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SUSTAINABLE GROWTH
AND APPLICATIONS IN
RENEWABLE ENERGY
SOURCES
Edited by Majid Nayeripour and
Mostafa Kheshti
Sustainable Growth and Applications in Renewable Energy Sources
Edited by Majid Nayeripour and Mostafa Kheshti
Published by InTech
Janeza Trdine 9, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia
As for readers, this license allows users to download, copy and build upon published
chapters even for commercial purposes, as long as the author and publisher are properly
credited, which ensures maximum dissemination and a wider impact of our publications.
Notice
Statements and opinions expressed in the chapters are these of the individual contributors
and not necessarily those of the editors or publisher. No responsibility is accepted for the
accuracy of information contained in the published chapters. The publisher assumes no
responsibility for any damage or injury to persons or property arising out of the use of any
materials, instructions, methods or ideas contained in the book.
Preface IX
Chapter 8 Parameterisation of
the Four Half-Day Daylight Situations 147
Stanislav Darula and Richard Kittler
Worldwide attention to environmental issues combined with the energy crisis force us
to reduce greenhouse emissions and increase the usage of renewable energy sources as
a solution to providing an efficient environment. This book addresses the current
issues of sustainable growth and applications in renewable energy sources. The fifteen
chapters of the book have been divided into two sections to organize the information
accessible to readers.
The book provides a variety of material, for instance on policies aiming at the
promotion of sustainable development and implementation aspects of RES. Authors
contributing to the book have tried to prepare the information in an accessible way.
We would like to extend our appreciation to all the authors for their cooperation and
the attention that they have given to this book.
During this project, it was a pleasure for us to work with InTech – Open Access
Publisher. We express our appreciation to all our colleagues in this publication,
especially Ms. Ivana Zec, the Publishing Process Manager in charge of this book
project.
Majid Nayeripour
Faculty of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Shiraz University of Technology,
Iran
Mostafa Kheshti
Xi'an Jiaotong University,
China
Part 1
Sustainable Growth
1
1. Introduction
The concentration of greenhouse gases (GHG) in the atmosphere was at 438 parts per
million (ppm) of CO2 equivalent in 2008, that is almost twice the pre-Industrial Revolution
level (IEA, 2010). Such an increase is mainly caused by fossil fuel combustion for energy
purposes in the power, industry, building and transport sectors (Stern, 2007). In the
Reference Scenario, which gives economic and environmental assessments of a world in
which the economy continues on its current course without polluting emission reductions
policies, fossil fuel use is projected to grow, and the dirtiest fuel, i.e. coal, is expanding its
share to face rising energy demand driven by emerging countries such as China and
India.
The global response to climate change started with the so called Rio Earth Summit in 1992:
governments realized the need to work together for an environmental and sustainable
economic development. The Summit was a first move towards an environmental policy at
global level, by setting the emission reduction targets for developed countries and
establishing a framework of wider reduction for the future from a sustainable development
point of view. Its weak point was that the Summit promised a lot at little cost, since it was
an agreement without stringent measures (Helm, 2008). The Summit has been followed by
several discussions with the purpose of finding optimal shared environmental policy for
facing climate change.
Afterwards, the Kyoto Protocol, an international agreement adopted in Kyoto on
December 1997, has committed (instead of encouraging) 37 industrialized countries and
the European Union (EU) to reduce GHG emissions through national measures. The EU
has undoubtedly made a big effort in developing a progressive environmental policy, but
many of its own policies are still far from making a difference to climate change.
Following the ratification of the Kyoto Protocol in 2002, the EU committed itself to reduce
emissions to 8% below 1990 levels by 2008-2012, allowing different national emissions
target within the EU accounting for different income level, country size and
environmental attitude (Borghesi, 2010).
The current policy action toward green Europe is the so-called 20-20-20 Climate and Energy
Package. The EU aims to limit its 2020 greenhouse gas emissions to 20% below 1990 levels
and to meet a 20% renewables target of total energy supply by 2020. The Package includes a
20% energy efficiency target and a biofuel target of 10% by 2020 (Hepburn et al., 2006). To
meet these targets, governments in EU countries use a large variety of support instruments.
4 Sustainable Growth and Applications in Renewable Energy Sources
The first part of the chapter is then devoted to a critical review of the main international
agreements to reduce climate change and their implementation in the EU environmental
policy. The search for a consensus among EU governments is tricky since energy policies
advocated by EU members differ. Some of them urge on the implementation of nuclear
power, while others advocate the use of renewables instead of nuclear technologies;
anyway, all of them are convinced that the economy cannot rely on fossil fuels anymore
(Nordhaus, 2006).
The second part of the chapter evaluates the range of strategies implemented in different
EU countries to tackle climate change. The primary objective of these strategies is to
increase the use of renewable energy in order to enjoy the environmental benefits and for
energy security reasons (Held et al., 2006). The analysis reviews the EU climate-change
package and the main policy instruments contained in it. We categorize policy
instruments through the most frequently used typology, i.e. price-oriented or quantity-
oriented (Dinica, 2006). Some of them are claimed to be more market friendly than
others, while other schemes are claimed to be more efficient in promoting the
development of renewable energy (Meyer, 2003). Currently, there is no general
agreement on the effectiveness of each scheme. By analyzing the different schemes that
have been used in EU Member States in order to achieve the 20-20-20 targets, the
research takes into account the extent of financial support given by each EU member
region by considering some exogenous factors, as the availability and distribution of
renewable resources, and the institutional context. The strategies planned by
governments imply different costs that might be prohibitive if other countries are not
making comparable efforts.
Finally, the research highlights the problem of coordination among policy makers that
undermines the achievement of the 20-20-20 Climate and Energy Package targets, using a
theoretic model of Nordhaus (2009). It is well-known that EU countries should take
complementary and coordinated actions to green themselves by implementing their own
national plan (Böhringer et al., 2009). Every country would want to spur new activities, new
investment, more employment in its own territory, by using an appropriate mix of local
taxation and subsidies, in conjunction with other command and control instruments.
However, EU countries have the incentive to free-ride, or to impose as few costs as possible
on their home economy while enjoying the benefits created at the other countries’ cost
(Barrett, 1994). So, the research highlight the formidable problems of opportunistic behavior
and inefficient outcomes.
2. Energy trends
According to projections of the Reference Scenario (which gives economic and
environmental assessments of a world in which the economy continues on its current course
without polluting emission reductions policies), energy demand should increase by 1.5%
per year between 2007 and 2030 and fossil fuels remain the main sources of energy. They
represent three quarters of global energy consumption during the same projection period
and the dirtiest fuel, i.e. coal, is expanding its share to face the raising in energy
consumption mainly driven by developing countries, such as China and India. Actually,
non-OECD countries are the main drivers in the increase of energy demand as a result of
their economic and population growth.
EU Energy Policies and Sustainable Growth 5
such disadvantages are several. Methods used by economic engineering to evaluate cost-
accounting of energy technology projects are outdated; as a consequence, renewable
technology projects seems more expensive (Awerback, 2003). Moreover, it has to be taken
into account that production costs of energy from fossil fuels do not internalize both the
environmental and human health externalities. A higher penetration of renewable resources
in the energy mix would lead to both environmental and economic benefits, as a reduction
of polluting emissions and a mitigation of energy import dependency.
The concentration of greenhouse gases (GHG) in the atmosphere was at 438 parts per
million (ppm) of CO2 equivalent in 2008, that is almost twice the pre-Industrial Revolution
level (IEA, 2009). Mostly of the world emissions originates from China and United States,
which together produce about 12.1 Gt CO2 that is 41% of world CO2 emissions. The
relation between GHG emissions and economic growth may be well understood through
the Kaya identity, which expresses CO2 emissions of the energy sector in terms of GDP,
energy intensity of output, and carbon intensity of energy consumption (Stern, 2007):
Carbon Dioxide Emissions population per capita GDP energy intensity carbon intensity
From this identity it is clear that the increase in world GDP tends to increase global
emissions, unless increase in income stimulates a reduction in carbon intensity or total
energy (Nakicenovic et al., 2006).
agreement with manufacturers. Electricity and heat generation constitute the largest
polluting sectors in 2008, by making a 41% contribution to the world CO2 emissions in 2008,
relying on carbon fuel, especially in developing countries such as China and India.
Fig. 2. Top 10 emitting countries in 2008 (Gt CO2). Source: IEA, 2010.
Origin 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 Share 2007(%)
Russia 112.4 136.8 154.7 170.8 188.9 188.0 189.6 185.3 33.9
Norway 115.9 108.1 103.1 106.4 108.6 97.5 89.1 84.3 15.5
Libya 45.5 43.8 39.1 45.9 49.9 50.6 53.1 55.5 10.2
Saudi Arabia 65.1 57.5 53.1 61.5 64.5 60.7 51.1 39.4 7.2
Other, Middle East 54.7 48.2 43.2 27.8 28.5 29.9 32.5 34.4 6.3
Iran 33.5 31.4 25.9 34.7 35.9 35.3 36.3 34.1 6.3
Kazahkhstan 9.9 9.1 13.4 15.9 22.2 26.4 26.8 18.3 3.4
Nigeria 22.4 25.7 18.4 23.2 14.9 18.6 20.2 15.5 2.8
Other Origin 58.2 62.3 64.2 56.6 56.6 66.2 65.9 78.1 14.4
Total Imports 519.8 522.9 515.3 542.9 570.2 573.4 564.7 545.1 100
Table 3. Crude oil imports in the EU27 (in Mt) in 2007. Source: Eurostat (2009)
Origin 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 Share 2007(%)
Russia 4539709 4421515 4554744 4895252 4951044 4952879 4937711 4685365 40.8
Norway 1985231 2136379 2601569 2699473 2801723 2671779 2844237 3061751 16.7
Algeria 2203075 1957181 2132477 2158803 2042137 2256826 2132236 1943976 16.9
Nigeria 172020 216120 217882 335929 410260 436319 563905 588317 5.1
Libya 33442 33216 25536 30390 47809 209499 321150 383615 3.3
Qatar 12443 27463 87952 80414 160170 195713 232721 275496 2.4
Egypt 202419 327394 221305 1.9
Trinidad and Tobago 36334 24498 19120 1365 29673 163233 104917 0.9
Other Origin 112810 199256 125425 100023 313245 409387 227147 213995 12.0
Total Imports 9095064 9015628 9764705 10301649 10726388 11364494 11749734 11478737 100
Table 4. Gas imports in the EU27 (in TJ) in 2007. Source: Eurostat (2009)
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 Share 2007 (%)
Total EU-27 151575 173041 171629 180360 196062 197043 213809 214358 100
Russia 14976 20875 23033 26545 40382 48304 55544 56117 26.2
South Africa 40177 49273 53961 56932 54190 51698 53080 46121 21.5
Australia 28600 29450 29337 31004 30838 27013 27147 29069 13.6
Colombia 23132 22633 21398 22908 24224 24147 26068 29018 13.5
United States 20447 20119 14082 12619 15416 15673 17370 20833 9.7
Indonesia 9097 10254 11540 13004 13980 14704 21092 17594 8.2
Other 15146 20437 18278 17348 17032 15504 13508 15606 7.3
Table 5. Coal imports in the EU27 (in kT) in 2007. Sources: Eurostat (2009)
3. Policy
The global response to climate change started with the so called Rio Earth Summit in 1992:
governments realized the need to work together for an environmental and sustainable
economic development. The Summit was a first move towards an environmental policy at
global level, by setting emission reduction targets for developed countries and establishing a
framework of wider reduction for the future from a sustainable development point of view. Its
weak point was that the Summit promised a lot at little costs, since it was an agreement without
stringent measures (Helm, 2008). The Summit has been followed by several discussions with the
purpose of finding optimal shared environmental policy for facing climate change.
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