resulting from the dimensions, shape,
and arrangement of the constituent minerals.

Texture Characteristics Rock Type

Crystal dimensions are 1mm or more in diameter, formed Intrusive

Granular
during slow cooling of magma. rocks
Most crystals have microscopic dimensions, resulting from
Extrusive
Agranular rapid consolidation of magmas ascending to the Earth's
rocks
surface.

Rock Deformations - Brittle and Ductile

Deformation, Faults, and Folds
The mobility of the lithosphere and the weight of the overlying layers cause stresses
over time, meaning forces applied per unit area that will cause deformations in the
rocks.

Page 76
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Compressive stresses: Lead to a reduction in the volume of the rock in the

direction parallel to the action of the forces and its elongation in the
perpendicular direction. They can also cause fracture of the rock.
Extensional stresses: Lead to the elongation of the rock in the direction parallel
to the action of the forces or its fracture.
Shear stresses: Cause the deformation of the rock by parallel movements in
opposite directions.
Elastic deformation: The deformation is reversible and proportional to the
applied stress, provided that the elastic limit is not exceeded.
Plastic deformation: Above the elastic limit, the material is permanently
deformed without breaking if the plasticity limit is not exceeded. The
deformation is called continuous deformation when there is no discontinuity
between adjacent parts of the deformed material.
Deformation by rupture: When the plasticity limit is exceeded, the rock yields
and breaks. These deformations can be considered discontinuous deformations.
Brittle behavior: Rocks fracture easily when subjected to stress under low
pressure and low temperature conditions. This behavior is related to the
formation of faults.
Ductile behavior: Rocks undergo permanent changes in shape and/or volume
without fracturing, under high pressure and high temperature conditions. This
behavior is related to the formation of folds.

Factors that Condition Rock Deformation

Confining or lithostatic stress: The stress resulting from the weight of the
overlying layers. Increases the ductility of the rock, increasing the resistance to
rupture.
Non-lithostatic or directed stress: Occurs when a body is subjected to forces of
different intensity in different directions.
Temperature: Increases plasticity and increases with depth.
Fluid content: Increases the plasticity of rocks.
Time of action of forces: Makes rocks more plastic.
Composition and structure of the rock: Certain aspects, such as schistosity,
increase plasticity.

Faults

Page 77
 Created by Turbolearn AI

A fault is a fracture surface along which relative movement of the fractured blocks
has occurred. They can result from the action of any type of stress on rocks with
brittle behavior.

Elements That Characterize a Fault:

Fault plane: Fracture surface.
Hanging wall: Block that overlies the fault plane.
Footwall: Block located below the fault plane.
Throw: Shortest distance between two points that were together before the
fracture and the respective displacement.
Fault scarp: Topographic scarp produced by the fault.
Strike: Angle formed by a horizontal line on the fault plane with the N-S line.
Dip: Angle formed by the fault plane with a horizontal plane that intersects the
fault plane.

Folds
Folds are deformations in which the curvature of originally flat surfaces is observed.
Folds result from the action of compressive stresses in rocks with ductile behavior.

Elements That Characterize a Fold:

Hinge: Line that joins the points of maximum curvature of the fold.
Limbs of the fold: Sides of the fold, located on either side of the hinge.
Axial surface or axial plane: Plane of symmetry of the fold, which divides it
into two approximately equal limbs.
Fold axis: Line of intersection of the hinge with the axial surface.

Types of Folds Based on the Relative Age of Rocks:

Anticline: Fold in which the core of the antiform is occupied by the oldest rocks.
Syncline: Fold in which the core of the synform is occupied by the most recent
rocks.

Metamorphism - Metamorphic Rocks

Page 78
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Metamorphism is the alteration of rocks that takes place inside the Earth,
changing their mineralogical composition, texture, or both, without
melting the rocks. It occurs under conditions of high temperature and
pressure, such as in subduction zones and mountain-building areas.

Agents of Metamorphism
Temperature: The temperature to which a rock is exposed is greater the deeper
it is located. However, contact with magmatic intrusions can subject the rock to
high temperatures at shallow depths. By the action of heat, certain minerals can
become unstable and react with other minerals, forming combinations that are
stable under the new conditions. Chemical bonds break in the crystalline
structure of the minerals, and new bonds form, giving rise to a different
crystalline structure.
Stress: Lithostatic stress is the result of the weight of the overlying rock mass
and is applied equally in all directions. It results in a reduction in volume and an
increase in the density of the rock. Non-lithostatic stress is characterized by
having different intensities in different directions. It can be compressive,
extensional, or shear and is generally associated with tectonic movements. This
type of stress causes the deformation of the rock and the alignment of minerals
or foliation.
Fluids: Fluids circulating between mineral grains dissolve ions from certain
minerals and transport them to other locations where they can react with other
minerals.
Time: All phenomena related to metamorphism occur over long periods of time.

Recrystallization and Minerals of Metamorphic Origin

Recrystallization is the reorganization of the elements of an original
mineral into a more stable combination under new conditions of stress,
temperature, and surrounding fluids.

Some minerals form only within a restricted range of conditions, allowing us to infer
the conditions under which the rock containing them was formed. These are called
index minerals. The progressive increase in pressure and temperature conditions
relates to different degrees of metamorphism:

Page 79
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Low-grade metamorphism
Intermediate-grade metamorphism
High-grade metamorphism

Page 80