Chapter 1: Functions

(1) Definition of Function

Definition 1.1

For nonempty sets, 𝐴, 𝐵, a function, or mapping, 𝑓 from 𝐴 to 𝐵,

denoted 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is a relation from 𝐴 to 𝐵 in which every element
of 𝐴 appears exactly once as the first component of an ordered pair in
the relation.

Definition 1.2

Examples

Ex1: If 𝑋 = {1, 2, 3} and 𝑌 = {4, 5}, then:

1) 𝑅 = {(1,4), (1,5), (2,4)} is a relation but it is not function.
Because
i. The ordered pairs (1,4), (1,5) have the same first
component.
ii. 3 ∈ 𝑋 but does not appear as a first component in an
ordered pair of 𝑅.

1
Chapter 1: Functions

𝑋 𝑅 𝑌

1
4
2
3 5

2) 𝑅 = {(1,4), (2,4), (3,4)} is a

function from 𝑋 to 𝑌, although the element 4 appears as a
second component in all ordered pairs of 𝑅.

𝑋 𝑅 𝑌

1
4
2
3 5

Ex2: The following relation is a function

𝑅 = {(1,2), (3,4), (5,1), (4,6)}

1 1
3 1 2
4 4
5 6

Ex3: The following relation is a function

𝑅 = {(1,2), (3,4), (5,1), (4,2)}

2
Chapter 1: Functions
Ex4: The following relation is not a function
𝑅 = {(1,2), (3,4), (5,1), (4,6), (1,6)}

4 1
5

Ex5: Determine which of the following sets is a function. If it is a

function, what is its domain and range?

Exercise 1.1 Determine which of the following sets is a function.

If it is a function, what is its domain and range

3
Chapter 1: Functions

Ex7:

4
Chapter 1: Functions

Exercise 1.2 Use the vertical line to test to identify if the graphs
are functions or not

(2) Some Types of Functions

Polynomial Functions

A polynomial function of degree 𝑛 is a function that can be

written in the form

5
Chapter 1: Functions

𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0

Where 𝑛 is a nonnegative integer, 𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0. 𝑎𝑛 , 𝑎𝑛−1 ,…, 𝑎1 ,
𝑎0 are numbers called coefficients. This course assumes
that all coefficients are real numbers.
It should be obvious from the definition that the domain of
every polynomial function is the set of all real numbers.

 Types of polynomial functions

I would very much like to have a complete list of the types of
polynomial functions. I know that there's:

Constant function: 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑎0 , 𝑎0 constant

Linear function: 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0
Quadratic function: 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0
Cubic function: 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑎3 𝑥 3 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0

Examples

Ex 1: 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 2, which is a polynomial of degree 0, as 0 is the

highest power of 𝑥 in the formula. This is called a constant function.

Functions containing other operations, such as square roots, are not

polynomials. For example,

Ex 2: 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 4 − 4 𝑥 −2 + 1

 This is not a polynomial as it contains a negative integer.

Ex 3: 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 5 − 4 √𝑥 + 1

6
Chapter 1: Functions
This is not polynomial as it contains a square root.

Rational function

A rational function is a quotient of two polynomials 𝑃(𝑥) and 𝑄(𝑥) such

𝑃(𝑥)
as 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑞(𝑥)

whose graph is given in the following Figure

For example, 𝑓(3) = |3| = 3 , 𝑓(−3) = |3| = −(3) = 3

Example The function

7
Chapter 1: Functions

Example 2.1

8
Chapter 1: Functions

Exercise 2.1 1) The graph of a function 𝑓 is shown in Figure

2) Find the domain of the following functions:

 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 5
 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑡 2 − 6𝑡
 𝑓(𝑥 ) = √4 − 𝑥 2
𝑥 5𝑥+4
 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑓(𝑥 ) =
3𝑥−1 𝑥 2 +3𝑥+2

9
Chapter 1: Functions

(3) Even and odd functions

Definition: Even and odd functions.

If for any 𝑥 from a function domain:
𝑓(−𝑥 ) = 𝑓(𝑥 ), then this function is called even.
If 𝑓(−𝑥 ) = −𝑓(𝑥 ), then this function is called odd.

A graph of an even function is symmetrical relatively 𝑦 –axis (Fig. 5).

A graph of an odd function is symmetrical relatively the origin of

coordinates (Fig. 6).

Example 3.1 Determine whether each o8f the following

functions is even, odd, or neither even nor odd.

10
Chapter 1: Functions

The graphs of the functions in Example 9 are shown in the following

figure. Notice that:
The graph of 𝑓 is symmetric about the origin.
The graph of 𝑔 is symmetric about the y-axis.
The graph of ℎ is symmetric neither about the y-axis nor about the
origin.

Exercise 3.1 Determine whether is even, odd, or neither.

𝑥
 𝑓(𝑥 ) =
𝑥+1
 𝑓(𝑥 ) = √4 − 𝑥 2
 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 1 + 3𝑥 3 − 𝑥 5

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Chapter 1: Functions

(4) Function composition

Example 4.1 Given 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 2 𝑥 + 3 and 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 .

,
Solution
(i) (𝑓𝑜𝑔)(𝑥 ) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥 )) = 𝑓(𝑥 2 ) = 2 𝑥 2 + 3

(ii) (𝑔𝑜𝑓)(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑔(2 𝑥 + 3)

= (2 𝑥 + 3)2 = 4 𝑥 2 + 6 𝑥 + 9

(iii) (𝑔𝑜𝑓 )(3) = 𝑔(𝑓(3)) = 𝑔(9) = 81

1 1 1 1 1
(v) (𝑓𝑜𝑔) ( ) = 𝑓 (𝑔 ( )) = 𝑓 ( ) = 2 + 3 = + 3 = 3.5
2 2 4 4 2

Example 4.2

and find (𝑔𝑜𝑓)(3)

12
Chapter 1: Functions

1 1
and (𝑔𝑜𝑓)(3) = = .
√3+1+2 4

1
Exercise 4.1 Given 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 − 4 and 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 2 𝑥 + 8.
2

Find (i) (𝑓𝑜𝑔)(𝑥 ) (ii) (𝑔𝑜𝑓)(𝑥 ) (ii) (𝑔𝑜𝑓)(5)

(5) Inverse Function

Definition 5.1 (one – to- one Function)

One-to-one (1-1) function

𝑋 𝑓 𝑌

1 1
3 2
4 4
5 1 6

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Chapter 1: Functions
𝑓 is not 1-1 function
𝑋 𝑓 𝑌

2 2

3 3

4 4

5 5

Example 5.1 Show that 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 3 𝑥 − 5 is injective.

Solution
Let 𝑓(𝑥1 ) = 𝑓(𝑥2 )
∴ 3 𝑥1 − 5 = 3 𝑥2 − 5 3 𝑥1 = 3 𝑥2
∴ 𝑥1 = 𝑥2
Remark

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Chapter 1: Functions
Definition 5.3 (Inverse function)

i.e. Let 𝑓: 𝑋 → 𝑌 be a 1-1 function such that 𝑌 = 𝑓(𝑋). Then

𝑓 −1 : 𝑌 → 𝑋 is called the inverse function of 𝑓. Furthermore

Example 5.2

𝑋 𝑓 𝑌

1 5
2 6
3 7
4 8

𝑋 𝑓 −1 𝑌

1 5

2 6

3 7

4 8

15
Chapter 1: Functions
Note: If the original function is a one-to-one function, the inverse
will be a function.

Steps of finding 𝑓 −1 (𝑥)

Step 1: Substitute 𝑦 for 𝑓(𝑥).

Step 2: Interchange 𝑥 and 𝑦.
Step 3: Solve, if possible, for 𝑦 in term of 𝑥.
Step 4: Substitute 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) for 𝑦.
Step 5: Verify that (𝑓𝑜𝑓 −1 )(𝑥 ) = ( 𝑓 −1 𝑜𝑓)(𝑥 ) = 𝑥.

Example 5.3 Find the inverse of the function 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 2 𝑥 − 6 .

Solution

Step 1: 𝑦 =2𝑥−6
𝑥 ↔𝑦
Step 2: 𝑦 =2𝑥−6 𝑥 =2𝑦−6
1
Step 3: 2 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 6 𝑦= 𝑥+3
2
1
Step 4: 𝑓 −1 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥+3
2

Step 5: Verify that ( 𝑓𝑜𝑓 −1 )(𝑥 ) = ( 𝑓 −1 𝑜𝑓)(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 .

1
( 𝑓𝑜𝑓 −1 )(𝑥 ) = 𝑓( 𝑓 −1 (𝑥 )) = 𝑓 ( 𝑥 + 3)
2
1
= 2( 𝑥 + 3) − 6 = 𝑥 + 6 − 6 = 𝑥
2
( 𝑓 −1 𝑜𝑓)(𝑥 ) = 𝑓 −1
(𝑓(𝑥 )) = 𝑓 −1 (2 𝑥 − 6)
1
= (2 𝑥 − 6) + 3 = 𝑥
2

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Chapter 1: Functions

Example 5.4

Exercise 5.1 Use the horizontal line test to determine whether the
given function is one to- one

Exercise 5.1

17
Chapter 1
(6 ) Trigonometric Functions

Trigonometric functions are the functions sine, cosine,

tangent, cotangent, secant, and cosecant. The values of
these functions at a real number 𝑥 are denoted
by sin 𝑥, cos 𝑥, tan 𝑥, cot 𝑥, sec 𝑥, csc 𝑥, respectively.

The six trigonometric ratios, or trigonometric functions, are

defined as follows.

opposite
Sine of 𝜃 = sin 𝜃 = hypotenuse
adjacent
Cosine of 𝜃 = cos 𝜃 = hypotenuse
opposite
Tangent of 𝜃 = tan 𝜃 = adjacent
adjacent
Cotangent of 𝜃 = cot 𝜃 = opposite
hypotenuse
Secant of 𝜃 = sec 𝜃 = adjacent
hypotenuse
Cosecant of 𝜃 = csc 𝜃 = opposite

18
 Chapter 1

Notice that the three ratios [𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝜽 , 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝜽 , 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝜽] are reciprocals of
the ratios [𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 , 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 , 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽]. We now present the
connection between these functions.
𝐨𝐩𝐩 𝟏 𝟏
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = = 𝐡𝐲𝐩 =
𝐡𝐲𝐩 𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝜽
𝐨𝐩𝐩

𝐚𝐝𝐣 𝟏 𝟏
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 = = 𝐡𝐲𝐩 =
𝐡𝐲𝐩 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝜽
𝐚𝐝𝐣

𝐨𝐩𝐩 𝟏 𝟏
𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽 = = 𝐚𝐝𝐣 =
𝐚𝐝𝐣 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝜽
𝐨𝐩𝐩

𝑜𝑝𝑝
𝑜𝑝𝑝 ℎ𝑦𝑝 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 = = 𝑎𝑑𝑗 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
𝑎𝑑𝑗
ℎ𝑦𝑝

𝑎𝑑𝑗
𝑎𝑑𝑗 ℎ𝑦𝑝 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝜃 = 𝑜𝑝𝑝 = 𝑜𝑝𝑝 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝜃 =
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
ℎ𝑦𝑝

19
Chapter 1

From the triangles, we obtained the following table

The values of tan 𝜃, cot 𝜃, sec 𝜃, and csc 𝜃 can be determined from their
relationships with sin 𝜃 and cos 𝜃.

 Graphs of the Trigonometric Functions

20
Chapter 1

21
Chapter 1

 Formulas and Identities

Tangent and Cotangent Identities

𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥

Reciprocal Identities
1 1
sin 𝑥 = cot 𝑥 =
csc 𝑥 tan 𝑥
1 1
cos 𝑥 = sec 𝑥 =
sec 𝑥 cos 𝑥
1 1
tan 𝑥 = csc 𝑥 =
cot 𝑥 sin 𝑥

22
Chapter 1

Pythagorean Identities
sin2 𝑥 + cos 2 𝑥 = 1
1 + tan2 𝑥 = sec 2 𝑥
1 + cot 2 𝑥 = csc 2 𝑥

Sum and Difference Formulas

sin (𝑥 ± 𝑦) = sin 𝑥 cos 𝑦 ± cos 𝑥 sin 𝑦
cos (𝑥 ± 𝑦) = cos 𝑥 cos 𝑦 ∓ cos 𝑥 cos 𝑦
tan 𝑥±tan y
tan(𝑥 ± y) = 1∓ tan 𝑥 tan y

Double Angle Formulas

sin 2𝑥 = 2 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥
cos 2 𝑥 − sin2 𝑥
cos 2𝑥 = { 2 cos 2 𝑥 − 1
1 − 2sin2 𝑥
2 tan 𝑥
tan 2𝑥 =
1 − tan2 𝑥

Half Angle Formulas

2
1
sin 𝑥 = [1 − cos 2𝑥 ]
2
2
1
cos 𝑥 = [1 + cos 2𝑥 ]
2
1 − cos 2𝑥
tan2 𝑥 =
1 + cos 2𝑥

23
Chapter 1

Even / Odd Formulas

sin(− 𝑥 ) = − sin 𝑥 cot(−𝑥 ) = − cot 𝑥
cos(−𝑥 ) = cos 𝑥 sec(− 𝑥 ) = sec 𝑥
tan(−𝑥 ) = − tan 𝑥 csc(− 𝑥 ) = − csc 𝑥

(7) Exponential functions

Consider a function of the form

𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑎 𝑥 , 𝑎 > 0.
Such a function is called an exponential function. We can
take three different cases, where 𝑎 = 1, 0<𝑎<1
and 𝑎 > 0.
Case 1: If 𝑎 = 1 then
𝑓(𝑥 ) = 1𝑥 = 1.
Therefore, this just gives us the constant function.
Case 2: If 𝑎 > 1
To examine this case, take a numerical example. Suppose
that 𝑎 = 2.
𝑓(𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 .

24
Chapter 1

𝑥 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
𝑓(𝑥 ) 0.125 0.25 0.5 1 2 4 8
Plot a graph of the function 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 , we get

𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥

Case 2: If 0 < 𝑎 < 1

To examine this case, take a numerical example. Suppose
1
that 𝑎 = .
2

1 𝑥
𝑓(𝑥 ) = (2) = 2− 𝑥 .

𝑥 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
𝑓 (𝑥 ) 8 4 2 1 0.5 0.25 0.125

𝑓(𝑥) = 2−𝑥

25
Chapter 1

A particularly important example of an exponential

function arises when 𝑎 = 𝑒. Where 𝑒 is irrational the
number. The value of 𝑒 accurate to eight places is
2.71828183. The function 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑒 𝑥 is called the natural
exponential function. We can sketch the graphs of the
exponential functions 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑒 𝑥 and 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑒 −𝑥 .
20

15

10
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥
−𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒
5

3 2 1 1 2 3

Domain: 𝑅 Range: (0, ∞)

Basic properties of natural exponential function.

𝑒 𝑥 𝑒 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥+𝑦 𝑒𝑥
= 𝑒 𝑥−𝑦 𝑒𝑦
(𝑒 𝑥 )𝑛 = 𝑒 𝑛 𝑥 1
𝑒 −𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥
𝑒0 = 1 𝑒1 = 𝑒
𝑒∞ = ∞ 𝑒 −∞ = 0

26
Chapter 1

(8) Logarithm functions

We shall now look at logarithm functions. These are

functions of the form

𝑓 (𝑥 ) = log 𝑎 (𝑥) , 𝑎 > 0.

We do not consider the case 𝑎 = 1, as this will not give us

a valid function.

 If > 1.
To examine this case, take a numerical example. Suppose
that 𝑎 = 2.
𝑓(𝑥 ) = log 2 𝑥
𝑥 0.25 0.5 1 2 4 8
𝑓(𝑥 ) −2 −1 0 1 2 3

𝑓(𝑥) = log2 𝑥

For the special case where 𝑎 = 𝑒 we often write ln 𝑥 instead

of log 𝑒 𝑥.

27
Chapter 1
The function 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = ln 𝑥 is called the natural logarithm function.

𝑓(𝑥 ) = log 𝑒 𝑥 = ln 𝑥, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 > 0

We can see the relationship between the exponential function

𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑒 𝑥 and the logarithm function 𝑓(𝑥 ) = ln 𝑥 by
looking at their graphs.

The exponential function 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑒 𝑥 is the inverse of the logarithm

function 𝑓(𝑥 ) = ln 𝑥. If 𝑦 = l n 𝑥, then 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑦

𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑒 𝑥 : Domain: 𝑅 Range: (0, ∞)

𝑓(𝑥 ) = ln 𝑥: Domain: (0, ∞) Range: 𝑅

Properties of the natural logarithm function.

ln (𝑥 𝑦) = ln 𝑥 + ln 𝑦 𝑥
ln ( ) = ln 𝑥 − ln 𝑦
𝑦
ln (𝑥 𝑟 ) = 𝑟 ln 𝑥 ln lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = lim ln 𝑓(𝑥 )
𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞
𝑥)
ln (𝑒 = 𝑥 𝑒 ln 𝑥 = 𝑥
ln 𝑒 = 1 ln 1 = 0
ln 0 = −∞ ln ∞ = ∞

28
 Inverse Trigonometric Functions

(9) Inverse trigonometric

functions
Inverse trigonometric functions represent another group of
basic functions that are added to our library of elementary
functions. These functions are used in many applications
and mathematical developments, and will be particularly
useful to us when we solve trigonometric equations.
Inverse Sine Function
The inverse sine function, denoted by sin−1 or arcsine, is
defined by:
𝑦 = sin−1 𝑥 𝑥 = sin 𝑦
𝜋 𝜋
−1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1 , −2 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 2
To graph 𝑦 = sin−1 𝑥 , take each point on the graph of the
restricted sine function and reverse the order of the
𝜋
coordinates. For example, because (− 2 , −1) , (0,0) and
𝜋
( 2 , 1) are on the graph of the restricted sine function, then
𝜋 𝜋
(−1, − 2 ) , (0,0) and (1, 2 ) are on the graph of the inverse
sine function. Using these three points provides us with a
quick way of sketching the graph of the inverse sine
function. A more accurate graph can be obtained by using a
calculator.

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 Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Important Rules
 The −1 in the notation sin−1 𝑥 corresponding to the −1
in the notation 𝑓 −1 . In particular, this −1 is not intended
to be an exponent. The negative first power of sin 𝑥
should be written (sin 𝑥 )−1 in order to avoid confusion.
 The notation sin−1 𝑥 may be read “𝑦 is the inverse sine
of 𝑥”
Form the properties of the inverse sine function we have:
(i) . sin(sin−1 𝑥 ) = 𝑥, if −1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1.
𝜋 𝜋
(ii) . sin−1 (sin 𝑥) = 𝑥, if − 2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2.
1 1 1
Ex: sin (sin−1 2) = 2, since −1 ≤ 2 ≤ 1
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
Ex: sin−1 (sin 4 ) = 4 , since −2 ≤ ≤
4 2

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 Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Inverse Cosine Function

The inverse cosine function, denoted by cos−1 or arccos, is defined
by:

𝑦 = cos −1 𝑥 𝑥 = cos 𝑦
−1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1 , 0≤𝑦≤𝜋
Compares the graphs of the restricted cosine function and its
𝜋
inverse. Notice that (0,1), (2 , 0) and (𝜋, 0) are on the restricted
cosine graph. Reversing the coordinates gives us three points on
the graph of the inverse cosine function.

Important Rules

 cos(cos −1 𝑥 ) = 𝑥, if −1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1.
 cos −1 (cos 𝑥) = 𝑥, if 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝜋.
1
 cos −1 𝑥 ≠ [(cos 𝑥 )−1 = cos 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥]
Ex: cos(cos −1 0.2) = 0.2, since −1 ≤ 0.2 ≤ 1
𝜋 𝜋
Ex: cos −1 (cos 𝑥) = 0 , since 0≤ ≤𝜋
2

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 Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Inverse Tangent Function

The inverse cosine function, denoted by tan−1 or arctan, is
defined by:
𝑦 = tan−1 𝑥 𝑥 = tan 𝑦
𝜋 𝜋
−∞ ≤ 𝑥 ≤ ∞ , −2 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 2

Compares the graphs of the restricted tangent function and

𝜋 𝜋
its inverse. Notice that (− 4 , 1) , (0,0) and ( 4 , 1) are on
the restricted tangent graph. Reversing the coordinates
gives us three points on the graph of the inverse tangent
function. Also note that the vertical asymptotes become
horizontal asymptotes for the inverse function.

Important Rules
 tan(tan−1 𝑥 ) = 𝑥, if −∞ ≤ 𝑥 ≤ ∞.
𝜋 𝜋
 tan−1 (tan 𝑥) = 𝑥, if − 2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2.

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 Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Inverse Cotangent, Secant, and Cosecant Functions

We include the definitions and graphs of the inverse

cotangent, secant, and cosecant functions.

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