Module -2

Baseband Transmission and Line Coding

Baseband Transmission: Pulse Code Modulation, Delta Modulation,
Intersymbol Interference; Nyquist Criterion for Zero ISI.

Line Coding Techniques: Unipolar, Polar, and Bipolar Coding;

Manchester Coding

Eye Diagram and Equalization: Eye Diagram Interpretation; Adaptive

Equalization Techniques

Textbook -3: Chapters 7 & 8- 7.9, 7.10,8.4,8.5,8.6,8.8

Textbook-2: Chapter 8- 8.2
PCM (Pulse Code Modulation)

In pulse-code modulation (PCM) a message signal is represented by a

sequence of coded pulses, which is accomplished by representing the signal in
discrete form in both time and amplitude.

The basic operations performed in the transmitter of a PCM system are

sampling, quantizing, and encoding,
The low-pass filter prior to sampling is included to prevent aliasing of the
message Signal.

The quantizing and encoding operations are usually performed in the same
circuit, which is called an analog-to-digital converter.

The basic operations in the receiver are regeneration of impaired signals,

decoding, and reconstruction of the train of quantized samples.

Regeneration also occurs at intermediate points along the transmission path as

necessary
SAMPLING

The message signal is sampled using narrow pulses, requiring a rate above twice
its highest frequency W(sampling theorem) for perfect reconstruction. A low-pass
filter removes components above W before sampling. This process reduces a
continuous signal to a finite set of discrete values per second.
QUANTIZATION
The sampled message signal is quantized into discrete time and amplitude values.

Instead of uniform quantization, a nonuniform quantizer is often used, giving

smaller step sizes for weak signals and larger ones for strong signals.

This improves accuracy for low-level signals while using fewer steps overall.

Nonuniform quantization is equivalent to compressing the signal before applying

uniform quantization, with μ-law compression being a common method.
The use of a nonuniform quantizer is equivalent to passing the baseband signal
through a compressor and then applying the compressed signal to a uniform
quantizer.
A particular form of compression law that is used in practice is the so called μ-law
defined by

where m and v are the normalized input and output voltages, and μ is a positive
constant.
Another compression law that is used in practice is the so-called A-law defined
by
In order to restore the signal samples to their correct relative level, we must, of
course, use a device in the receiver with a characteristic complementary to the
compressor. Such a device is called an expander.

Ideally, the compression and expansion laws are exactly inverse so that, except
for the effect of quantization, the expander output is equal to the compressor
input. The combination of a compressor and an expander is called a compander.
When a continuous message signal is sampled and quantized, it must be encoded
for efficient and noise-resistant transmission.
Encoding maps each quantized value to a code word made of discrete symbols
(e.g., presence/absence of a pulse).
In binary coding, symbols are 0 or 1, making it robust to noise and easy to
regenerate.
An R-bit binary code can represent 2R distinct values—for instance, 256
quantization levels require an 8-bit code word.
REGENERATION
The block diagram shows a distorted PCM wave going through:
● An amplifier/equalizer,

● A timing circuit,

● A decision-making device,

● Producing a clean, regenerated PCM wave.

Regenerative repeaters are used in digital systems to combat distortion and
noise by reconstructing the signal as it travels through a channel. These
repeaters perform three key functions:
1. Equalization – Adjusts the received signal to correct for channel-induced
distortion.

2. Timing – Generates a timing pulse to determine the better interval to sample

the signal.

3. Decision Making – Compares the sampled signal to a threshold to decide

whether it represents a 0 or 1, and then regenerates a clean pulse accordingly.
However, the regenerated signal departs from the original signal for two main
reasons:

1. The unavoidable presence of channel noise and interference causes the repeater to
make wrong decisions occasionally, thereby introducing bit errors into the
regenerated Signal.

2. If the spacing between received pulses deviates from its assigned value, a jitter is
introduced into the regenerated pulse position, thereby causing distortion.
Main Sources of Error:
1. Channel noise and interference can cause incorrect decisions, leading to
bit errors.

2. Jitter (variations in pulse timing) can cause distortion in the regenerated

signal.
 01101001
1. Unipolar Nonreturn-to-Zero (NRZ) Signaling.

In this line code, symbol 1 is represented by transmitting a pulse of amplitude A for the duration of
the symbol, and symbol 0 is represented by switching off the pulse, as in Figure a.

This line code is also referred to as on-off signaling.

A disadvantage of on-off signaling is the waste of 2 power due to the transmitted DC level
2. Polar Nonreturn-to-Zero (NRZ)
power due to the transmitted DC level. Polar Nonreturn-to-Zero (NRZ) Signaling.
In this second line code, symbols 1 and 0 are represented by transmitting pulses of
amplitudes +A and-A, respectively, as illustrated in Figure b.
This line code is relatively easy to generate and is more power-efficient than its unipolar
counterpart.
3. Unipolar Return-to-Zero (RZ) Signaling.
In this other line code, symbol 1 is represented by a rectangular pulse of amplitude A and half-symbol
width, and symbol 0 is represented by transmitting no pulse, as illustrated in Figure c.
4. Bipolar Return-to-Zero (BRZ) Signaling.

This line code uses three amplitude levels as indicated in Figure d. Specifically, positive and negative
pulses of equal amplitude (i.e., +A and-A) are used alternately for symbol 1, with each pulse having a
half-symbol width.

No pulse is always used for symbol 0. A useful property of the BRZ signaling is that the power
spectrum of the transmitted signal has no DC component and relatively insignificant low-frequency
components for the case when symbols 1 and 0 occur with equal probability.

This line code is also called alternate mark inversion (AMI) signaling.
5. Split-Phase (Manchester Code). Or Bi Phase

In this method of signaling, illustrated in Figure e, symbol 1 is represented by a positive pulse of

amplitude A followed by a negative pulse of amplitude-A, with both pulses being a half-symbol
wide.

For symbol 0, the polarities of these two pulses are reversed.

The Manchester code suppresses the DC component and has relatively insignificant low frequency
components, regardless of the signal statistics.

This property is essential in some applications.

UP-NRZ

0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0.
UP-RZ

0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0.
Polar NRZ

0100111010
Manchester line encoding

0100111010
Unipolar line encoding uses only one voltage level, either
positive or negative.
Polar line encoding uses two distinct nonzero symmetrical but
opposite voltage levels, positive and negative. There are three types
of polar line encoding techniques such as the following:
Polar NRZ-M (Mark)

Definition
In polar NRZ-M format, a binary data 1 (or mark) is represented by
a change in voltage level from its previously held voltage level, and
a binary data 0 is represented by no change in voltage level from its
previous one (that is, it remains same).

0100111010
Polar NRZ-S (Space)

Definition In polar NRZ-S format, a binary data 1 is represented by

no change in voltage level from its previous one (that is, it remains
same), and a binary data 0 (or space) is represented by a change
in voltage level from its previously held voltage level.

0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0.
Bi-phase Level (Bi -Ѱ- L), or Manchester Line Encoding

Definition In Manchester line encoding format, a binary data 1 is

represented by a half-bit-wide (Tb/2) pulse positioned during the
first half of the bit interval (Tb); a binary data 0 is represented by a
half-bit-wide (Tb,/2) pulse positioned during the second half of the
bit interval (Tb).

0100111010
Differential Manchester Line Encoding

Definition In differential Manchester line encoding format, the bit

(1 or 0) representation is defined by a transition for binary 0 and
no transition for binary 1 at the beginning of the bit, in addition
to transition at the middle of the bit interval for synchronization.

0100111010
Biphase Mark (Bi-Ѱ-M) Line Encoding

Definition:
In bi-Ѱ-M line encoding format, a binary data 1 is represented by a
second transition which takes place at one-half-bit-wide (Tb/2) pulse
interval later; and a binary data 0 is represented by no second
transition.
0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0.
Biphase Space (Bi -Ѱ- S) Line Encoding

Definition In bi-Ѱ-S line encoding format, a binary data 1 is

represented by no second transition; and a binary data 0 is
represented by a second transition one-half-bit-wide (Tb,/2) pulse
interval later.

0100111010
Bipolar or Multilevel Binary Line Encoding

Many binary waveforms use three voltage levels (+V, 0, and -V), instead of
two voltage levels (+V and 0, or 0 and-V, or +V and-V), to encode the
binary data.

Definition : Multilevel binary codes that use more than two voltage levels to
represent the binary data are referred to as dicodes.
Bipolar NRZ Line Encoding
Definition : In bipolar NRZ line encoding format, the alternating +V and -V voltage
levels are used to represent binary data 1.

● If first binary data 1 is represented by +V, the second binary data 1 will be
represented by -V, and the third binary data 1 will be represented again by +V, and
so on.

● Thus, the alternate transitions occur even when consecutive binary data 1s occur.
● The zero voltage level is used to represent binary data 0.

0100111010
High Density Bipolar (HDB) NRZ Line Encoding
Bipolar Return-to-zero alternate-mark-inversion (BP-RZ-AMI) Line Encoding

Definition:
In BP-RZ-AMI line encoding format, the binary data 1 is represented by
equal-amplitude alternating pulses, and binary data 0 is represented by the absence of
pulses.
Binary Eight Zeros Substitution (B8ZS) Line Encoding

Definition In B8ZS line encoding format, whenever eight consecutive binary 0’s
appear in given binary data sequence,

one of two special bit pattern (either +-0-+ 0 0 0, or - + 0 + - 0 0 0 where +

and - represent bipolar logic 1 conditions, and a 0 indicates a logic 0 condition) is
substituted for eight consecutive 0’s.
DELTA MODULATION

Delta modulation (DM), an alternative method for digitally representing analog

signals that addresses the high bandwidth requirements of Pulse Code
Modulation (PCM).
Oversampling: DM uses a sampling rate much higher than the Nyquist rate to
increase correlation between adjacent samples, enabling simpler encoding.

Staircase Approximation: The signal is approximated in a stepwise fashion.

Two-Level Quantization: Only two levels are used:

● +Δ: if the approximation is below the signal, it increases.

● −Δ: if the approximation is above the signal, it decreases.

Condition: The signal must not change too rapidly so that the approximation stays
within ±Δ of the actual signal.
Notation:

● Input signal: m(t)

● Staircase approximation: mq(t)

Comparator: Finds error between input and previous
approximation

Quantizer: Converts error to +Δ or -Δ (binary)

Accumulator: Updates approximation

Encoder: Sends binary output

Accumulator: Reconstructs the staircase signal

Low-pass filter: Smooths out the staircase into a

continuous analog signal
What is Delta Modulation?
Delta Modulation (DM) is a simple method of converting an analog signal into
a digital one by tracking the change (or difference) between signal samples
rather than the absolute values.
How It Works:
1. Oversampling: The input signal is sampled at a high rate (more than
Nyquist rate).

2. Staircase Approximation: The system creates a step-by-step estimate

of the signal, going up or down by a fixed amount Δ.

3. Only Two Levels:

If the signal goes up, add +Δ
If the signal goes down, subtract −Δ
● m(nTs): input signal at time step nnn

● mq(nTs): staircase approximation

● Ts: sampling period

● e(nTs): error (difference between input and approximation)

● eq(nTs): quantized error

Limitations:
● Slope Overload: If the signal changes too fast, DM can't keep up.

● Granular Noise: If Δ is too small, it introduces noise.

● Slope-overload distortion = when DM can't climb steep slopes.

● Granular noise = when DM "jumps around" on flat parts of the signal.

1. Slope Overload

Happens when the input signal changes too quickly.

The fixed step size Δ can't keep up with the fast change.

Result: The approximation lags behind the input signal and creates large errors.
To Avoid the problem
2. Granular Noise
● Happens when the signal is flat or slowly changing.

● A large step size causes the approximation to oscillate around the

actual signal.

● Result: Noise even though the signal is not changing much.

● Small step size → good for low-level signals (but causes slope
overload)

● Large step size → good for fast changes (but causes granular
noise)
Solution: Adaptive Delta Modulation
● Make the step size Δ variable, depending on how the input signal is behaving.

● Large Δ for fast changes, small Δ for slow/flat areas.

● This balances between accuracy and distortion.

Conclusion
The required Δ just right: not too small to miss fast changes, not too big to
cause bouncing noise. Adaptive methods helps adjust it dynamically.
INTERSYMBOL INTERFERENCE
What is ISI?
● When we transmit digital signals (like 1s and 0s), each bit is represented by a
pulse.
● In an ideal channel, each pulse would stay separate (only at its own bit time).
● In a real channel, pulses spread out (due to limited bandwidth and channel
imperfections).
● As a result, one pulse overlaps with the next pulse → making it hard for the
receiver to decide if the received signal is a 1 or 0.
● unwanted overlapping is called Intersymbol Interference (ISI).
Example: It’s like people talking at the same time → the words overlap, and you
can’t understand properly.
Why does ISI occur?
1. Channel is band-limited → It cannot pass all frequencies of the pulse →
pulse spreads in time.

2. Pulse distortion due to multipath or frequency-dependent effects.

How to remove ISI?
We want pulses that:
● At their own sampling instant = maximum value (clear decision: 1 or 0).

● At all other sampling instants = zero (no effect on other bits).

This leads us to the Nyquist Criterion for Zero ISI.