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The French Revolution: Causes, Outbreak, Reforms, and the Terror

I. Events and Factors Leading to the Revolution

The French Revolution of 1789 did not emerge out of a single spark but out of a long
process of accumulating social, economic, and political tensions. France in the late
eighteenth century was a kingdom in crisis, still bound by a medieval structure yet subject to
the new winds of Enlightenment and economic hardship. The old regime, or ancien régime,
was rigidly hierarchical. At its core was the division of French society into three estates. The
First Estate, the clergy, numbered around 130,000 individuals and owned about 10 percent
of the land. They drew revenue through tithes and enjoyed exemption from direct taxation.
The Second Estate, the nobility, numbered around 400,000, held 25 percent of the land,
monopolised army and state offices, and also enjoyed exemption from many taxes.
Together, these two estates — less than 3 percent of the population — held privileges and
wealth far beyond their numbers. The burden of taxation fell almost entirely on the Third
Estate, comprising peasants, artisans, workers, and the bourgeoisie, who together
represented 97 percent of the nation’s people.

The fiscal crisis was acute. France had been bankrupted by decades of warfare. The Seven
Years’ War (1756–1763) had ended in humiliation and loss of colonies. To this was added
the cost of assisting the American War of Independence (1775–1783), which drained over
1.3 billion livres. By 1788, nearly 50 percent of state revenue went to service debt, while only
19 percent was available for ordinary administration and public works. At the same time,
harvest failures in 1788–1789 led to bread shortages and steep price rises. In Paris, the
price of bread doubled, consuming nearly half the income of an ordinary worker. Hunger,
unemployment, and discontent spread through both city and countryside.

The monarchy, however, proved incapable of leadership. Louis XVI, who had come to the
throne in 1774, was conscientious but indecisive. His Austrian-born queen, Marie Antoinette,
was widely hated for her extravagance, symbolised by the phrase (probably apocryphal) “Let
them eat cake.” Repeated attempts at reform — by finance ministers Turgot, Calonne, and
Necker — proposed taxing the privileged orders, but each was defeated by the resistance of
the parlements (the high courts dominated by nobles). Thus, while commoners paid heavy
dues such as the taille (land tax), gabelle (salt tax), and feudal obligations like the corvée
(forced labour), the nobility and clergy contributed little.

Ideas also played their part. The Enlightenment had undermined the ideological foundations
of monarchy. Montesquieu in The Spirit of the Laws (1748) advocated separation of powers.
Voltaire championed religious tolerance and freedom of thought. Jean-Jacques Rousseau in
The Social Contract (1762) argued that sovereignty resided in the people, declaring: “Man is
born free, and everywhere he is in chains.” These ideas were widely read, especially by the
bourgeoisie. The successful example of the American Revolution further proved that
monarchy could be challenged and liberty secured.
The immediate trigger came with the summoning of the Estates-General on 5 May 1789, the
first time since 1614. Each estate was represented, but the rules allowed one vote per
estate. This meant the clergy and nobility could always outvote the Third Estate. The
deputies of the Third Estate, inspired by the Abbé Sieyès’ pamphlet What is the Third
Estate? — “What is the Third Estate? Everything. What has it been in the political order?
Nothing. What does it want to be? Something.” — broke away. On 17 June 1789, they
declared themselves the National Assembly, claiming to represent the French nation. On 20
June, they took the Tennis Court Oath, vowing not to disperse until France had a
constitution. This act marked the beginning of open revolution.

II. Events of the Outbreak of the Revolution

The summer of 1789 saw the Revolution explode from political quarrels into mass action.
The king’s dismissal of Necker on 11 July 1789 provoked fury in Paris. Crowds, already
restless due to food shortages, armed themselves. On 14 July 1789, they stormed the
Bastille, an old fortress-prison symbolising royal despotism. Though only seven prisoners
were found inside, the fall of the Bastille became a symbol of liberty and the people’s
triumph. The governor, de Launay, was killed, his head paraded on a pike through Paris. The
event electrified France; municipal militias were formed, and peasants rose across the
countryside.

This peasant insurrection became known as the Great Fear (July–August 1789). Rumours
circulated that nobles had hired brigands to burn harvests. In response, peasants attacked
manor houses, destroyed feudal records, and refused to pay dues. Many nobles fled abroad
as émigrés, appealing to foreign powers for aid.

Urban crowds also played their part. On 5 October 1789, thousands of Parisian women,
angered by the price of bread, marched to Versailles. They forced the royal family to move
back to Paris, effectively making them prisoners of the people. The Revolution was no longer
confined to speeches and debates; it had become a mass movement driven by hunger, fear,
and anger.

III. The August Decrees and the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen

Faced with mass revolt, the National Assembly acted decisively. On the night of 4 August
1789, noble deputies, in a dramatic session, renounced their privileges. The August Decrees
abolished feudal dues, tithes, seigneurial rights, venal offices, and provincial privileges. In
one night, centuries of feudalism were swept away.

This was followed by the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen, adopted on 26
August 1789. Drafted with the influence of Lafayette and American revolutionary ideals, it
proclaimed that “men are born and remain free and equal in rights.” These rights included
liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression. Law was declared to be the
expression of the general will. Freedom of speech, press, and religion were guaranteed. All
sovereignty resided in the nation, not in the king. Though it left unresolved the status of
women, slaves, and the poor, the Declaration became the ideological charter of the
Revolution and one of the most famous political texts in history.

IV. The Constitution of 1791 and the Civil Constitution of the Clergy

The National Assembly now turned to the creation of a new order. The Constitution of 1791
established France as a constitutional monarchy. Legislative power was vested in the
Legislative Assembly, elected by active citizens — men who paid taxes equal to three days’
wages. Passive citizens, the poor, had no vote. The king retained only a suspensive veto
and was stripped of absolute power. The judiciary was made independent, guilds were
abolished by the Le Chapelier Law (June 1791), and provinces were replaced with 83
départements to create administrative uniformity.

One of the most controversial reforms was the Civil Constitution of the Clergy, passed on 12
July 1790. It nationalised Church lands, which were used to back the new paper currency,
the assignats. Bishops and priests were to be elected by citizens and paid by the state. All
clergy had to swear an oath of loyalty to the constitution. About half of France’s clergy
refused, becoming known as refractory priests. The Pope condemned the measure, and
devout Catholics felt betrayed. This division between “jurors” and “non-jurors” tore French
society apart, especially in rural regions like the Vendée.

The king’s own conduct deepened the crisis. In June 1791, Louis XVI attempted to flee in the
Flight to Varennes, hoping to reach loyalist forces. He was captured and brought back under
guard. Trust in the monarchy collapsed. When France declared war on Austria and Prussia
in April 1792, suspicions of the king’s collusion with the enemy grew. On 10 August 1792,
the Tuileries Palace was stormed, and the monarchy was suspended. On 21 September
1792, the Convention proclaimed France a Republic.

V. The Terror: Factors, Institutions, Laws, Dechristianisation, and the End

The execution of Louis XVI on 21 January 1793 plunged France into crisis. Externally, the
First Coalition of Austria, Prussia, Britain, Spain, and others waged war against the Republic.
Internally, revolts erupted, most dramatically in the Vendée, where royalists and peasants
opposed conscription and dechristianisation. The Republic seemed besieged from all sides.

To defend the Revolution, the Convention established the Committee of Public Safety in April
1793. Under the leadership of Maximilien Robespierre, it became the effective executive
government. Alongside it functioned the Committee of General Security, which oversaw
policing and surveillance. The Revolution now moved into the phase known as the Reign of
Terror (1793–1794).

The Convention passed sweeping laws. The Law of Suspects (17 September 1793) allowed
the arrest of anyone suspected of counter-revolutionary sympathies. The Revolutionary
Tribunal, established in March 1793, tried thousands. The Law of the Maximum (29
September 1793) fixed grain prices and wages to ensure supplies. In June 1794, the Law of
22 Prairial further broadened the definition of treason and removed the right to defence,
accelerating executions.

Dechristianisation campaigns spread across France. Churches were closed, crosses and
relics destroyed. In Paris, the Cathedral of Notre Dame was converted into a Temple of
Reason, and the Cult of Reason was proclaimed. In May 1794, Robespierre attempted to
moderate this with the Cult of the Supreme Being, a deist civic religion. The old calendar
was replaced with the Revolutionary Calendar, beginning from 22 September 1792, with
ten-day weeks and new names for months.

Executions became the order of the day. Between 1793 and 1794, around 16,000 people
were guillotined, including aristocrats, priests, and revolutionaries themselves. Leaders such
as Georges Danton, once a hero of the Revolution, and Jacques Hébert, the radical
journalist, were executed. Even scientists like Antoine Lavoisier met their deaths. The
guillotine in the Place de la Révolution became the symbol of revolutionary justice.

But the Terror could not last. By the summer of 1794, France’s military fortunes improved
with the victory at Fleurus (26 June 1794). The external threat receded, but Robespierre’s
uncompromising zeal created fear even among his allies. On 27 July 1794 (9 Thermidor
Year II), he was overthrown in the Convention and executed the next day. With his death, the
Terror ended, and the Revolution entered a more moderate phase under the Directory.

Conclusion

From its beginnings in the social and fiscal crisis of the old regime, the French Revolution
passed through successive stages: the challenge to absolutism in 1789, the mass uprising
symbolised by the Bastille, the abolition of feudalism in the August Decrees, the
proclamation of universal rights in the Declaration, the experiment of constitutional monarchy
in 1791, and finally the radical dictatorship of the Terror. Each phase combined extraordinary
hope with bitter conflict. The Revolution abolished feudalism, shattered privilege, and
introduced ideals of citizenship that would reverberate worldwide. Yet it also showed how
ideals of liberty could turn to fear, violence, and repression under the pressure of war and
division.

The French Revolution was both a triumph and a tragedy. But its legacy — the belief in
liberty, equality, and fraternity — survived the guillotine and the Terror, shaping the modern
world.

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 Summary Class 3 (14-08-2025) - Disha and Pragati

French Revolution (1789-99)

Before delving into the French Revolution, it is essential to understand the social structure that
shaped the psyche behind the mass uproar, ultimately sparking one of the greatest revolutions
of the century and altering the face of Europe altogether.

Social structure-
French society in the eighteenth century was deeply stratified and discriminatory, divided rigidly
on the basis of birth and economic background. It was organized into three estates: the First
Estate, the clergy (including bishops and archbishops), the Second Estate, the nobility
(consisting of aristocracy, parliamentarians, and dukes), and the Third Estate or commoners, a
broad category that encompassed merchants, artisans, peasants, and professionals. Needless
to say, the burden of taxation fell disproportionately on the Third Estate, which paid a variety of
dues such as the taille (direct tax), tithe to the Church, and the unpaid labour of the corvée. In
stark contrast, the nobility and clergy enjoyed extensive privileges, exemptions, and
concessions, often benefiting directly from the taxes extracted from the common people. The
clergy, for instance, owned nearly a tenth of the land yet were exempt from taxation, offering
instead the voluntary don gratuit to the Crown; similarly, the nobility not only resisted fiscal
reform but also extracted feudal dues from the peasantry. Even the economically powerful
bourgeoisie, enriched through trade and professions, remained excluded from noble privilege
and political power. This imbalance sharpened resentment, as those most responsible for
sustaining the state were the least privileged within it, laying the foundations for revolutionary
hostility toward the Ancien Régime.

Crisis-
The French Revolution was preceded by a severe national crisis that stemmed from multiple
causes- financial, economic, administrative, and political. These crises collectively destabilized
the monarchy and fueled widespread discontent among the masses.

- Financial Crisis: The roots of France’s financial breakdown lay in decades of reckless
spending and costly wars. Under Louis XIV, continuous wars against Spain and other
European powers drained the treasury and created massive budget deficits. Successive
monarchs were compelled to borrow heavily from bankers and merchants, leading to
unsustainable debt. Eventually, the Finance Minister announced that the treasury was
empty, declaring the Crown’s inability to repay nearly 121 billion livres, which drove
creditors and debtors alike into bankruptcy. The tax system further worsened the
situation: the privileged estates (clergy and nobility) were largely exempt from direct
taxation, leaving the burden of ever-increasing levies to fall on peasants, artisans, and
the urban poor. This inequitable system deepened resentment against both the
monarchy and the privileged classes.
However, warfare alone did not account for the bankruptcy. The monarchy’s
extravagance, opulence, and display of grandeur, most visibly reflected in the
construction of Versailles and the shifting of the royal court there, not only strained state
 finances but also came to symbolize the widening disconnect between the Crown and its
suffering subjects.
- Economic Crisis: Parallel to financial mismanagement, France faced a devastating
economic collapse. Crop failures due to famine led to severe shortages of bread, while
supplies of meat and wine also dwindled as prices soared. The agrarian economy
suffered, and industries were equally hit: inflation and economic panic crippled demand,
as ordinary people could afford little beyond bare essentials like food and medicine. This
decline in consumption left industries with unsold inventory, triggering layoffs and
deepening unemployment. The urban centers, especially Paris, became flashpoints of
unrest, as bread riots revealed not just economic desperation but also a growing political
consciousness among the lower classes. The cry for “bread” soon merged with calls for
“justice” and “equality.”

The desperation and anonymity born out of these crises culminated in riots, mob lynchings,
and widespread robbery, reflecting the simmering rage of a population pushed to the edge of
survival.
 Summary of Lecture (20th August)
History of Modern Europe - I

By Tabassum Parveen (644) and Tanu Dhankar (79)

In the previous lecture, we had discussed the crisis which engulfed France in the later part of the
Ancien regime. There was an economic crisis because of crop failures, shortage of bread (and
hence bread riots), inflation and crisis in the industrial sector due to lack of demand among
people (as their purchasing power was too low to even afford the basic necessity of food) etc.
There was a financial crisis because of expensive wars, extravagance in opulence etc. However,
in contrast to the starving condition of the people and dwindling economy, the monarchy was
engaged in extravagance and leading a lavish life. This created the crisis of legitimacy. The king
appeared detached and unable to address suffering, leading to widespread questioning of royal
authority.
To solve this crisis, reforms were needed. If taxes were increased, it could lead to further
decrease in demand leading to worsening of the crisis. So, the only solution was to restructure
the entire taxation system and equalize taxes to be paid by all the three estates and not only the
third estate. But this was not easy.

Equalizing taxes
The equalization of taxes required the approval of parlement (court of law in France) which was
dominated by nobles. Since the majority constituted nobility, Louis XVI thought that they would
never sanction this reform. Hence, he convened an “assembly of notables”, handpicked by him,
in 1787. Though some enlightened nobility understood that the times of hierarchy were gone and
there should be an end to noble privileges now, they feared ministerial despotism and royal
absolutism. As a result, the outcome was against the equal tax reform. A Second “assembly of
notables” was convened but the outcome was the same.

Louis XVI then turned to parlement, but the nobility was against the tax reform. He even goes to
provincial parlements, but they were even more adamant towards preserving the noble privilege.
This led Louis XVI to exile many nobles. This act by the king caused widespread unrest and
even commoners sided with nobles at this stage because both opposed centralization of power in
the hands of the king.
Facing a deadlock, Louis XVI convened the “estate general”. It was a representative statutory
body in France, whose members were elected from among all the three estates through election.
In this body, the three estates represented an equal number of representatives. Although it may
look fair, it was framed in such a way that the clergy (first estate) and nobility (2nd estate)
always had an upper hand over the commoners (third estate), leading to verdict in the favour of
the clergy and nobility.
Hence, the third estate demanded:
(a) Double representation (since they formed the majority of the population)
(b) Voting by head and not by order (so that they could outvote clergy and nobility)

But the Paris parliament ruled that as per 1640, voting will be done by head and not by order.
This angered the Third Estate as clergy could always outvote them. This shifted their support
from aristocracy to royalty. Now, they wanted the abolition of noble privileges. Many parish
priests (who were within the first estate but hailed from common backgrounds) also supported
the Third estate, showing divisions in the first estate.

Hierarchy within the first Estate

The First Estate in France (before 1789) consisted of the clergy, but it was not a uniform body. It
had a clear hierarchy within itself, marked by wealth, power, and proximity to the king:

Pope

High Clergy
Cardinals, Archbishops, Bishops, Abbots,
Cathedral Canons, Priors

Lower Clergy
Parish priests, Vicars, Friars, Monks and Nuns

Process of election of the representatives of the estate general

The elections were organized by dividing the country into constituencies with separate
assemblies for each of the three estates.

For the 1st and 2nd estates (Clergy and Nobility) - elections were likely a single-tier process,
as it explicitly contrasts them with the Third Estate's method. Members of these estates would
meet in their respective assemblies within a territorial unit and directly elect their representative
to the Estates General.

For the Third Estate- The election for the Third Estate was a two-tier, indirect process. The
common people would first elect representatives to a "secondary assembly." This secondary
assembly was made up of wealthier members who had met a property qualification. These
members would then be the ones to elect the final representatives to sit in the Estates General.
The speaker notes that this system ensured that only the wealthier, educated members of the
Third Estate, such as lawyers and petty officials, were ultimately chosen to represent the
common people.

● List of Grievances (Cahiers de Doléances)

Simultaneously with the elections, at the request of the King, these assemblies were also tasked
with drawing up a list of grievances, known in French as ‘Cahiers de Doléances’. This process
was highly significant and “politicizing.” It made people aware of the problems they had long
tolerated, creating a sense of intolerance towards the status quo. This act of listing the grievances
intensified the public’s desire for a change.

Nature of Monarchy

It is always helpful if in a situation of crisis there is a strong leader, but unfortunately France
didn’t have a strong leader during this time. Louis XVI, the absolutist monarch of France, was
ruling at this moment. Prior to him, Louis XIV and Louis XV were the rulers of France.
Louis XIV built the palace of Versailles, elevated the status of the monarchy and also spent a
huge amount of money fighting numerous wars. His successor was Louis XV. He was a very
unpopular ruler, he also led France into expensive wars which also became futile as they lost
those wars. He left France absolutely at the brink of a crisis and the person who inherited the
throne was his grandson and that was Louis XVI who was even worse.
Louis XVI didn’t have good decision making skills and no leadership qualities. He did not have
the kind of prestige and power that the monarchy really needed to keep its glory intact. He got
married to the princess of Austria Marie Antoinette, their marriage was celebrated at that time as
Austria and France were at war and people felt this marriage is cementing an alliance which will
bring these hostilities and wars to an end. Marie Antoinette was initially welcomed by French
people but after a few years into the marriage she became extremely unpopular for two reasons.
1. She failed to produce an heir
2. At the time when Paris and much of France was going through a very severe economic
crisis, she represented an extravagant lifestyle; Marie’s extravagance, luxury, and
indifference to commoners earned her the nickname “Madame Déficit.”

The French monarchy's image, once considered sacrosanct and based on the divine right to rule,
was deliberately undermined. This was done by attacking the royal family's personal lives,
particularly focusing on their sexuality.

The queen, Marie Antoinette, was a central target. She was nicknamed “Madame Deficit” due
to her association with the nation's financial problems. However, the most damaging attacks were
sexual. She was portrayed as promiscuous, with a "voracious sexual appetite," and accused of
having affairs with nobles, lesbian relations, and even incestuous acts with her own son. The
king, Louis XVI, was depicted as a weak and impotent husband, which had some basis in a
medical issue that delayed the couple from having children for years.

These accusations, though largely unsubstantiated, were spread widely through contraband
literature, including pamphlets with "dirty poems" and stories mocking the royals. Despite the
severe legal risks including heavy fines, imprisonment, and even the death penalty, the trade of
this obscene material flourished due to profit in this.

The historical truth of these allegations is less important than the perception they created among
the public, which severely damaged the monarchy's prestige and ultimately contributed to its
downfall.

Lefebvre's Classification of the French Revolution

The classic work of historian Georges Lefebvre, The Coming of the French Revolution, provides
a framework for understanding the revolution. Lefebvre divides the revolution into four distinct
phases:

1. The Aristocratic Revolution

2. The Bourgeois Revolution
3. The Urban Revolution
4. The Peasant Revolution

The “aristocratic revolution” phase, said by G. Lefebvre in which initially, the aristocracy and
the Third Estate (commoners) formed a temporary alliance. The nobility framed their resistance
to the King's centralizing policies not as a defense of their own privileges, but as a fight against
royal despotism that threatened everyone. This rhetoric successfully led the Third Estate,
including the urban poor, to believe the fight was "our revolution" and their "common cause."
They joined in widespread protests and even engaged in armed combat against royal troops.

Conclusion

The final days were a perfect storm of converging crises that made revolution inevitable.
Structural inequalities, rooted in the Three Estates system, created a deeply unfair society
where the clergy and nobility enjoyed vast privileges while the Third Estate bore the full burden
of taxation. This was exacerbated by severe economic hardship, including a crippling bread
crisis and national debt, which led to widespread suffering.

Politically, the monarchy was caught in a stalemate with the nobility, as seen in the deadlock
over tax reform and the summoning of the Estates-General. This conflict, combined with the
king's indecisiveness and the scandalous public image of Marie Antoinette, led to a critical loss
of legitimacy for the monarchy. The public's perception of a detached and corrupt royal family,
whose personal lives were mocked in widely circulated contraband pamphlets, completely
destroyed their pre-modern sacrosanct, divinely-appointed status.

These factors transformed what began as an aristocratic resistance to royal authority into a
full-scale popular revolution. The convergence of these political, economic, and social failures
created the fertile ground for the Third Estate to rise and demand a radical end to the old order,
ultimately leading to the French Revolution.
 Summary of lecture (22 August 2025)
History of Modern Europe I

By Riya Khanduri(213)and Deeksha Rana(29)

Previously studied:-
Post the Revolution in France, which combined the efforts of the bourgeoisie, aristocracy,
peasants and the municipal revolution, the National Assembly was formed, and its primary
function was drafting the Constitution. The power had been transformed.

While drafting the Constitution, the first and monumental document released by the National
Assembly was the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen on August 27, 1789.
This document talked about the rights of citizens, universal rights, and universal citizenship, but
it left out women and slaves. This was a path-breaking event in history, as this document and its
ideas became the basis of laws that later became an indispensable part of the constitutions of
several third-world countries post their independence. Another transformation that followed in
August was the complete power shift from royal authority to democratic power. The people were
growing impatient and there was huge pressure on the National Assembly to bring out some
interim reforms to assist the French in their grim circumstances. These interim reforms, which
came in August, came to be known as the August Decrees.

AUGUST DECREE
The standing features of the August Decrees were the declaration of the end of feudalism and
the redefinition of the entire country into a rationalised structure of different departments
(provinces), with the smallest unit being the commune. The ideas of popular sovereignty came
in, where officials from the highest to the smallest units were elected via elections. Members of
the church were also elected and this infiltrated the entire society—church, judiciary, and army.
Now the priests were the salaried employees of the state. The church's properties were
confiscated and auctioned. A new paper currency was issued, named assignat (earlier livre),
with the nationalised church property as the reserve against the currency notes. The whole
structure of the judiciary was changed. The structural changes in the administration and
functioning of the society had roots connected to the Enlightenment. Louis XVI continued to
differ problematically and didn't ratify, which was somehow still deemed necessary as he was
installed as the head of the state then. This made the population extremely impatient, which
culminated in the incident of the October Days.

OCTOBER DAYS
On October 5–6, about 7,000 women of Paris, mostly market vendor women who used to sell
fish and did other activities requiring active physical involvement and were physically powerful,
marched through the 21-mile journey towards the Palace of Versailles to pressure the king to
ratify the declarations. These women were very muscular and heavily built, the type one should
not mess with. They attacked the palace and forced Louis XVI to sign. The tricolour had been
adopted as the national flag and the tricolour cockade as the national symbol, and the king
was forced to wear it. It also marked revolutionary symbolism. Half of the problem was solved
by the signing of the declarations, but another half remained: the king and his family still lived in
the Palace of Versailles, which was remote from Paris and kept them detached and oblivious to
the actual hardships of the people. Since Paris was the heart of France it was significant to
understand it to rule France. The next morning these women forced the royal family to move to
Paris.

While bringing them to Paris, they sang various victory songs, including vulgar ones mocking
the sexual appetite of the queen and the impotency of the king. One of the popular slogans
raised by the women was: “We brought the baker, baker’s wife, and baker’s boy.” This
slogan signified the shortage of bread and economic hardships, with the king as “baker”
symbolising the father figure in the patriarchal society of France. The march was accompanied
by a lot of violence, with palace guards’ heads chopped and displayed on pikes as people
marched. Once again, the bourgeoisie members were delighted with the show of strength of the
commoners or the sans-culottes.

SOCIAL STRUCTURE OF THE THIRD ESTATE

In the Third Estate, 80% were peasants, but apart from wealthy people there were artisans,
journeymen, apprentices, petty shopkeepers, etc. These were the menial people who worked
with their hands. The derogatory term used for them was sans-culottes( who wore full pants
unlike French men who wore knee breeches), which later transformed into a self-conscious
identity carried with pride and were seen as patriots and democrats, just like “Dalits” in South
Asia who were once considered low-born but later used the term as an assertion of self-respect.
The sans-culottes signified patriots and nationalists, and they strengthened the authority of the
National Assembly.

CONSTITUTION
Finally, in 1791 the Constitution was adopted, which reworked the entire political system of
France. Monarchy still existed, but its powers were limited by the written Constitution. The
monarch was still the head of the armed forces and chose his council of ministers, but they were
accountable to the National Assembly. The power of suspensive veto was given to the king,
according to which a bill could be deferred for the next two years for re-discussion, but not given
an absolute veto. There was not even a suspensive veto in financial matters, elections, or the
property clause. The National Assembly, which constituted the constitution, was now formally
replaced by the National Convention, the new government.

STRUCTURE OF THE NEW GOVERNMENT AND POLITICAL CULTURE

The new government did not have bicameral houses; there was only one Assembly. There were
no ruling parties, and a totally new political culture emerged. This new political culture included
political societies and clubs. The most important among these clubs were the Jacobins and the
Girondins. Jacobins, also known as Montagnards, sat on the top benches in the theatre-like
Assembly. They were important in Paris, fewer in number, and firmly believed in a unitary
centralised polity. In contrast, the Girondins were more important in the provinces
GIRONDINS JACOBIN
Consisted of the Also called
wealthy bourgeoisie “montagnares”
and enterprises. (meaning-
mountain).

They were fewer in Usually sat at the

number. top benches of the
assembly.

Represented the idea Favoured the idea

of federalism of centralised
government.

Successful in Successful in
provinces. Paris.

Women were largely excluded from these groups. There was another group known as the Plain,
who sat in the bottom seats in the Assembly. They were free-floating independent voters and
issue-based voters. Mostly, the Girondins were the party of wealth, the Plaine raised common
issues, and the Jacobins represented the sans-culottes, though their leading members were
wealthy—for example, Robespierre, Marat, and Danton.

The National Assembly operated from the palace in Paris where the royal family lived. The
queen (Austrian) would receive some assistance from there. The uncontented king decided to
flee the country. However, he failed, as when he was very close to the Austrian border, he was
apprehended. The king’s act of abandoning his people was seen as an act of treason, and the
only punishment for this was execution by guillotine. After a mock trial, the head of the monarch,
Louis XVI, was finally chopped off by the guillotine on January 21, 1793.

CONCLUSION

The French Revolution in its early phase was not merely a political upheaval against
monarchy—it was a complete restructuring of society, governance, and political culture. From
the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the August Decrees to the October Days and the
Constitution of 1791, every step marked a radical break with the old regime. The rise of the
sans-culottes gave voice to the marginalised, while the emergence of political clubs like the
Jacobins and Girondins reshaped how politics was imagined and practised. The execution of
Louis XVI in 1793 symbolised the irreversible triumph of popular sovereignty over divine
kingship. What began as a constitutional monarchy quickly escalated into a revolutionary
republic, setting the stage for Europe’s modern political experiments with democracy,
nationalism, and popular mobilisation.
 HISTORY OF MODERN EUROPE 1
SUMMARY OF LECTURE
DATED: 21/08/25
Noted by Ayushi (358) and Aakriti (528)
Class 3B

Introduction

In the previous lecture, we covered the efforts of Louis XVI to equalize taxes, the nature of
the French monarchy and problems within it. In continuation with the last lecture, we proceed
to understand the crisis of legitimacy and the subsequent series of events that led to the
calling of the Estates General, the formation of the National Assembly, the rise of citizens’
militias, the Storming of the Bastille, etc. cultivating into Bourgeoisie, Municipal and Peasant
Revolutions.

Crisis of Legitimacy

Explicit contraband materials like visuals and prints of the sexual life of the king Louis XVI
and Queen Marie Antoinette were circulated. Please refer to Lynn Hunt: Politics, Culture and
Class in the French Revolution (for illustrations and her interpretations of the contraband
material flowing in the market at the time)

Image 1: Illustration of contraband material during the French Revolution by an anonymous artist.

One example of such pornographic contraband targeting the monarchy depicted the queen
seated with her genitals exposed, while the king appeared in a futile attempt at intercourse.
Such imagery symbolically mocked the king’s impotence and questioned the authority of the
monarchy itself. It depicted - when the King can not exert dominance over his wife then how
will he control his subjects? It was more a matter of political image than sexual impotence.
This created the crisis of legitimacy or the crisis of monarchy.

Importantly, these pornographic materials are a rich archive for historians.

Marie Antoinette was simultaneously accused of transgression, extravagance that added to

the Royal budget deficit. Moreover, Enlightenment ideas like questioning monarchy and the
authority of church also added to the fire. Caricatures of priests, church, nobility, came up
in which their authority was being questioned.

Calling of the Estates General

With multiple crises: financial, economic, leadership, the Estates General was called out but
it had its own structural issues. Out of two demands of third estate’s Louis XVI who was
indecisive and weak, despite the advice of Necker, only agrees to the demand of double
representation and refuses to vote by head.

The third estate’s animosity shifted from royal order to the privileged order after the Paris
Parlement's ruling that the voting would be like 1614 (voting by order and no double
representation). This is when the Third estate realised that the battle was against privileged
order to preserve their own concessions and interest.

Overnight the war of words began by the third estate through journals, articles, magazines
etc. talking about rights, equality, borrowing the rhetoric from enlightenment and beating at
the doors of privileges.

According to Lefebvre, the resistance of the Parlements and nobles was the aristocratic
revolution, eventually followed by a bourgeois revolution.

Bourgeois Revolution

France was divided into constituencies, each containing assemblies for the three estates.
Unlike the first and second estate’s representation, the third estate’s representation was
indirect, as the people elected a deputy in the primary assembly. Then these Deputies from
all provinces go to the secondary assembly and out of those, representatives were selected.
A list of grievances was also brought up. Peter McPhee says many peasants went home
feeling very merry after the elections thinking that good times have already started.

A series of humiliations of the third estate started In May 1789, when a meeting of estate
generals took place in the Palace of Versailles. So much so that the humiliation of the third
estate became a theme, some intentional and some accidental, even though, regardless of
how radical the posters were, the third estate's motive was not one of revolution.

For example : Dress was a marker of status. While the first two estates were expected to be
in their high quality uniform, the third estate was asked to wear low quality black cloth,
completely disregarding the fact that the third estate was diverse with many wealthy
landowners and merchants.

For the third estate, the most important issue was that of voting - Voting by head or voting
by order. Except the third order, all others favoured voting by order. Secondly, meetings of
each estate were to be held at separate venues and the third estate was locked out of their
meeting hall (No one knows whether or not it was a conspiracy). Thus they shifted to
another venue - an indoor tennis court. Here they take an oath. They call themselves the
National Assembly ( the idea of nationalism is to be emphasised right over here). They
swear they will continue to deliberate until the formation of the Constitution. This is the
famous Tennis Court Oath. The third estate then calls the other two orders to join.

Image 2: The Tennis Court Oath, 1791. Drawing by Jacques-Louis David.

As stated in the last lecture, Louis XVI had tried to advance the proposal of equalizing taxes
by increasing the proportion of parish clergy in the First Estate as they originally belonged to
the family of commoners. Many of these clergy, along with enlightened members of the
nobility, defected to the National Assembly. Thus, the task of framing a Constitution became
the new goal.

Meanwhile, Necker signals to the King that things may get out of hand and suggests
compromise. Too little too late, Louis XVI gave partial recognition to some of the demands.
By this time the mood was radicalized. The Third Estate was again humiliated when, in the
Royal Assembly, the privileged orders sat according to rank while the Third Estate members
waited in the rain. The radicalization made the king give in and recognize the National
Assembly.

● Rising Tensions in Paris and outside

Meanwhile, the situation in Paris grew volatile. The people of Paris looked towards Versailles
with great hope, tracking events there with intensity. Groups of citizens began arming
themselves and forming a citizen’s militia. Matters worsened when Louis XVI dismissed
Necker. For the people, Necker symbolised their voice and demands, therefore his dismissal
provoked anger. Militancy rose, and the King called 20–30 thousand mercenaries to crush
the situation.

Rising unrest in Paris culminated on 12 July 1789, the Object of hatred were:

a) Tariff barriers. France had tariff barriers every few miles. At each barrier there would
be a price rise. People attacked the officers and burnt all the registers/ledgers.
b) The crowd looted workshops and armories to acquire weapons. St. Lazare
monastery was looted, arms taken, prisoners freed from dungeons. Food grain
stocks found, looted and thought to be a conspiracy against common people to
starve them.
c) A military hospital- Hotel de Invalides was targeted for arms, but the crowd still
lacked gunpowder.

● Storming of the Bastille

This shortage led them to the Bastille prison, a medieval period prison representing royal
tyranny. On 14 July 1789, the people stormed the fortress, killed the guards, freed prisoners,
and executed the governor, whose head was paraded as a warning. The event symbolized
the triumph of the people over royal authority and marked a decisive shift of power to the
National Assembly as Louis XVI agrees. Thus, 14th July became a lasting symbol of
revolution, later celebrated as the French National Day/Bastille day.

Municipal Revolution

The Municipal Revolution was relatively simple, quiet, and non-violent. It involved a nearly
silent transfer of power from the privileged order to the local bourgeoisie. In some areas, the
situation was so disorganized that no taxes were being collected at all, reflecting the
collapse of traditional authority and the gradual assertion of control by local civic leaders.

Peasant Revolution

In the countryside, peasantry eagerly await the reforms. People who looked like Brigands
marched through rice and corn fields. There was a fear that the king may send troops to take
away all the harvest.

This happened in a few villages. News or rather rumour spread quickly in all of France. Thus
the peasantry attacked the manor houses. They burnt the registers and ledgers. The Nobility
were attacked. Grains looted. Riots and arson everywhere.

The National Assembly took no action. They made no efforts to curb the violence as it
solidified their power. Later when affairs calmed down they ordered to kill the insurgent
peasants. Turning their backs on them.

This marked the Peasant Revolution that Lefebvre talked about.

Summary of Lecture on 27th August 2025
History of Modern Europe - I
By- Anshika Tripathi (23/565) and Shreyashree Gautam (23/918)

The class started with a recap on what we discussed in the previous lectures related
to the factors which led to the rise of the revolution in France.
Which was followed by a detailed discussion on different groups and reforms which
were about to take main stage in the revolution.

In the wake of the initial revolution, political life was dominated by various clubs, most
notably the Jacobins and the Girondins. The Jacobins were a radical group
advocating for a republic and social reforms, while the Girondins were more
moderate republicans, they gained huge support and thus sort of formed a working
power in the house.

A pivotal reform was the Constitution of 1791, which sought to create a constitutional
monarchy. It severely limited the King's power and established a Legislative
Assembly. Another significant measure was the Civil Constitution of the Clergy, which
sought to bring the Catholic Church under state control and to institutionalized the
already emerging ideas surrounding the church. This act required clergy/ priests to
swear an oath of loyalty to the nation which was known as the Oath of Allegiance and
they were known as the “constitution clergy", dividing the church and creating a large
group of "refractory priests" who opposed the revolution and refused to take the oath,
as a result they were threatened to death and many of them migrated across the
borders.

The Fall of the Monarchy and the Reign of Terror

The constitutional monarchy was short-lived. The royal family's attempt to flee France
was seen as a betrayal. Attacks started on France from different European powers to
rescue the French royal family. Shift in support to the Jacobins. All this led to the
King's trial and execution for treason. This event marked the end of the monarchy in
which the title of kinship was removed and the declaration of the French Republic. A
new, more radical and libertarian constitution was drafted by the Jacobins,
emphasizing democratic principles in 1792. France became a welfare state. It involved
the Right of Insurrection. The inclusion of this right reflects the radical, democratic
ideas of the Jacobins. They believed that the people, as the source of sovereignty,
had the ultimate authority to overthrow a government that acted against their interests.
While the constitution was never fully implemented due to the war situations and the
possibility to be used by the counter revolutionaries for their advances. Rather another
constitution which was opposite in ideals in comparison to the previous one was
adopted and was called ‘THE TERROR’
The most extreme phase of the revolution was the Period of Terror (1793–1794), led
by Maximilien Robespierre and the Committee of Public Safety. This was a brutal
campaign to eliminate all perceived enemies of the revolution. Guillotine became the
national razor.

Key measures during this time included:

1. The Law of Suspects: This law involves that if any person found in any kind of
suspicion would be reported to the state and will be subjected to a swift arrest
and execution, considered as a threat to the revolution, leading to widespread
purges. This also involved seizing the properties of the suspects.

2. The Law of Maximum: To combat inflation and economic hardship, the

government imposed strict price controls on essential goods. This law was
brought to bring relaxation amongst the people during the period of war.

3. De-Christianization: The state launched a campaign to dismantle the influence

of the Catholic Church, closing churches and promoting a secular society.

The September Massacres of 1792, a brutal episode where the mobs attecked prisons
and murdered thousands of prisoners, many of them who were priests, nobles and
political dissenters.
Notable figures like Jean-Paul Marat, a radical journalist, and the writer of the
newspaper “Friends of the People” who was stabbed to death by Charlotte Corday, a
Girondin sympathizer.
With the coming of enemies to the city of Paris, large scale trials of prisoners started
to take place, due to safety insecurities.

The Directory and the End of the Revolution

The excesses of the Terror and the rise of fear amongst people, led to the downfall of
Robespierre and the Jacobins. After his execution, a more moderate government, the
Directory, was established. It consisted of a five-man executive body that ruled France
from 1795 to 1799. The Directory aimed to restore stability and bring an end to the
revolutionary turmoil.