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Endorsed by

WJEC EDUQAS
GCSE (9–1)
Religious
Studies
ROUTE A
Chris Owens, Ed Pawson
Joy White, Amanda Ridley

i
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Contents
How to use this book iv
Component one: Religious, philosophical and ethical studies in the modern world
1 Issues of relationships 1
2 Issues of life and death 36
3 Issues of good and evil 83
4 Issues of human rights 122
Component two: Christianity
5 Christianity: Beliefs and teachings 167
6 Christianity: Practices 193
Component three: Islam
7 Islam: Beliefs and teachings 226
8 Islam: Practices 250
Component three: Judaism
9 Judaism: Beliefs and teachings 283
10 Judaism: Practices 306

Glossary 340
Index 344
Acknowledgements 349
 How to use this book
Introduction
This book covers the subject content, from a Western religious
perspective only, for the new Eduqas GCSE Religious Studies
qualification. The book spans the whole of the philosophical and
ethical core content, and the Christianity core course content. It
also includes material for the study of the two religious traditions
of Islam and Judaism.
The book is set out in the order of the Eduqas specification to
help students and teachers work through any course of study in
specification order.
The book includes information on all of the key concepts and
detailed content for each part of the specification.
There is some inclusion of references to relevant sources of
wisdom and authority, including scripture and/or sacred texts.
There is no choice of questions in any of the three Eduqas
examination papers, all questions are compulsory.
In your course of study there are some important things you
might need to consider about religious belief and practice in Great
Britain today.
▶ This book takes account of the changing landscape of religious
belief and practice in Great Britain. Christianity was traditionally
the main religion in Britain but today there is great diversity of
belief and practice.
▶ All of the six main world faiths are practised by people in Britain.
▶ Within different religions there is some diversity of belief and
practice.
▶ Many people claim to have no religious belief and practise no
religion and may describe themselves as atheists, agnostics or
humanists.

What is the assessment structure?

The assessment structure for the GCSE Religious Studies
qualification requires students to complete three component
examination papers.

Component one
Component one is the compulsory study of religious, philosophical
and ethical studies in the modern world. The approach is to adopt a
distinctive issues-based approach. This component consists of four
distinct themes. These themes are entitled:
▶ Relationships
▶ Life and death
▶ Good and evil
▶ Human rights.
Each theme is covered in detail in this textbook.
The length of the examination paper for this component is
two hours.
iv
 In response to question (c) you need to be able to reference your

How to use this book

answers to two different religions or two religious traditions.
In response to question (d) you need to be able to reference your
answers to religion and belief and non-religious belief.
This component is worth 50 per cent of the total marks.

Component two
Component two is the compulsory study of Christianity. The focus
of this component is on the beliefs, teachings and practices
of Christianity.
The length of the examination paper for this component is one hour.
This component is worth 25 per cent of the total marks.

Component three
Component three is the study of one optional religion. The focus
of this component is on the beliefs, teachings and practices of the
chosen world faith.
The length of the examination paper for this component is one hour.
This component is worth 25 per cent of the total marks.

Assessment objectives
In each component there are different types of questions on the
examination paper to assess the two different assessment objectives.
The assessment objectives are referred to as A01 and A02 in
the specification.
The two different assessment objectives test different dimensions
of your religious knowledge and understanding.
In the GCSE examinations, each assessment objective is worth
50 per cent of the total mark.

Assessment objective 1
You need to demonstrate knowledge and understanding of:
▶ religion and belief*, including belief, practices and sources of
authority
▶ the influence on individuals, communities and societies
▶ similarities and differences within and/or between religions
and belief.
The form of questions for this assessment objective will vary but
common rubric instructions for this assessment objective are:
▶ State . . .
▶ Define/What is meant by . . . ?
▶ Describe . . .
▶ Explain . . .

Assessment objective 2
You need to analyse and evaluate aspects of religion and belief*,
including their significance and influence.
*The term ‘belief’ includes religious and non-religious belief as appropriate to the
subject content requirements.
v
 The form of question for this assessment objective will provide
you with a statement followed by the rubric instruction:
▶ Discuss this statement showing that you have considered more
than one point of view. (You must refer to religion and belief in
your answer.)

Answering the questions

It is important to know the structure of the exam paper and the
type of questions that will be asked. In each of the units you study
there will be examples of exam questions and reminders of how to
answer them. At the end of each unit there will be some exam type
questions with points to consider when answering them.
For all exam questions consider two questions:
▶ How many marks are awarded for the question? This will help
you consider how much time should be spent on your answer
and the depth of your answer.
▶ What is the question asking you to do? No question will ever
ask you to write all that you know! What are the most important
words in the question? Remember you can highlight them to
help you focus on what the question is asking.
It is important to remember that there are four types of
questions. Each has the maximum number of marks after the
question. The space in your exam booklet will give you an idea of
how much to write. There is never a compulsion or expectation to
fi ll all of the lines; quality is always more important than quantity.
It is also important to look at the marking grids so you can see
what is required for each of the mark bands.

Question (a)
▶ Give one mark to candidates who provide an account limited in
scope or content.
▶ Give two marks to candidates who make an accurate and
appropriate account of the concept and/or provide an accurate
and relevant example.
These are always the first question in each unit. They ask you to explain
what the key concept means. Your explanation can include an example.
Throughout the book you will find definitions and examples
of all the key concepts. You will find there are 8 each for the
Philosophy and Ethics areas you are studying, 8 for Christianity
and 8 for your second religion.
Remember there are only two marks available for these
questions, so it important you are able to give an accurate
definition which is to the point. Examples of (a) type questions and
how to answer them can be found on pages 82, 192, 249 and 305.

Question (b)
In these questions you will be expected to describe a particular
religious teaching or view. There is a maximum of five marks for
this type of question. To gain full marks you should be able to
show your knowledge using appropriate religious terms and any
relevant sources of wisdom or sacred texts.
vi
 How to use this book
Band Band Descriptor Mark total
3 An excellent, coherent answer showing knowledge and 4–5
understanding of the religious idea, belief, practice,
teaching or concept. An excellent understanding of how
belief influences individuals, communities and societies.
Uses a range of religious/specialist language, terms
and sources of wisdom and authority extensively,
accurately and appropriately.
2 A good, generally accurate answer showing knowledge 2–3
and understanding of the religious idea, belief,
practice, teaching or concept.
A good understanding of how belief influences
individuals, communities and societies.
Uses religious/specialist language and terms and/or
sources of wisdom and authority generally accurately.
1 A limited statement of information about the religious 1
idea, belief, practice, teaching or concept. A limited
understanding of how belief influences individuals,
communities and societies.
Uses religious/specialist language and terms and/or
sources of wisdom and authority in a limited way.
0 No relevant information provided. 0

Question (c)
These questions expect you to ‘explain’ a key practice, belief or issue
in the religions you have studied. There is a maximum of eight
marks for this type of question. To gain full marks you should
be able to show a detailed knowledge which shows diversity* of
opinion or practices. You need to use appropriate religious terms
and relevant sources of wisdom or sacred texts.

Band Band Descriptor Mark total

4 An excellent, highly detailed explanation showing 7–8
knowledge and understanding of the diversity of the
religious idea, belief, practice, teaching or concept.
An excellent understanding of how belief influences
individuals, communities and societies.
Uses a range of religious/specialist language, terms
and sources of wisdom and authority extensively,
accurately and appropriately.
3 A very good, detailed explanation showing 5–6
knowledge and understanding of the diversity of the
religious idea, belief, practice, teaching or concept.
A very good understanding of how belief influences
individuals, communities and societies.
Uses a range of religious/specialist language, terms
and sources of wisdom and authority accurately
and appropriately.

*Diversity is only explicitly requested in Component 1 (c) questions and this

marking band refers to those questions only. The (c) questions for components
2 and 3 do not demand diverse views. vii
 2 A good, generally accurate explanation showing 3–4
some knowledge and understanding of the diversity
of the religious idea, belief, practice, teaching
or concept. A good understanding of how belief
influences individuals, communities and societies.
Uses religious/specialist language and terms and/
or sources of wisdom and authority generally
accurately.
1 A limited and/or poorly organised explanation 1–2
showing limited knowledge and understanding of
the diversity of the religious idea, belief, practice,
teaching or concept. A limited understanding of
how belief influences individuals, communities and
societies.
Uses religious/specialist language, terms and/or
sources of wisdom and authority in a limited way.
0 No relevant information provided. 0

Question (d)
These are very important questions as they are worth 15 marks.
The question requires you to read and understand a statement and
then:
Discuss this statement showing that you have considered more than one
point of view. (You must refer to religion and belief in your answer.) (15)
For each question consider:
▶ How many marks? The question is worth 15 marks and therefore
is worth half of each unit. It is important to consider what you
are going to include in your answer before you begin.
▶ What is the question asking you to do? In the question you are
asked to include some different viewpoints. These do not need to
be contrasting, such as two points for and two against, but must
be different. The answer must also include religion and belief in
the answer.
All (d) questions can include non-religious beliefs but Life and
death (d) questions must also include non-religious beliefs.
Throughout the book there are exemplar answers and tasks
which help to practice answering (a), (b), (c) and (d) questions.
There are also tasks which will help you develop skills needed for
the examination:
▶ Using religious and sacred text references
▶ Using religious language and terms
▶ Showing the diversity of beliefs and practices within a religious
tradition
▶ Answering questions on people and charities.

viii
Question 1(d), 3(d) and 4(d)

How to use this book

Band Band Descriptor Mark Total
5 An excellent, highly detailed analysis and evaluation 13–15
of the issue based on detailed knowledge of religion,
religious teaching and moral reasoning to formulate
judgements and present alternative or different
viewpoints. An excellent understanding of how belief
influences individuals, communities and societies.
Uses and interprets religious/specialist language, terms
and sources of wisdom and authority extensively,
accurately and appropriately.
4 A very good, detailed analysis and evaluation of 10–12
the issue based on accurate knowledge of religion,
religious teaching and moral reasoning to formulate
judgements and present alternative or different
viewpoints.
A very good understanding of how belief influences
individuals, communities and societies.
Uses and interprets religious/specialist language, terms
and sources of wisdom and authority appropriately and
in detail.
3 A good, generally detailed analysis and evaluation 7–9
of the issue based on a generally accurate
knowledge of religion, religious teaching and moral
reasoning to formulate reasonable judgements and
recognise alternative or different viewpoints. A good
understanding of how belief influences individuals,
communities and societies.
Uses and interprets some religious/specialist language,
terms and/or sources of wisdom and authority.
2 Limited statement(s) of more than one viewpoint based 4–6
on limited knowledge of religion, religious teaching and
moral reasoning to formulate judgements. A limited
understanding of how belief influences individuals,
communities and societies.
Uses limited religious/specialist language, terms and/or
few sources of wisdom and authority.
1 A poor, basic statement of a point of view and a 1–3
very limited attempt or no attempt to formulate
judgements or offer alternative or different
viewpoints. Tenuous attempt or no attempt made
to demonstrate how belief influences individuals,
communities and societies.
Poor use or no use, of religious/specialist language,
terms and/or sources of wisdom and authority.
0 No relevant point of view stated. 0

ix
 Question 2(d)
Band Band Descriptor Mark Total
5 An excellent, highly detailed analysis and evaluation of the issue based on detailed knowledge of religion, 13–15
religious teaching and moral reasoning to formulate judgements and present alternative or different viewpoints.
An excellent understanding of how belief influences individuals, communities and societies.
An excellent, highly detailed consideration of non-religious beliefs, such as those held by humanists and
atheists.
Uses and interprets religious/specialist language, terms and sources of wisdom and authority extensively,
accurately and appropriately.
4 A very good, detailed analysis and evaluation of the issue based on accurate knowledge of religion, religious 10–12
teaching and moral reasoning to formulate judgements and present alternative or different viewpoints.
A very good understanding of how belief influences individuals, communities and societies.
A very good, detailed consideration of non-religious beliefs, such as those held by humanists and atheists.
Uses and interprets religious/specialist language, terms and sources of wisdom and authority appropriately
and in detail.
3 A good, generally detailed analysis and evaluation of the issue based on a generally accurate knowledge 7–9
of religion, religious teaching and moral reasoning to formulate reasonable judgements and recognise
alternative or different viewpoints. A good understanding of how belief influences individuals, communities
and societies.
A good, reasonably detailed consideration of non-religious beliefs, such as those held by humanists and
atheists.
Uses and interprets some religious/specialist language, terms and/or sources of wisdom and authority.
2 Limited statement(s) of more than one viewpoint based on limited knowledge of religion, religious teaching 4–6
and moral reasoning to formulate judgements. A limited understanding of how belief influences individuals,
communities and societies.
A limited consideration of non-religious beliefs, such as those held by humanists and atheists.
Uses limited religious/specialist language, terms and/or few sources of wisdom and authority.
1 A poor, basic statement of a point of view and a very limited attempt or no attempt to formulate judgements 1–3
or offer alternative or different viewpoints. Tenuous attempt or no attempt made to demonstrate how belief
influences individuals, communities and societies.
A very basic consideration or no consideration of non-religious beliefs, such as those held by humanists and
atheists.
Poor use or no use, of religious/specialist language, terms and/or sources of wisdom and authority.
0 No relevant point of view stated. 0

Additional note
The complete Eduqas specification is available on the Eduqas
website.
There are a variety of digital resources and other materials to
support the teaching of this specification on the Eduqas website.
Further information may be found in the specification content
about alternative routes through the specification based on the
study of other world faiths (Buddhism, Hinduism, Sikhism) not
included in this textbook.
There is also information about an alternative Catholic route
(Route B) through the specification.

x
1 Issues of relationships

▶ The Big Picture

Key Concepts

Adultery Voluntary sexual intercourse between a married person and a person who is
not their spouse.

Divorce To legally end a marriage.

Cohabitation To live together in a sexual relationship without being married or in a

civil partnership.

Commitment A sense of dedication and obligation to someone or something.

Contraception Methods used to prevent a woman from becoming pregnant during or

following sexual intercourse.

Gender equality People of all genders enjoying the same rights and opportunities in
all aspects of their lives.

Responsibilities Actions/duties you are expected to carry out.

Roles Position, status or function of a person in society, as well as the characteristics

and social behaviour expected of them.

Core Questions

Is there such a thing as a Are women and men Should divorced individuals
typical family? equal? be allowed to remarry in
places of worship?

Is cohabitation more Should same-sex Do men and women have

popular than marriage? marriages be allowed in a equal roles in leading
place of worship? worship?

1
 ▶ Overview
Human relationships are at the heart of human existence.
Many human beings are born into a family and the family is the
basic building block of society. Because of the importance of
relationships for many aspects of human life, all religions have
attitudes to, and beliefs about, the importance and nature of
human relationships.
In this theme you will have the opportunity to consider the
attitudes towards and teachings about relationships of the three
monotheistic religions of Christianity, Islam and Judaism and
also the attitudes of a non-religious people, such as humanists.
You will also consider a number of the most important issues
regarding relationships. These include:
▶ The changing nature and role of family life in Britain.
Christianity, Islam and Judaism all regard marriage as the basis
for family life and many humanists would agree with this view.
▶ Changing attitudes to marriage as people are increasingly
Task choosing to cohabit or marry in non-religious ceremonies. These
Discuss some of the ‘core changing attitudes raise issues about topics such as adultery,
questions’ on page 1 in pairs. separation, divorce and remarriage.
Write a brief answer to one of ▶ Different attitudes to sexual relationships. All three religions
them, showing you have thought have specific teachings about the nature and purpose of sex
about different perspectives. and the conditions under which contraception may be used. In
twenty-first-century Britain there have been significant changes
in attitudes to same-sex relationships.
▶ Attitudes towards men and women and issues of gender equality.

Diversity within religion and society

In order to understand the range of teachings and attitudes about
human relationships in and between religions it is important to
understand the diverse nature of religious belief in twenty-first-
century Britain.
Some religious believers think that the teachings contained in
Monotheistic religions religions
sacred texts need to adapt or change because of changing views in
that believe there is only one God.
society. Others do not believe in changing any teachings and hold
Secular a society where religious them to be absolutely true. The diversity of attitudes and beliefs
beliefs and practices are towards issues relating to relationships is explained by this.
increasingly less important to a In addition to the diversity within religious traditions, twenty-
growing number of people. first-century Britain is an increasingly secular country with a
1 Issues of relationships

Pluralism the existence of different steady decline in the number of people claiming to belong to any
groups and beliefs within society. religion or belief. Many people who claim no religious affi liation
may describe themselves as atheist, agnostic or humanist and may
not accept traditional religious viewpoints. There is an increasing
pluralism of religious belief and practice in British society and
different religions will have different perspectives and viewpoints on
human relationships. The increasing pluralism and secularisation
in Britain has implications for changing attitudes towards issues
concerning relationships.

2
 ■ Relationships

What is a family?
▶ What is a family?
Task The family is the foundation for all human activity. It is where all
human relationships begin and are developed. Within each family
1 In the quote on the right,
the norms and values of society are lived out in practice and a
Rabbi Schneerson says the
new generation of children are brought up into adulthood. The
‘family is a microcosm of the
importance of the family for society may be summed up in the
universe.’ By this he means
following quotation:
a representation of the
universe in miniature. Why do ‘The home should be perceived as a microcosm of the universe: The
you think he calls the family harmony that permeates the home and the family extends beyond,
this? (The rest of the quote fostering harmony between families, communities, and ultimately the
should help you.) nations of the world. In the absence of harmony between one’s own
family, we can hardly expect to find harmony between strangers.’
Rabbi Menachem Schneerson

3
 ▶ Types of family
Task There are many different types of family. The traditional form of
Look at each type of family the family, an extended family, has been replaced by a variety of
discussed on this page. In family forms.
pairs discuss the positives and The most common types of family are:
negatives of each family type.
Nuclear family
The most common type of family in modern Britain is the
nuclear family. It consists of two parents and one or more
child(ren) all living in the same house.

Extended family
The extended family structure consists of a number of
adults and children who are related living in the same
home. This may include many relatives living together in
close proximity; for example, cousins, aunts, uncles and
grandparents all living together and sharing in family roles.
Extended families consist of different relatives all
living together
Reconstituted family
Some divorced adults choose to remarry or live in a co-
habiting relationship. This may lead to the creation of a
reconstituted family. This type of family structure is made
up of a mix of step-parents and step-children.

Single parent family

The single parent family is where one parent raises one or
more children alone. The number of single parent families
has continued to rise in modern Britain as a result of an
increasing rate of divorce.
Single parent families are becoming more common Childless family
in Britain
A childless family is where a married or co-habiting couple
are either unable to have children naturally or decide not to
have children. Same-sex couples are often a childless family.
1 Issues of relationships

Some couples decide not to have children

4
 ▶ Roles of men and women in the family

Roles of men and women in the family

Key Concepts

Roles Position, status or function of a person in society, as well

as the characteristics and social behaviour expected of them.

Responsibilities Actions/duties you are expected to carry out.

Within a family the members have different roles and

responsibilities. These could include:
▶ caring for children
▶ caring for other family members, for example looking after
elderly relatives
▶ maintaining the family home
▶ earning money to support the family.
Both women and men aim to provide love, comfort, protection
and support for each other and for any children. Both have a
role to play in the education of children to become responsible
adults and future parents. They should show mutual support
of each other. Men and women are both important role models
for children.

Traditional views
In the past Christianity, Islam and Judaism all held a very
traditional view of the role of women and men in family life. The
Patriarchal a family or society man was responsible for providing for the family through work and
controlled by men. the mother was responsible for domestic life. The views of the three
Matriarchal a family or society religions were ‘patriarchal’ (the opposite of matriarchal) in the
controlled by women. sense that the man was seen very much as the leader of the family.
For example, the following quotation from the Qur’an shows a
very traditional view of the family roles. Men are in charge of the
Task family unit, with women referred to as their ‘subjects’. Women are
Look at the different roles in responsible for the home and children:
the family. Which do you think ‘God’s Apostle said, “Surely! Everyone of you is a guardian and is
were traditionally carried out by: responsible for his charges: The Imam [ruler] of the people is a guardian
• women and is responsible for his subjects; a man is the guardian of his family
• men [household] and is responsible for his subjects; a woman is the guardian
• both men and women? of her husband’s home and of his children and is responsible for them;
and the slave of a man is a guardian of his master’s property and is
Do you think this has now
responsible for it. Surely, everyone of you is a guardian and responsible
changed in society? Discuss
for his charges.”’
as a class, using evidence
from these pages. Hadith Sahih Bukhari 9:89:252
The last sentence, however, could be used to support a more modern
view in which both parents are responsible for the children in a family.

5
 Christians, Jews and Muslims
Changing views
all regard family as the most These traditional views are changing, however, and women and
important foundation of society men are now often regarded as much more of a partnership in
and as such believe in the need family life with shared responsibilities.
to create strong nuclear and It is now much more common for women to go on working when
extended families. they get married and have a family, and increasing numbers of men
are taking on the role of ‘house-husband’ while their wives or partners
go out to work. In 2014 the Office for National Statistics reported
that the number of ‘stay at home’ dads has doubled since 1993, with
over 229,000 fathers staying at home to look after their children.
The law is also changing to reflect this. In 2015 it became
possible for men and women to share parental leave. Parents
can decide who takes leave to care for the baby, rather than it
automatically being the mother.

▶ What have families got to do with religion?

Religion and the family are interlinked in many ways.
Task For many people it is in the home where religious belief is ‘taught’
and ‘caught’. The family is a domestic arena in which religious belief,
The photos and the list below practices and teachings are lived out. Family life is where religion is
show some examples of how experienced by young children and young adults through the example
faith is experienced in family of their parents. Most religious believers think it is a religious duty for
settings. For each, explain parents to bring up their children to share in their faith and teach the
how the family is important in values which are important to them, such as the Ten Commandments.
strengthening religious belief These basic values, or attitudes to living, are shared by Christians,
and/or practice. Muslims and Jews: respect your parents, no killing or murder, no
adultery, no stealing, no lies and no envy or greed.
In terms of religious practice, parents:
▶ are expected to take their children to a place of worship
▶ teach them how to read and understand sacred texts
▶ teach them how and when to pray
▶ join in the celebration of festivals
▶ understand the importance of rites of passage.
Many people today, such as humanists, think that children
should make up their own ideas about religion or that parents
should not share their religious beliefs and faith with their
children. Humanists believe all people should be able to make a
free choice about accepting or rejecting religious beliefs.
1 Issues of relationships

1 Jewish family worshipping together in a 2 Christian family baptising their child. 3 Muslims celebrating the festival of Eid.
synagogue.
6
 Worldwide family

The nature and purpose of marriage

For many religious believers, those who share in their faith are
regarded as an extended family. Christians use the phrase, ‘People of
God’ for all Christians, and Muslims use the word ‘ummah’ for the
worldwide community of Islam.
‘It is very important to reaffirm the family, which remains the essential
cell of society and the Church; young people, who are the face of the
Church’s future; women, who play a fundamental role in passing on the
faith and who are a daily source of strength in a society that carries
this faith forward and renews it.’
Pope Francis
In the Christian tradition, the quotation from Pope Francis
reinforces two ideas:
▶ The family is the basis of human society.
▶ The role of the mother in passing on religious faith is fundamental.

▶ The nature and purpose of marriage

Key Concept

Commitment A sense of dedication and obligation to someone

or something.
Humanist attitudes
to marriage
Humanists view marriage as a The traditional teaching of Christianity, Islam and Judaism has been
significant part of human life that marriage is the basis of family life. Marriage is regarded as:
and understand why a couple ▶ God given
may want a special ceremony to ▶ the best basis for creating an environment into which children
show their commitment. Such should be born
a ceremony may reflect the ▶ a lifelong commitment.
important nature of marriage
and the significance for a couple A wedding ceremony is an important rite of passage in many
and society but would include no religious traditions. It is a celebration that recognises the importance
religious aspect. of marriage and it includes ritual and symbolism, which often reflect
the purposes of marriage.

Christian attitudes to marriage

Some Christians regard marriage as a gift given to humanity by God – a sacrament. In the Christian wedding service
the phrase ‘ordained by God’ is used giving marriage a very special significance for all Christians. The vows exchanged
between a bride and a groom in a Christian wedding ceremony reflect this.
In the Gospels Jesus teaches about the importance of marriage. This refers back to the idea in Genesis that, as part
of God’s creation, God made man and woman. Jesus uses powerful language to convey the meaning that marriage is

7
 the complete joining together of two people in a very special way. It is implied that the relationship becomes the most
important human relationship for the couple who are married.
‘But at the beginning of creation God “made them male and female”. “For this reason a man will leave his
father and mother and be united to his wife, and the two will become one flesh”. So they are no longer
two, but one flesh’.
Mark 10:6-8
The phrase from the marriage service ‘what God has joined together, let no man put asunder’ is interpreted to mean
marriage should be a lifelong union.

Christian wedding ceremony

Christians believe that marriage is a gift from God and traditionally Christian
marriage ceremonies have taken place in a chapel or church to reflect
this belief.
A typical wedding ceremony in the Church of England is performed by a vicar
and would be as follows:
• The vicar welcomes everyone and gives a short sermon on the nature
and purpose of marriage.
• The couple exchange their vows which reflect the main Christian beliefs
about marriage:
To have and to hold
From this day forward Different denominations have
For better for worse different names for the member
For richer for poorer of the clergy who carries out the
In sickness and in health wedding ceremony:
To love and to cherish • minister (Baptist Church)
• pastor (Evangelical Churches)
Till death do us part
• priest (Catholic Church)
According to God’s holy law • vicar (Church of England)
And this is my solemn vow.
• The couple exchange rings as a sign of commitment and say:
With my body I honour you,
all that I am I give to you,
and all that I have I share with you,
within the love of God,
Father, Son and Holy Spirit.
1 Issues of relationships

• The vicar declares the couple married.

• There are prayers and Bible readings and the priest
gives a sermon.
There may also be hymns with an appropriate
theme.
• The legal requirement in Britain is for the newly ■ In an Orthodox wedding the ceremony has a different format.
married couple to sign the register, witnessed by a During the wedding ceremony a bride and groom are ‘crowned’. The
registrar and witnesses, which makes the marriage placing of crowns on the heads of the couple represents the power
ceremony legal. of the Holy Spirit.

8
 The nature and purpose of marriage
■ In an Anglican Church the couple always marry in
front of an altar or table.
■ In a non-conformist chapel there is no altar so a couple marry
in front of a table or lectern. There is more of an emphasis on
Bible readings and hymn singing.

Tasks
1 The Church of England wedding vows reflect the main Christian teachings about marriage. Can you match
the vows to their meaning?

Vows Meaning
(a) To have and to hold (i) To be physically together in a sexual relationship
(b) From this day forward (ii) That the marriage is ordained by God
(c) For better for worse (iii) That the marriage should last whether the couple are wealthy or poor
(d) For richer for poorer (iv) That the marriage is expected to be a lifelong commitment
(e) In sickness and in health (v) This day marks the beginning of the marriage
(f) To love and to cherish (vi) That the vows are a serious commitment taken by the couple
(g) Till death do us part (vii) That the marriage should last through both good times and times when life is
more difficult
(h) According to God’s holy law (viii) The couple should support and care for each other
(i) And this is my solemn vow. (ix) And in spite of mental or physical illness

2 Look at the two photos of different Christian wedding ceremonies above. Choose one or two symbols
which show that this is a Christian wedding ceremony.
Explain what the symbol means and how it is related to Christian views on the nature and purpose of marriage.

9
 Muslim attitudes to marriage
In the Qur’an there are a number of references to should marry. It says that within this relationship the
the importance of marriage and how it is the basis couple are able to show affection towards one another and
of family life. All Muslims are encouraged to marry in are able to support each other in their religious faith.
order to have a companion and, although divorce is ‘And of His signs is that He created for you
permitted, the ideal is that marriage is for life. from yourselves mates that you may find
The following quote from the Qur’an shows that tranquillity in them; and He placed between
Muslims believe marriage is a gift from God and that you affection and mercy. Indeed in that are
people signs for a people who give thought.’
Qur’an 30:21
The Muslim wedding ceremony
The nikah is a simple marriage
ceremony in which a man and
woman declare their commitment
to one another as husband and
wife. It might take place in a
mosque, where it could be led by an
imam. However, it may also be at
the bride’s home.
• The wali or woman’s guardian in
marriage offers the bride to the
groom.
• There must be two witnesses
who have attained adulthood and
are good Muslims.
• There is the payment of mahr
(dowry or marriage gift) by the
groom to the bride.
• A marriage contract is signed
by the bride and groom and
witnesses. For the nikah there ■ Muslim weddings can take place in various settings
must be the consent of both
parties.
• A sermon is given to bless the marriage.
• Vows are not necessary but may be exchanged if the bride and groom choose to do so. Traditionally the bride would
vow to be honest, obedient and faithful and the husband would vow to be helpful and faithful.
• The wedding ceremony ends with prayers for the bride and groom, their families, the local Muslim community and
the worldwide Muslim community.
1 Issues of relationships

• The wedding banquet or walima is traditionally held by the groom after the nikah has taken place. It may take place
immediately following the nikah or on the following day but the purpose of the banquet is for family and friends to
share in the groom’s happiness on the occasion of his marriage and to give thanks to God.
A separate civil ceremony must also take place to make the marriage legal.

10
 The nature and purpose of marriage
Temporary unannounced marriage
Some Shi’a Muslims, those known as Twelver Shi’as, practise Nikah Mut'ah, which means temporary unannounced
marriage.
This is a form of marriage that lasts only for a limited period of time. It is a formal arrangement; there is a contract
(a nikah) which specifies the terms of the arrangement, including the length of the marriage and any rules of
behaviour during the marriage. The man may give the woman a gift (dowry/mahr).
Historically, during the time of Muhammad, the practice was used by men who were travelling away from home
for a long period of time to allow them to take a wife while they were away. Today in the UK some Shi’a Muslims
are engaging in temporary unannounced marriages because they want to date and socialise with members of the
opposite sex and wouldn’t otherwise be allowed to do so under Shari’ah law.
Twelver Shi’as point to passages in the Qur’an and hadith that say temporary unannounced marriage is acceptable.
Sunni Muslims and other Shi’a groups say that temporary unannounced marriage is completely wrong. They say that it
is simply a means of having sex before marriage, which is not permitted in Islam. Sunni Muslims point to the teaching
of the Second Caliph (second successor to Muhammad in Sunni Islam, see pages 224–25) who banned temporary
unannounced marriage.

Task
Read the information about the Muslim wedding ceremony and create a spider diagram which summarises
its key features.

Jewish attitudes to marriage

Jews regard marriage as being a blessing from God and it is an important
spiritual ceremony. Both partners must enter marriage with the right
intentions and are expected to respect and be faithful to each other.
Marriage is seen as the basis of family life.
Weddings can take place in a synagogue, or any suitable place. The
ceremony is made up of two parts:
• The kiddushin
• The nisuin

■ A Jewish wedding ceremony being held under a huppah.

11
 The Kiddushin
• The ketubah is the formal marriage contract that states how the
husband will care for his wife. The wife will retain the ketubah
throughout the marriage.
• A wedding will be conducted by a rabbi and the main part of the ceremony
will take place under a chuppah. This is a shelter with four sides, often with
a blessing in Hebrew written across it. It represents the Jewish home.
• Under the chuppah the groom will make the declaration: ‘Behold you are
consecrated to me by means of this ring according to the rituals of
Moses and Israel’. He will also read the ketubah aloud.
• Two blessings are said in the kiddushin – one for the wine and the second
for the commitment that the bride and groom make to each other.
• The groom stamps on a glass. This could act as a reminder of the
fragility of marriage or some people believe it is a reminder of the
destruction of the temple in Jerusalem.
• The groom places a ring on the bride’s index finger, which is believed to
be connected to the heart. The round ring is a symbol of eternity.
The nisuin
In the second part of the ceremony seven blessings are said. These
blessings praise God for creating the human race and bringing happiness
to the couple. The blessings are:
1 Blessed are you, God, who brings forth fruit from the vine.
2 Blessed are you, God who shapes the universe. All things
created speak of your glory.
3 Blessed are you, Holy One, who fashions each person.
4 We bless you, God, for forming each person in your image.
You have planted within us a vision of you and given us the
means that we may flourish through time. Blessed are you,
Creator of humanity.
5 May Israel, once bereft of her children, now delight as they
gather together in joy. Blessed are you, God, who lets Zion
rejoice with her children.
6 Let these loving friends taste of the bliss you gave to the first
man and woman in the Garden of Eden in the days of old.
Blessed are you, the Presence who dwells with bride and
groom in delight.
7 Blessed are You, who lights the world with happiness and
contentment, love and companionship, peace and friendship,
bridegroom and bride. Let the mountains of Israel dance!
1 Issues of relationships

Let the gates of Jerusalem ring with the sounds of joy, song,
merriment, and delight — the voice of the groom and the
voice of the bride, the happy shouts of their friends and
companions. We bless you, God, who brings bride and groom
together to rejoice in each other.

Task
Read the information on the Jewish wedding ceremony. What key
beliefs about the nature and purpose of marriage does it symbolise?
Try and find at least five symbols and their meaning.

12
 ▶ Marriage outside religious traditions

Marriage outside religious traditions

In a pluralist society inter-faith marriage – where two people of
different faiths marry – is an issue which religions have to respond to.
Some of the issues raised by inter-faith marriage are outlined in the
mind map below. There may also be an issue about where an inter-
faith wedding ceremony can take place.
Examples of issues raised by inter-faith marriages are:
▶ In the Christian Orthodox tradition a marriage in church only takes
place if an Orthodox Christian is marrying a baptised Christian.
▶ In the Catholic tradition the partner who is not Catholic must
agree to any children of the marriage being allowed to follow the
Catholic faith.
▶ In the Jewish Orthodox tradition only Jews may marry each other
in a synagogue.
Where there is an issue about people marrying in a place of
worship because of different religious beliefs, it is possible to have a
civil ceremony followed, for example, by a religious blessing.

How can religious

dietary rules be
followed in the home?

What if there are Which festivals should

different expectations the family celebrate?
about gender roles?

Issues raised Which religion should

by inter-faith children be raised in?
marriage

What if the families and

religious communities What should children
refuse to accept the be told about death
marriage? and the afterlife?
What if partners
have different beliefs
about moral issues,
for example, the use of
contraception?

13
 ▶ Cohabitation
Jewish attitudes Key Concept
to cohabitation
Cohabitation To live together in a sexual relationship, without
For many Jews it is important
being married, or in a civil partnership.
that couples get married rather
than cohabit. In the Torah, for two
people to live as husband and
Cohabitation is where two people who are not married live in a
wife, they require the blessings
romantic partnership which may involve an intimate and sexual
of God. This may only take place
relationship. Some couples choose to cohabit and never marry,
when they declare marriage vows.
while some couples will marry after a period of cohabitation.
In practice though, some Jewish In 2012 there were 5.9 million people cohabiting in the UK and it
people do choose to cohabit. was the fastest growing family type.

Muslim attitudes Christian attitudes to cohabitation

to cohabitation Although Christian doctrines have traditionally prohibited cohabitation there
Although in practice some has been an increasingly more tolerant line taken in some denominations
Muslims may choose to cohabit, towards couples who cohabit. Liberal Anglicans, for example, accept
according to the teachings of cohabitation where it is part of a committed relationship, although they still
Islam it is always wrong. Muslims believe that marriage would be the ideal.
believe that for a couple to live However, some denominations disagree with cohabitation as they believe
together in a sexual relationship it devalues the special and sacred nature of sex, which should only take
they must first be married. place within marriage. The Catholic Church and more conservative Anglicans
do not accept cohabitation and expect a couple to not have sex before
marriage. Some Baptist Churches may refuse to marry a couple who are
cohabiting.

▶ Adultery
Key Concept

Adultery Voluntary sexual intercourse between a married

person and a person who is not their spouse.
1 Issues of relationships

Extra-marital sex or adultery is when a married person has a sexual

relationship with someone other than their husband or wife. In
Britain the vast majority of people disapprove of adultery on moral
and social grounds and the law recognises adultery as a justifiable
reason for the granting of a divorce.
Christianity, Islam and Judaism all consider adultery a great sin.
Adultery is clearly forbidden in the Ten Commandments.

14
 Cohabitation
Task Christian attitudes to adultery
Acrostics are a good way of Christianity teaches that adultery is wrong for the following reasons:
remembering key information. • Marriage is sexually exclusive and should not be shared with anyone else.
Can you think of one for • The Ten Commandments forbid adultery:
adultery? The first letter has
been done for you: ‘You shall not commit adultery.’
Exodus 20:14
Against the Ten Commandments
D • Marriage is a sacrament – a gift from God – and adultery goes
U against this.
L • Committing adultery destroys the special relationship between a
husband and wife.
T • Committing adultery can harm the family unit and cause the partner to
E feel cheated and betrayed.
R
Y
Jewish attitudes to adultery
Judaism teaches that adultery is wrong for the following reasons:
• The Ten Commandments forbid adultery:
‘You shall not commit adultery.’
Exodus 20:14

• Sex is only acceptable within a marriage.

• Halakhah (code of conduct) emphasises that a husband should be
sexually considerate towards his wife and not be sexually disloyal.
• Men and women are most fulfilled through marriage, which is referred to
as ‘kiddushim’ (sanctified).

Muslim attitudes to adultery

Islam teaches that adultery is wrong for the following reasons:
• Sex outside of marriage is generally strongly disapproved of.
• Marriage is a life-long union based on trust, morality and devotion.
• Vows promising to be faithful to one another might be exchanged in the
marriage ceremony.
• Adultery is seen as harmful to society, so against the unity and peace
of the ummah (brotherhood).
• Adultery is seen as a form of theft of the worst possible sort.
• The Qur’an teaches that adultery is wrong:
‘And do not approach unlawful sexual intercourse. Indeed, it is
ever an immorality and is evil as a way.’
Qur’an 17:32

15
 ▶ Why some marriages fail
All religions understand that there is conflict in human
relationships, including within marriages. Within a marriage
there are many things that may cause conflict as the diagram
below shows.

Pressures on Marriage

Lack of communication Interference from in-laws

Lack of appreciation Too little time together

Unemployment Pregnancy/children

Alcohol problems Separation

Financial problems False hopes

Affairs (Infidelity) Lack of children

Sexual problems Work or career

Religious differences Different interests

Unacceptable behaviour Personality difficulties

Task When people argue or are in conflict, making up is essential

and is known as ‘reconciliation’.
Look at the pressures on Religious communities can help couples who are having
marriage diagram. Can you relationship problems to reconcile. The religious leader might offer
categorise the pressures under counselling and guidance to the couple, or the wider community
1 Issues of relationships

different headings? might offer support and prayers.

Once you have categorised them However, sometimes a couple cannot reconcile, in which case
discuss in pairs the key causes they might decide they no longer wish to be married and set about
of conflict in a marriage. ending their relationship. This might involve:
▶ divorce – the legal ending of marriage
▶ separation – deciding to live separately
▶ annulment – a legal way of cancelling a marriage in the Catholic
Church.
Eventually a person who has been married may want to marry
someone else. This is known as remarriage.

16
 ▶ Divorce and separation

Divorce and separation

Key Concept

Divorce To legally end a marriage.

When a couple’s married relationship breaks down they are likely

to separate and decide to live apart. Separation may only be for a
short period until they can get a divorce or some couples may not
get a divorce and just remain separated. For example, the Catholic
Church does not permit divorce. So some Catholics many remain
separated rather than divorce.
If one of the partners wants to remarry they need to have a
divorce first; marriage to someone else while still married is known
Bigamy entering into a marriage
as bigamy and is illegal.
with someone while still being
Divorce is the legal ending of a marriage and couples need to
legally married to another person.
apply via the court system.

Christian attitudes to divorce and separation

There are significant differences between the different to receive Holy Communion during mass. Of course some
Christian denominations when it comes to attitudes Catholics do get divorced, however, this would not be
towards divorce. recognised by the Catholic Church.
The Catholic Church does not recognise divorce and In other Christian traditions there is diversity of
regards marriage as a lifelong commitment. In the viewpoints. Because divorce is the legal ending of a
situation where a marriage breaks down and there is no marriage by the state, all other Christian denominations
chance of a reconciliation the two options for a Catholic accept divorce but the issue becomes complicated if
are either an annulment or separation. Catholics base a divorced Christian wants to remarry. For example, in
this belief on teachings of the Bible, for example: the Anglican church divorce is accepted but remarriage
of a divorced person is left to the personal decision of a
‘Jesus replied, “Moses permitted you to
minister.
divorce your wives because your hearts
were hard. But it was not this way from the The diagram on the next page outlines some of the
beginning. I tell you that anyone who divorces different denominations’ attitudes towards divorce.
his wife, except for sexual immorality, and
marries another woman commits adultery.”’ Annulment
Matthew 19:8–9 An annulment (or ‘nullity of marriage’ or ‘nullity of domestic
partnership’) is when a court says your marriage or
‘Therefore what God has joined together, let domestic partnership is not legally valid. The Catholic
no one separate.’ Church teaches that annulment is the only acceptable way
Mark 10:9 a marriage can be dissolved. An annulment may be granted
for the non-consummation of marriage, which means a
Catholics who are separated are expected not to cohabit married couple have not had sex, or where it is proved the
with anyone else and if they do this they are not allowed marriage should not have taken place.

17
 Is divorce acceptable?

MAYBE NO

It is not believed to be God’s intention.

Depends on individual circumstances.

It is a breaking of the solemn promises

made before God and the Christian
family.

Anglicans Non-conformists Catholics:

(e.g. Methodist/United
• accept divorce, as UK law • do not recognise divorce
Reformed)
allows it
• marriage is a sacrament that
• divorce best avoided
• discourages remarriage (but cannot be dissolved except for
if chosen a non-church • remarriage permitted if it special reasons (such as one
wedding is preferred): some seems suitable or partner not freely choosing to
vicars will agree to a service acceptable to all concerned marry)
of prayer and dedication.
• no minister can be forced • some marriages can be annulled,
to conduct a remarriage where there are good reasons
against their will. (such as the marriage never
having been consummated)
• if a Catholic remarries
without an annulment they can
attend Mass but cannot receive
Holy Communion.

Jewish attitudes to divorce and separation

Task
Read the quote from Deuteronomy 24:1–4 on the next page. Explain
how it supports the Jewish attitudes to divorce shown in the diagram.
1 Issues of relationships

Judaism recognises that some marriages fail and therefore Without the get there would be problems with either
accepts divorce. As well as applying for a civil divorce, member of the couple remarrying in a synagogue.
which legally ends the marriage, orthodox Jewish people The couple obtain the get by appearing in front of a
wishing to divorce must also apply for a ‘get’. The get is a Bet Din – a Jewish court. The diagram on the next page
religious certificate of divorce. outlines Jewish attitudes towards divorce.

18
 Divorce and separation
Is divorce acceptable?
It is always a last resort.
The community will give
Yes But ...
support and try to keep
the couple together.

‘When a man takes a A religious and a civil

wife and marries her, if divorce must be obtained
then she finds no fovour in by all couples outside of
his eyes because he has Israel.
found some indecency in
her, and he writes her a bill
of divorce, and puts it in
her hand ...' In the Orthodox tradition The couple will apply to the
(Deuteronomy 24:1–4), the husband is expected to Bet Din, the religious court
give a document of divorce of rabbis, where the judges
(get) to the wife. This will question the witnesses
dissolves the marriage. and give their verdict.

The divorce taken effect as

The women is allowed to
soon as the woman
remarry after 90 days.
receives the document.

Sometimes problems are caused where a husband has

refused to give the woman a divorce, or where he cannot be
traced: women in this situation are called agunot (chained).

Muslim attitudes to divorce and separation

Muslims believe that married couples experiencing There is a period of three months after they apply to the
conflict should try to reconcile. Before a divorce takes council, to give the couple time to reconcile and to ensure
place an imam and the Muslim community would seek to the woman is not pregnant (as the quote below from
try and help a couple. the Qur’an explains). At the end of this period a religious
The idea of reconciliation before divorce is referred to in divorce is granted.
this passage from the Qur’an. ‘Divorce is twice. Then, either keep [her] in an
acceptable manner or release [her] with good
‘And if you fear dissention between the two, treatment. And it is not lawful for you to take
send an arbitrator from his people and an anything of what you have given them unless
arbitrator from her people. If they both desire both fear that they will not be able to keep
reconciliation, God will cause it between them. [within] the limits of Allah . But if you fear
Indeed, God is ever Knowing and Aware.’ that they will not keep [within] the limits of
Qur’an 4:35 Allah , then there is no blame upon either of
them concerning that by which she ransoms
However, Muslims reluctantly accept that reconciliation is herself. These are the limits of Allah , so do not
not always possible, so do accept divorce. When divorce transgress them. And whoever transgresses
does occur Muslims believe each partner should be free the limits of Allah – it is those who are the
to remarry in the future. As well as a civil divorce, which wrongdoers.’
legally ends the marriage, Muslims believe that the
marriage must also be ended in the eyes of God. They can Qur’an 2:229
apply to a Shari’ah council to obtain an Islamic divorce.

19
 Task
In groups of three, each take one of the quotes on divorce from the Qur’an:
• Qur’an 4:35
• Qur’an 2:229
Summarise what it says about divorce in two to three bullet points and explain it to the rest of the group.
Then copy and complete the table below:
How it supports Muslim
Quote Key points about divorce attitudes to divorce
Qur’an 4:35
Qur’an 2:229

Is divorce acceptable?

SOMETIMES If the couple do decide to divorce then:

The husband must state in front of witnesses
on three separate occasions that the marriage
is over.
As a last resort. The Prophet Muhammad said:
‘Of all the things which have been permitted
divorce is the most hated by Allah.’
It is expected that the family will try to help
the couple to be reconciled. A period of three months begins (lddah).
The couple will stay in the same house but not
sleep together. (This ensures that there is no
confusion about who is the father of any
children born after the divorce.)

If the couple finally decide to divorce, then the

wife is given the final part of her dowry. Both
parties should act toward the other with
kindness and charity.

Humanist attitudes to divorce and separation

Humanists believe that marriage and family breakdown is best avoided and
would say that couples should try to work through their difficulties. This is
1 Issues of relationships

particularly important when there are children involved. However, humanists

recognise that this is sometimes not possible and believe people only have
this life so it is important this life is enjoyed and lived to the full. When people
are unhappy it is acceptable for them to separate and divorce.

20
▶ Remarriage

Arranged marriage
Remarriage is where a person who has previously divorced decides
to marry again.
Different religious traditions have different viewpoints about
remarriage and there are often differences of opinion within traditions.
Catholics, for example, who decide to go against Church
teachings and get a civil divorce may not remarry in a Catholic
church. Divorced Catholics may choose to remarry in a different
place of worship or in a civil ceremony. In the Anglican tradition, a
minister may exercise personal judgement in deciding to remarry
a divorcee depending on the circumstances of a divorce. Some
Anglican ministers will not marry a divorced person but may
perform a church blessing ceremony after a registry office wedding.
In Islam, remarriage is not an issue, because divorce is accepted.
Remarriage is encouraged because there is no idea of celibacy in
Islam. In Judaism remarriage is also encouraged.

▶ Arranged marriage
Within the Muslim community some Muslims may decide to have
an arranged marriage. This is where parents choose a suitable
partner for their daughter or son.
In a strict Muslim society where women and men do not freely
mix, arranged marriages serve an important function in matching
Muslim partners, based on the wisdom of parents to select a
suitable partner for their daughter or son. No Muslim should be
compelled to marry someone against their will.

Task
List some of the advantages and disadvantages of arranged
marriages.

21
 ▶ End of section review

Knowledge check
1 Write a short paragraph (roughly three sentences) to explain what is
meant by divorce.
Stickability 2 Write a long paragraph (roughly eight to ten sentences) to explain how
Key concepts: adultery, divorce and separation are linked.
• Adultery 3 Consider the following statement:
• Divorce ‘Cohabitation undermines the sanctity of marriage.’
• Cohabitation Draw a table with two columns. Add five reasons for agreeing and five
• Commitment reasons for disagreeing with the statement.
• Responsibilities
Agree Diasgree
• Roles
Key teachings about:
• the nature and purpose of
families
• the roles of men and women in
family life
• marriage 4 Create a mind map diagram to show the main types of families in
• cohabitation twenty-first-century Britain.
• divorce and separation 5 Rewrite the Church of England wedding vows for twenty-first-century
• remarriage Britain.
• arranged marriage

The Big Question

Skills Link ‘Parents should allow their children to choose their own religion.’
1 What is meant by ‘vows’ in a
religious marriage service? Your task
2 Describe ways in which Respond to the statement above, showing that you have considered more
families are important in a faith than one point of view. Give reasoned judgements on the validity and
community. strength of these views.

Task
For both of the religions (or denominations) that you are studying, you need to explain in detail religious teachings
1 Issues of relationships

about divorce. Use the guidance below to help you to write a developed explanation for Christianity and a second
one for your other chosen religion or denomination. Ensure that you use key terms fluently and frequently.
All/many/most Christians believe that ....................... . This comes from the teaching/Bible quote ....................... .
This means that/Because of this they ....................... .
Some/other Christians such as ........................ believe that ....................... . This comes from the teaching/Bible quote
....................... . This means that/Because of this they ....................... .
Finally, Christians such as ........................ believe that ....................... . This means that/Because of this they ....................... .
Their beliefs do/do not differ because ....................... .

22
 ■ Sexual relationships

Purpose of sex
All religions regard sexual relationships as an important part of
being human. Sex is regarded as a gift from God and part of God’s
creation. It allows for the continuation of the human race and is an
important part of human identity. It is also a physical way in which
Promiscuity having a number of people may express love to each other.
casual sexual relationships. Promiscuity is regarded as something which is always wrong,
Fidelity two people being sexually or a sin, because religions teach that sex should only be part of a
faithful to each other. committed relationship between two people who have deep feelings
Procreation reproduction. for each other. As sex can result in children, fidelity in sexual
relationships is really important for the upbringing of children by
two parents.

▶ Purpose of sex
Sex is a powerful human instinct and drive. For most of the
history of the world it has been linked with procreation but the
development of successful and widely available contraceptive
methods, such as the contraceptive pill, has allowed the act of sex
to be divorced from the act of procreation. It has allowed people
to have sex without the prospect of becoming pregnant and it has
significantly changed attitudes towards sexual activity. Religious
views on the purpose of sex may have changed as a result of the
availability of contraception but promiscuity is still not deemed
as acceptable.

Christian attitudes to sex

Christians believe that sex should generally take place within marriage. It
is viewed as a gift from God and is holy and sacred. This is why it should be
something that you only do with the person you love.
Casual sex (promiscuity) is seen as devaluing both people and sex itself
and is unacceptable. There is concern that children may be born outside of a
stable home environment.

Jewish attitudes Muslim attitudes to sex

to sex Muslims believe that sex should happen within marriage – married partners
Jews believe that sex should take are expected to meet each other’s needs, including their sexual needs. It is
place within marriage and it is considered an act of worship.
seen as one of the three stages of For a Muslim, sex outside of marriage is wrong as shown in the following
marriage: quotation from the Qur’an:
• Betrothal (the promise to ‘And do not approach unlawful sexual intercourse. Indeed, it is
marry) ever an immorality and is evil as a way.’
• Contract (the wedding) Qur’an 17:32
• Consummation (sex).
Because Muslims believe sex is an act of worship this means it may only
take place within marriage. To have sex outside of marriage is simply wrong
because it may lead to promiscuity.

23
 ▶ Chastity
Chastity is the state in which a person does not have sexual
relationships until married. In the traditional teachings of
Christianity, Judaism and Islam a person would remain chaste
until marriage. In America the ‘silver ring thing’ was promoted
as a physical expression of this viewpoint. Unmarried Christian
teenagers and young adults wear a silver ring on their ‘wedding
finger’ to show they will remain chaste until they are married,
when married, they will replace the silver ring with a wedding ring.
The Silver Ring thing encourages young
people to wear a silver ring on their
wedding finger until they are married to
▶ Celibacy
show they will remain chaste. Celibacy is when a person decides never to have a sexual
relationship. In the Catholic faith, for example, there has been
Task a tradition of celibacy. Monks, nuns and priests take a vow of
celibacy. This is a decision not to marry or to have any sexual
Discuss whether you think relationships. It is made as a positive choice of lifestyle in order
people who marry as virgins will to dedicate one’s life to the service of God.
have a stronger bond of trust Islam and Judaism teach that an adult should marry in order to
and commitment. have a companion in life and that no one needs to live a celibate life.

▶ Contraception and family planning

Key Concept

Contraception Methods used to prevent a women from

becoming pregnant during or following sexual intercourse.

Contraception means deliberately using methods to prevent

pregnancy. There are two types: artificial and natural. Natural
contraception is where a person abstains from sex during the time
of the month when a woman is most likely to conceive. Artificial
contraception methods include the use of the contraceptive pill or
injection and barrier methods to prevent conception.
Religious attitudes towards contraception are very varied.
1 Issues of relationships

There are many types of contraception available, some types (like condoms) act as a barrier
to stop the sperm reaching the egg. Other types, for example the contraceptive pill, may
prevent an egg from being released or prevent fertilised eggs from implanting in the womb.
24
 Contraception and family planning
Christian attitudes to contraception Natural Law is an ethical theory associated mainly
Most Protestants believe in the use of different forms of with Thomas Aquinas. An ethical theory tries to help guide
contraception for family planning purposes but the Catholic humans on how to live and how to make moral decisions.
Church has opposed artificial methods of contraception. In Aquinas thought there were some fundamental laws which
the current debate about the effects of population growth were laid down by God and are the basis of how humans
on the planet, many Catholics find this particular teaching should live their lives. He set out five primary precepts:
difficult to follow and will instead follow their conscience. 1 Self-preservation/preservation of the innocent
Many Catholics also want to enjoy sex without the worry of 2 Continuation of the species through reproduction
having more children than they can look after or afford. 3 Education of children
The complexity of any discussion about contraception 4 To live in society
may be demonstrated in reference to Thomas Aquinas’ 5 To worship God
Five Precepts. From these he set out secondary precepts or rules which
help us fulfil the primary precepts. For example, the second
Thomas Aquinas and Natural Law primary precept says that humans must reproduce, so a
secondary precept might be that contraception is wrong as
that would prevent reproduction.
The Catholic Church takes an absolutist view of Aquinas’s
Natural Law, which means it believes that the rules he
laid down should always be followed. Therefore it states
that contraception should not be used because it goes
against Natural Law.
However, other Christians and some Catholics believe
that Natural Law shouldn’t be seen as an absolute set
of rules that should never be broken. Instead, God gave
humans intelligence and creativity in order that they
should use their conscience to decide what is right in a
given situation. There may be some circumstances where
using contraception is the responsible and moral thing
to do. For example, many Christians are concerned about
the overpopulation of the planet and contraception is a
way of controlling this. Similarly, contraception doesn’t
■ St Thomas Aquinas was a Dominican friar who was a just prevent pregnancy but also stops the spread of
leading theologian and philosopher of the Catholic Church sexually transmitted diseases, so is a good thing for
in the Middle Ages. this reason.

Muslim attitudes to contraception These are:

The Qur’an does not make any explicit references to • that it must not harm the body
contraception, although it is generally accepted that a • that it only should be used if both the husband and wife
form of contraception was used during the time of the consent to its use.
Prophet Muhammad. As a result Muslims believe in the Most Muslims accept the use of contraception to limit
use of contraception, but certain criteria must be met. the size of families but would not generally accept
permanent forms of contraception, such as sterilisation.

Jewish attitudes to contraception

In Judaism there is a diversity of views over the use of of any contraceptive method to limit family size. In
contraception. Orthodox Jews, for example, may regard common with Christians and Muslims, all Jews would
natural methods of contraception as the only permissible take the view that contraception must be agreed
form of contraception. Reform Jews would accept the use between a husband and a wife.
25
 Humanist attitudes to contraception
The humanist viewpoint is that contraception is permissible in order to help
people to enjoy their lives and limit the size of families. Sex is regarded as
an expression of human affection and love between two people and it has
no religious or sacred aspect.
Science should be used to improve the quality of life for human beings,
therefore if the use of contraception limits the size of families and leads to
an improvement in the quality of life it should be used.

▶ Same-sex relationships
In the past romantic relationships have been seen as a
relationship between a man and a woman rather than between
two men or between two women. It was only in 1967 that
homosexuality was decriminalised in the UK. As British society
has changed, many people’s attitudes to same-sex relationships
have also changed. The Civil Partnership Act in 2004 enabled
same-sex partners to have essentially the same legal rights and
responsibilities as married couples. This was followed by the
Marriage (same-sex couples) Act in 2013, which legalised same-sex
Same-sex couples in the UK can either marriage in England and Wales. So now same-sex couples who
marry or have a civil partnership. wish to be legally joined have two routes they can take.
Same-sex relationships divide people’s opinions, both for those
with religious faith and those without. The three monotheistic
religions of Christianity, Judaism and Islam have traditionally taught
that same-sex relationships are wrong. However, within individual
religions there is sometimes disagreement about these teachings.

Christian attitudes to same-sex relationships

Same-sex marriage cannot currently take place in However, other Christians believe that these passages
Christian Churches. However, same-sex relationships divide reflect the cultural and social values of the time they
opinion among Christians from different denominations. were written in and that they don’t apply in today’s
Many Christians oppose same-sex marriage on biblical society. They might point to the fact that there are lots
grounds, quoting a number of verses from both the Old of things condemned in the Bible that would be seen as
and New Testaments: perfectly acceptable today.
‘If a man has sexual relations with a man as The Catholic Church
one does with a woman, both of them have
The doctrine and teachings of the Catholic Church prohibit
done what is detestable. They are to be put to
same-sex marriage as it believes that sexual relationships
death; their blood will be on their own heads.’
1 Issues of relationships

should only exist between a man and a woman in a

Leviticus 20:13 marriage.
‘We know that the law is good if one uses it In April 2010, Pope Francis wrote,
properly. We also know that the law is made not
for the righteous but for lawbreakers and rebels, ‘A marriage [made up of man and woman] is
the ungodly and sinful, the unholy and irreligious, not the same as the union of two people of the
for those who kill their fathers or mothers, for same sex. To distinguish is not to discriminate
murderers, for the sexually immoral, for those but to respect differences . . . . At a time when
practicing homosexuality, for slave traders and we place emphasis on the richness of pluralism
liars and perjurers–and for whatever else is and social and cultural diversity, it is a
contrary to the sound doctrine.’ contradiction to minimise fundamental human
differences. A father is not the same as a
1 Timothy 1: 8–10
26
 Same-sex relationships
mother. We cannot teach future generations are some individual clergy who do not agree with this
that preparing yourself for planning a family decision and might decide to perform a church blessing.
based on the stable relationship between a Other Christian denominations, such as Quakers, will
man and a woman is the same as living with a conduct a same-sex service but a same-sex couple will
person of the same sex.’ still need a civil ceremony as well in order to be legally
married.
Other Christian Churches
At the moment the Anglican Church does not believe The United Reform Church has recently decided to allow
same-sex marriages should take place in church. There same-sex marriages to take place in their churches.

Muslim attitudes to same-sex relationships

Islam forbids same-sex marriages and homosexual and And [We had sent] Lot when he said to his people,
lesbian relationships, believing that sex should only “Do you commit such immorality as no one has
take place between a husband and wife. Muslims regard preceded you with from among the worlds?
marriage as the only place where sexual relationships Indeed, you approach men with desire, instead of
should take place and regard marriage as a sacred women. Rather, you are a transgressing people.’
contract between only a man and a woman. Qur’an 7:80-81
The quotation to the right from the Qur’an is used by Muslims interpret this to mean that same-sex
Muslims who view homosexuality as immoral. relationships are wrong.

Jewish attitudes to same-sex relationships

In Judaism there is a diversity of views on the topic of ‘If a man has sexual relations with a man as
same-sex relationships. one does with a woman, both of them have
Orthodox Judaism maintains the traditional Jewish done what is detestable. They are to be put to
view which forbids same-sex relationships as stated death; their blood will be on their own heads.’
in the two references from the Book of Leviticus in Leviticus 20:13
the Torah. There are, however, some Orthodox Jews who do accept
‘Thou shalt not lie with mankind, as with same-sex relationships.
womankind; it is abomination.’ Reform Jews generally support same-sex
Leviticus 18:22 relationships.

Humanist attitudes to same-sex relationships

The humanist approach is that human beings should find personal
happiness in this lifetime and same-sex relationships are a positive
expression of this view.

27
 ▶ End of section review

Knowledge check
1 Write a short paragraph (roughly three sentences) to explain what is
meant by chastity.
2 Write a long paragraph (roughly eight to ten sentences) to explain why
contraception is important.
3 Consider the following statement:
‘Celibacy has an important role today.’
Draw a table with two columns. Add five reasons for agreeing and five
reasons for disagreeing with the statement.

Stickability Agree Diasgree

Key concepts:
• Contraception
Key teachings about:
• the purpose of sex
• chastity and celibacy
• the use of contraception 4 Create a mind map to show the main beliefs about sexual relationships for
• same-sex relationships the religions you are studying.
5 Write a letter to a national newspaper stating the case for same-sex
marriages to be allowed in a place of worship.
Skills Link
1 From two different religions
or two religious traditions,
explain attitudes to same sex The Big Question
relationships.
2 ‘Sex outside marriage is always ‘Sex should only take place in marriage.’
wrong.’ Discuss this statement
showing that you have Your task
considered more than one point Respond to the statement above, showing that you have considered more
of view. (You must refer to religion than one point of view. Give reasoned judgements on the validity and
and belief in your answer.) strength of these views.

Task
1 Issues of relationships

For both of the religions (or denominations) that you are studying, you need to explain in detail religious teachings
about same-sex relationships. Use the guidance below to help you to write a developed explanation for Christianity
and a second one for your other chosen religion or denomination. Ensure that you use key terms fluently and frequently.
All/many/most Christians believe that ....................... . This comes from the teaching/Bible quote ........................ .
This means that/Because of this they ....................... .
Some/other Christians such as ........................ believe that ....................... . This comes from the teaching/Bible quote
....................... . This means that/Because of this they ........................
Finally, Christians such as ........................ believe that ....................... . This means that/Because of this they ....................... .
Their beliefs do/do not differ because ....................... .

28
 ■ Issues of equality: gender prejudice

End of section review

and discrimination
Key Concept
Gender equality People of all genders enjoying the same rights
and opportunities in all aspects of their lives.

One of the most significant changes in society in recent times is

the changing relationships between women and men around issues
of equality, not only in this country but across the world. Gender
equality aims to stop any form of gender discrimination.
In UK law, men and women have equal rights in employment and
discrimination on the basis of gender is illegal. The 2010 Equality
Act simplified previous laws to protect people from discrimination
on the basis of several protected characteristics, including sex.
However, traditionally women and men had different roles
in religions particularly in relation to their role in authority
(leadership) and worship. These traditional roles have been debated
in recent years as the role of women has changed in society to
become more equal to that of men.

Christian attitudes to the roles of women and men in worship and authority
In Jesus’ time it was normal for men In the early Christian Church the Jesus’ actions showed that he
to take up positions of authority. original disciples were all men. respected women and he had women
Society is different now and men and amongst his closest followers, which
women are more equal. would have been very unusual at
the time.
Quotes like the one below from
Galatians indicate that gender is In the Parable of the Good Samaritan
irrelevant as long as you have faith Jesus taught that you should not
in Jesus: discriminate.
‘For all of you who were baptised
into Christ have clothed Christians believe that all humans
yourselves with Christ. There is
are created in the image of God, so
neither Jew nor Gentile, neither
slave nor free, nor is there male ■ Reverend Angela Berners-Wilson was each human life is equal and sacred.
and female, for you are all one one of the first Christian female priests
in Christ Jesus. If you belong to
Christ, then you are Abraham’s Biblical teachings like the one below indicate that women are different to men and
seed, and heirs according to the that women should not have authority over men:
promise.’
‘A woman should learn in quietness and full submission. I do not permit a woman
Galatians 3:27–29
to teach or to assume authority over a man; she must be quiet.
1 Timothy 2:11–12

29
 The Catholic and Orthodox Churches allows them to continue to do their important work
In the Catholic and Orthodox Churches women can take up supporting their families.
active roles in worship and authority. They can become a
nun or ‘sister’, taking vows to devote their life to God. They The Anglican Church
are equal members of Church congregations with men There have been significant changes in the role of women
and can support the Church in a number of ways, from in worship in the Anglican Church to allow men and
administrative functions like serving on Church finance women to take up equal roles in Church leadership and
committees to helping ministers lead worship. worship. Thirty-two female ministers were ordained in
However, women are always lay people in these 1994 and the first female bishop was ordained in 2014.
Churches, they cannot be ordained. Ordination is the This means that women can become ministers and lead
process where people are granted religious authority, Christian congregations in worship.
so women cannot become priests for example. When the Church of England voted to allow women to
One reason for this is that these Churches believe that become Bishops the Archbishop of Canterbury, Justin
while men and women are equal they have different Welby, said that the Church was entering a ‘completely
strengths and contributions to make to society. Men new phase of our existence’. However, he warned that
take more religious leadership roles, while women have it might take up to ten years before there were even
an equally important role to play in their families and numbers of male and female bishops.
communities. Pope Francis has praised the role women In other Protestant denominations women play an
play in the Church and expressed the hope that women important role in worship, working as ministers and
can play a bigger part in Church life, but in a way that leading acts of worship and reading in services.

Task
Look at the mind map on page 29. Identify the attitudes and teachings the Catholic Church might use
to support its views on women and which the Anglican Church might use.

Jewish attitudes to the roles of women and men in worship and authority
Jews believe that all people are made
by God and are all equal, so they believe
discrimination is wrong.

In biblical times men had

Jewish holy texts, such as the
authority over women, but in
Talmud, describe equal but different
society today there is much more
roles for men and women.
equality.
1 Issues of relationships

Some of the mitzvot (laws) do Some religious duties, such as

not apply to women; they do not bringing in the Shabbat (see
need to wear tallit and tefillin, for page 307), are done by women.
example.
■ A female rabbi leading worship
Reform and Liberal Judaism • they cannot serve as a judge on a Bet Din
In Reform and Liberal Judaism women can be ordained (a Jewish court)
as rabbis and lead worship. In Reform Judaism the first • they cannot be counted in a minyan (prayer service
female rabbi was ordained in 1972. However, female that requires a minimum of 10 men).
rabbis don’t have complete equality with men and there This is because of the laws in the Torah.
are some things they cannot do: During worship women and men sit together in the
• they cannot lead certain parts of the service synagogue.

30
 End of section review
Orthodox Judaism
In the Orthodox tradition worship was led by men and During worship women sit in a different part of the
this continues to be the case, although there is a growing synagogue to men.
campaign for women to be able to be rabbis. Women’s There are some within the Orthodox community who
primary role is believed to be nurturing and caring for the campaign for women to have more equality and to be able
family and this is seen as being equally as important as to be able participate in worship in the same way as men.
the role played by men.

Task
Look at the mind map on page 30, using the different ideas:
1 Write a short paragraph to explain why a Reform Jew might think women should be able to be rabbis.
2 Write a short paragraph to explain why an Orthodox Jew might disagree.

Muslim attitudes to the roles of women and men in worship and authority
The quote below describes how Allah creates all people from the same soul and so Muslims are
against discrimination:
‘O mankind, fear your Lord, who created you from one soul and created from it its mate
and dispersed from both of them many men and women. And fear God, through whom
you ask one another, and the wombs. Indeed God is ever, over you, an Observer.’
Qur’an 4:1

In the Hadith there An imam must be a good Muslim to lead

are mentions of two of a community in prayer. The quote from
Muhammad’s wives, the Qur’an below says that gender is
Aisha and Umm Salamah, irrelevant to whether a person can be a
leading prayers. good Muslim:
‘Whoever does an evil deed will not
be recompensed except by the
The Qur’an does not like thereof; but whoever does
mention whether females righteousness, whether male
can act as an imam and or female, while he is a believer –
lead prayers, although those will enter Paradise, being
traditionally it has been a given provision therein without
male role. ■ A male imam leads prayer in a UK mosque account.’
Qur'an 40:40

The quote from the Qur’an below indicates that men should have authority over women in the event of a divorce,
so is the same true in worship?
Divorced women remain in waiting for three periods, and it is not lawful for them to conceal what God
has created in their wombs if they believe in God and the Last Day. And their husbands have more
right to take them back in this [period] if they want reconciliation. And due to the wives is similar to
what is expected of them, according to what is reasonable. But the men have a degree over them [in
responsibility and authority]. And God is Exalted in Might and Wise.’
Qur’an 2:228

31
 For most Muslim groups women cannot be imams and Women and men are also usually separated during
lead men in prayer. Some Muslims scholars claim that worship.
having a female imam would invalidate men’s prayers. However, there is increasing pressure from some within
Some Sunni groups allow women to act as imams and the Muslim community for women to be allowed to lead
lead prayers if the congregation is made up of other mixed sex congregations and worship together with men.
women or close family. However, she will not lead the Some high profile female imams have led mixed
prayers by standing in front of the congregation as a man congregations in countries like Canada and the UK
would, instead she would stand in the congregation. (see the information on Raheel Raza on page 144).

Task
Look at the mind map on page 31. If a woman wanted to become an imam, which do you think are
the two most convincing arguments? Explain why.
1 Issues of relationships

32
 ▶ End of section review

End of section review

Knowledge check
1 Write a short paragraph (roughly three sentences) to explain what is
meant by gender equality.
2 Draw a table with two columns as below.

Agree Diasgree

Stickability
Key concepts:
• Gender equality
• Roles
Give five reasons in each column to discuss the following statement:
Key teachings about:
‘Men and women should have equal roles in leading worship.’
• the roles of men and women in
worship and authority 3 For your chosen religion write a letter of application from a woman for a
position of religious leadership. You should explain why she feels women
should be considered for the role.

The Big Question

‘The arguments for women and men having equal roles in authority and
worship are stronger than those against.’

Your task
Respond to the statement above, showing that you have considered more
than one point of view. Give reasoned judgements on the validity and
strength of these views.

Task
For both of the religions (or denominations) that you are studying, you need to explain in detail religious teachings
about the role of men and women in worship and authority. Use the guidance below to help you to write a developed
explanation for Christianity and a second one for your other chosen religion or denomination. Ensure that you use key
terms fluently and frequently.
All/many/most Christians believe that ....................... . This comes from the teaching/Bible quote ....................... .
This means that/Because of this they ....................... .
Some/other Christians such as ....................... believe that ....................... . This comes from the teaching/Bible quote
....................... . This means that/Because of this they ....................... .
Finally, Christians such as ...................... believe that ...................... . This means that/Because of this they ....................... .
Their beliefs do/do not differ because ....................... .

33
 ▶ Exam focus
Issues of relationships
(c) questions
In (c) questions there are opportunities to show a deep knowledge
and understanding of an issue. In the Philosophy and Ethics
papers you will often be asked to explain from the point of view of
two different religions or two distinct denominations of the same
religion, for example, Catholic and Church of England, Baptist and
Jehovah’s Witness etc.
When answering from two different traditions it is important
to show the distinctions and the similarities between the two
religions. Sometimes religions and denominations will have similar
views on certain issues. It is important to state this in your answer.
Look at the question below:
(c) From two different religions or two religious traditions,
explain attitudes to same sex relationships. (8)
Before you answer, consider:
▶ How many marks are available? Eight marks are given for this
answer but two different religions are expected.
▶ What is the question asking me to do? The question requires a
consideration from two different religions or denominations
about the attitudes to same-sex relationships. It is important
to remember that an attitude will often come from the
interpretation of religious teachings. For each of the two
religious traditions you have studied, identify one religious
teaching you could use as evidence in your answer.

(d) questions
These are very important questions, as they are worth 15 marks.
The questions require you to:
▶ read and understand a statement and then;
▶ discuss the statement showing you have considered more than
one point of view. (You must refer to religion and belief in your
answer.)
For each question consider:
▶ How many marks are available? The question is worth 15 marks
and therefore it is worth half of each unit. It is important to
1 Issues of relationships

consider what you are going to include in your answer before you
begin.
▶ What is the question asking you to do? In the question you are
asked to include some different viewpoints. These do not need to
be contrasting such as two points for and two against but must
be different. The answer must include religion and belief in the
answer.
You will need to consider what are strong points and which
arguments would not be relevant to the question.

34
 Helen’s points are listed below. She has written down a range of

Exam focus
different points of view but now needs to consider which reasons
are strong and which reasons are not relevant.
Identify which four views are the strongest. What further
evidence could she use to support each?
(d) ‘Sex outside marriage is always wrong.’
Discuss this statement showing that you have considered more
than one point of view. (15)
(You must refer to religion and belief in your answer.)
▶ Sex should be part of a committed marital relationship.
▶ Adultery is condemned by a number of religious traditions.
▶ Wedding ceremonies are important family occasions.
▶ Some people are divorced and may not be allowed to remarry.
▶ There are many different forms of contraception.
▶ Adultery can cause distress in a family.
▶ Sex outside of marriage can show a lack of commitment.

35
 2 Issues of life and death

▶ The Big Picture

Key Concepts

Afterlife Life after death; the belief that existence continues after physical
death.

Environmental sustainability Ensuring that the demands placed on natural

resources can be met without reducing capacity to allow all people and other
species of animals, as well as plant life, to live well, now and in the future.
Euthanasia From Greek, eu ‘good’ and thanatos ‘death’. Sometimes referred to
as ‘mercy killing’. The act of killing or permitting the death of a person who is
suffering from a serious illness.
Evolution The process by which different living creatures are believed to have
developed from earlier less complex forms during the history of the earth.

Abortion When a pregnancy is ended so that it does not result in the birth of a
child.
Quality of life The extent to which life is meaningful and pleasurable.

Sanctity of life The belief that life is precious, or sacred. For many religious
believers, only human life holds this special status.

Soul The spiritual aspect of a being; that which connects someone to God. The soul is
often regarded as non-physical and as living on after physical death, in an afterlife.

Core Questions
Could life have developed Are there different ways of Do humans have an
by itself? understanding religious immortal soul?
scriptures?

Are the lives of people What is environmental Does the unborn baby have
more valuable than those stewardship? a right to life?
of animals?
Should we be able ask
someone to help us die?

36
 ▶ Overview

Overview
This chapter explores beliefs about the world, the value of life,
beliefs about death and the afterlife, issues about sanctity and
quality of life and medical ethics.
We begin by exploring differing perspectives on the origin of
the universe and of life. Can the world have ‘made itself ’, or do we
need to look for an external cause? Or perhaps the universe has
always existed?
Belief in a creator God, or some sort of supernatural
intervention, is still strong in Western countries. However, with the
increasing popularity of scientific thinking, many people today,
including many religious believers, accept the theories of the Big
Bang and evolution. In the eighteenth century William Paley
taught that there was evidence of God as designer of the universe.
In the twenty-first century, Richard Dawkins argues that the
world’s apparent design is an illusion.
Creation the idea that the universe The chapter explores different ideas about creation from the
was planned and brought into perspective of religious and non-religious beliefs. Not all religions
being by a divine power (for have creation stories and believers have different approaches to
example God). interpreting them.
Karma the ‘energy’ stored in your The chapter then explores religious and non-religious beliefs
soul reflecting good and bad deeds. about the value and sanctity of life. Why is life so valuable
and who does life belong to? Can we measure the value and
quality of life? Is human life more important than animal life?
What do the great religious traditions teach? We look at the
complex issues of abortion and euthanasia, discussing when
life begins, the right to life, the right to die, hospices and
palliative care.
The chapter then looks at religious teachings about stewardship,
dominion and environmental sustainability. How should we treat
the earth? Should we treat its resources as if we are borrowing them
or as if they are ours to keep?
The final topic is about the afterlife. Traditionally the
Abrahamic religions (Judaism, Christianity and Islam) teach
that, at the end of time, God will come in judgement, raising
the righteous to eternal life and casting the wicked into hell.
However, the Eastern religions teach that the next life depends
on our actions and that our karma will determine what form we
are re-born into. Today, there is a growing movement in Britain
which rejects beliefs about the afterlife, preferring to say that we
only live once and that death is the end. This section concludes
by exploring the way in which death and funeral rituals reflect
people’s beliefs about the afterlife.

37
 ▶ Life: chance or God’s plan?
Most religious believers say that there is a divine mind behind all
life. The Bible tells us that God knows all people before their birth
and has a plan and a purpose for all living beings.
‘For you created my inmost being; you knit me together in my mother’s
Tasks womb .… Your eyes saw my unformed body; all the days ordained for
me were written in your book before one of them came to be.’
1 Read the quote from Psalm
Psalm 139:13,16
139. Explain what it is saying
about human life. Atheists and humanists believe that life is a result of blind chance.
2 (a) What does Jacques Monod ‘Man at last knows that he is alone in the unfeeling immensity of the
believe about the creation universe, out of which he emerged only by chance. Neither his destiny
of human life? nor his duty have been written down.’
(b) How is it similar to Jacques Monod
Richard Dawkins’ ideas
on creation? ‘Natural selection … has no purpose in mind. It has no vision, no foresight.’
Richard Dawkins
2 Issues of life and death

An image of planet earth taken from space. Scientific study continues to tell us more and more in answer to questions
like: ‘What is the origin of the universe?’, ‘Is life on earth unique?’ and ‘How should we treat the environment?’
38
 ■ The world

The origin of the world: religious and scientific perspectives

▶ The origin of the world: religious and scientific
perspectives
Religion: creation stories
Many of the world religions have important beliefs about how
the world came into being. The monotheistic traditions of
Judaism, Christianity and Islam are based on the belief that
there is one, all-powerful creator God who is the source of all
life. Their creation stories, which are found in their holy books,
all tell of a unique creation event at the beginning of time, when
Jews, Christians, Muslims and
life sprang into existence from nothing at the command of God.
Sikhs are referred to as theists:
Hindus also have important creation stories, but they are not
‘God-believers’.
usually understood as historical events. Hinduism and Buddhism
The traditions of Hinduism, do not teach the existence of a single monotheistic creator God at
Buddhism and Sikhism are their centre. In general, the Eastern religions tend to see the origin
sometimes referred to as the of the universe in a more mysterious and mythological way. Their
Eastern religions. belief in a cyclical world view tends to suggest that the world may
have been created and then recreated countless times.
The way religious people understand their creation stories today varies
enormously. Creationists take a literalist view of the Bible. They say
that creation stories describe literal, historical events, whereas liberal
Christians say that they are myths which carry deep, symbolic meaning.

Tasks
1 What are the key differences between the creation stories in Christian,
Jewish and Muslim traditions, in comparison with the Eastern religions?
2 How do Creationist Christians view creation stories?
3 How do Liberal Christians view creation stories?
4 Using the table below, create a glossary of key terms linked with Creation.
Term Definition Summarised
Monotheism One God
Religious belief Accepting that there is a
spiritual purpose in life.
5 Explain why ideas about creation have changed over time.

Science: evolution and the Big Bang theory

Since the sixteenth century there has been a massive shift in the
In the seventeenth century, way people in Western Europe understand the natural world.
Archbishop Ussher confidently Until the rise of scientific thinking there was an acceptance within
pronounced that the world had Christian society that the Bible was the absolute, unchanging word
been created in 4004 BCE. of God. The traditional Christian view was that the earth had been
created by God, as described in the Book of Genesis.
However, as more and more evidence built up in the fields of geology
and biology it became clear that the earth is far older than had previously
been understood. It was Charles Darwin who was the first person to
show convincingly that life had arisen through the slow, natural process
of evolution and therefore the earth must be many millions of years old.
39
 In the twentieth century scientists began to look beyond the
earth to space for an explanation of how the world was created, but
it was not until 1965 that the Big Bang theory became the accepted
explanation for the origin of the universe.

▶ The theory of evolution

In 1859 Charles Darwin published On the Origin of Species. This
Key Concept controversial book set out his Theory of Evolution by Natural
Selection, explaining how living creatures have evolved through
Evolution The process by which a process of gradual change over millions of years. His ideas were
different living creatures are backed by the detailed evidence which he had gathered through
believed to have developed from over 30 years of scientific research.
earlier, less complex forms during On the Galapagos Islands, off the coast of South America,
the history of the earth. Darwin had observed birds (finches) on the different islands.
He noticed that different types of finches lived on different islands.
Some had fat beaks; they tended to be found on islands where seeds
were the main food-source. On other islands, where fleshy cactus
fruits were abundant, the finches had thin, pointed beaks.
His theory suggests that characteristics like these happened
‘[Evolution is] the single best idea
by chance as natural variety in an animal’s offspring (just like
anyone has ever had.’
you might be brown eyed and your brother might be blue eyed).
Daniel C. Dennett However, sometimes these characteristics were actually very useful,
so long pointed beaks gave those finches an advantage in eating the
Evolution by natural selection the cactus. So animals with these characteristics were more likely to
idea that the species that flourish survive and breed, and pass the characteristic on to their offspring.
are those which are best suited to This became known as the ‘survival of the fittest’. Darwin put
their environment. forward the idea that this process had repeated itself over and over
again, over very long periods of time, leading to completely new
species of animals emerging.
2 Issues of life and death

Darwin observed differences in the beaks of finches. He assumed that all finches had a
common ancestor. This led him to the theory of evolution by natural selection
40
 Religious reaction to Darwin

The Big Bang theory

Today, there are many religious believers
who welcome Darwin’s theories. Liberal
Christians accept the idea that science can
teach us things that the writers of the Bible
had no understanding of. Most Jewish
people have no problem in accepting the
This ‘Jesus fish’ is a Christian symbol which was used by the early theory of evolution.
church. However, some Evangelical Christians and
many mainstream Muslims see Darwinian
evolution as an attack on their beliefs:
▶ Evolution implies that life has developed
by chance, whereas religious scriptures
(for example the Bible, the Torah and the
Qur’an) teach that God is the creator.
▶ Undermining the Bible, the Torah or the
This is a ‘Darwin fish’. Do you think it is a symbol used Qur’an risks undermining the morals we
by Christians who believe in evolution or a symbol used to share as human beings, leading to crime
mock Christian beliefs about creation? Can you explain and disorder.
your answer? ▶ Religious scriptures teach that humans
alone have a God-given soul, but if we
have evolved from animals, there is no
special place for the human soul.
▶ Evolution challenges the teachings of the
Bible, because Genesis says that each species
was made ‘according to its kind’ (i.e. species
don’t change, they are fixed for all time).

Tasks
1 Explain what evolution is. Ensure that you use the following terms
in your answer: theory, natural selection, survival of the fittest,
Charles Darwin.
2 Summarise the main problems some religious believers have with the
theory of evolution.
3 Look at the quote below from Charles Darwin, do you think he is an
atheist or a theist? Explain your opinion.
‘It seems to me absurd to doubt that a man may be an ardent
Theist and an evolutionist … I have never been an atheist in the
sense of denying the existence of a God.’
Charles Darwin, 1879

▶ The Big Bang theory

The study of the origins of the universe is called cosmology.
Throughout history, some thinkers have argued about whether the
universe had an origin or whether it has always existed; whether it
is expanding or whether it is static (at rest). In 1965 cosmologists
published conclusive evidence to show that the universe did in fact
have a beginning. This theory, that time and space began around
15 billion years ago, became known as the Big Bang theory.
41
 According to the Big Bang theory the universe began from
Stephen Hawking a ‘singularity’, an infinitely tiny point. This ‘singularity’ was
One of the physicists who have infinitely hot and infinitely dense and, as it expanded, sub-
made the biggest contributions atomic particles and then atoms began to appear. This led to
to the field of cosmology for the formation of stars and planets, which make up the universe
over half a century is Stephen as we know it today. Most physicists believe that the universe
Hawking. Hawking’s story is all will continue expanding for countless billions of years to come,
the more remarkable because becoming bigger and colder.
he has been confined to a Today most scientists accept this as an accurate explanation for
wheelchair for much of his adult our world. The evidence for the Big Bang theory comes from the
life, suffering from motor neurone discovery of background radiation, which is thought to be left over
disease that is slowly paralyzing from the initial expansion at the start of the universe. This can be
him. For many years now he has detected with powerful telescopes.
only been able to speak with
the aid of a computerized voice Religious reactions to the Big Bang theory
synthesizer. In the late 1960s Buddhists, Hindus and Sikhs tend to be quite accepting of the
his ground-breaking research Big Bang theory. They believe that the world has been formed,
showed that, at the birth of the destroyed and re-formed countless times and so this fits well with
universe, the cosmos must have the idea that the universe is in a state of development.
emerged from a singularity. His Liberal Christians, Jews and Muslims find no problem in
studies demonstrated that the accepting the Big Bang theory. They have no reason to question the
universe may look as if it is static, evidence on which it is based and accept that this is a way that God
but it is actually expanding at an may have chosen to allow the universe to create intelligent life.
astonishing rate and that this Religious creationists are very critical of these ideas. For them
expansion can be traced back to it contradicts the truth that God has formed all life through his
an initial event: the Big Bang. own power.
Even if scientists are correct in saying that the universe began
with a ‘Big Bang’, have they really solved the question ‘Where does
the universe come from?’. We are still left with the question of what
caused the Big Bang. Some Christians have argued that it was God.

Tasks
1 (a) In one sentence, describe the Big Bang theory.
(b) Outline the process of the Big Bang theory, using a flow chart.
There was ‘singularity’ – a tiny point of hot dense matter
2 Issues of life and death

This matter expanded

2 What are the problems with the Big Bang theory? Refer to two different
problems in your answer.
3 Copy and complete the table below, by placing the following words in the
correct column:
chance, design, faith, evidence, change, accident, purpose, plan, origin,
probability, value, life, beliefs, reasoning, hope, trust, facts, proof
Scientific concepts Religious concepts

42
 ▶ How did the world begin?

How did the world begin?

Interpretation the way we make The sacred texts of Christianity, Islam and Judaism all contain
sense of a piece of writing. Different accounts of the creation of the world. These three religions all
believers interpret passages from share common roots, so it is unsurprising that there are elements
the holy books in different ways. of the Genesis creation stories in the Bible which also appear in the
Literal understanding something
Qur’anic version. However, within these religions different believers
exactly as it is written.
hold different interpretations of these accounts:
Liberal free thinking. ▶ Literal interpretation
Some religious believers are literalists. They believe that their
holy text, whether it’s the Bible, the Torah or the Qur’an should
be understood word for word. Creationists are literalists: for
Task them the creation of the world happened exactly as it is described
in sacred texts.
Reproduce the Venn diagram ‘All scripture is God-breathed.’
below. Complete it by identifying
2 Timothy 3:16
key beliefs about creation for
literalist and liberal believers. This statement, from Timothy, suggests that the Bible was
inspired by God.
▶ Liberal interpretation
God is Other religious people take a liberal view. They believe that
Literalist responsible Liberal
for creation
people should be free to understand the holy books in any way
they choose. They say that the stories they contain should be
understood more like parables or symbolic stories. They are true
because the stories carry real meaning, even if they don’t refer to
actual historical events.

Christian attitudes to the creation of the world

There are two stories which describe God’s creation of the Genesis 2:4–2:25
world, found in the Book of Genesis. (For more detail see The second creation story teaches that God made Adam
pages 174–76.) first, before the animals, and placed him in the Garden of
Eden to live in paradise. Adam was formed from the dust
Genesis 1:1–2:3 of the ground and the breath of God (symbolising the
The first creation story describes how God created the human soul), making him the son of the earth, but also
earth over six days: from the creation of earth and sky, a child of God. To give Adam a partner and a companion,
through the making of the sun, stars, plants, animals God created Eve out of one of Adam’s ribs.
and then finally human beings. Humans are the peak of
God’s creation, made in his image, giving them a unique Christian sacred writings and science
status as God’s stewards of the earth. On the seventh For Christians the Bible has a unique status as the
day God rested. inspired ‘word of God’; it is unlike any other piece of
human writing. However, the way in which Christians
‘And God said: “Let there be light”, and there interpret the Bible varies considerably.
was light.’
Genesis 1:3 Evangelical Christians
Many Evangelical Christians are creationists. They refer
‘Then God said, “Let us make mankind in our to the Bible as ‘God-breathed’, meaning that it has come
image, in our likeness . . .” ’ directly from the mouth of God: every word is true and
Genesis 1:26 accurate. They say that scientific theories of evolution

43
 and the Big Bang must be false, because they contradict last day of creation; Genesis 2 says that humans were
the literal understanding of the creation stories. However, created first, before the animals.)
there are different ways of understanding creationism: Liberal Christians accept that scientific thinking gives us
• Young Earth creationism is the view that the world an accurate picture of reality. They say that the Christian
was created by God, in seven actual days, and this scriptures were written thousands of years ago by people
happened less than 10,000 years ago. living in a pre-scientific age and are better understood
• Old Earth creationism agrees that God must have as a metaphor. Liberal Christians tend to agree with
created the world, but it accepts the idea that evolution, but they may disagree on the way God was
creation took place millions of years ago. actually involved in bringing life into being:
The seven days of creation refer to long eras of time, • Theistic guided evolution. The belief that life came
rather than 24-hour periods. about through evolution, but this process was guided
by the direct intervention of God.
Liberal Christians • Natural evolution. Many Christians accept the
Liberal Christians say that it makes more sense to evidence put forward by science, which says that
understand the Bible accounts as myths (stories evolution is the natural process through which life has
which contain religious wisdom); they should not to be emerged. However, they would say that God set down
understood as historical events. The very fact that the these laws of nature before the universe existed.
two creation narratives in Genesis seem to contradict
each other is evidence that these are stories, not factual Creationism the belief that all life was made by God.
accounts. (Genesis 1 says humans were created on the

Muslim attitudes to the creation of the world

The Qur’an teaches that God is the Creator and literally, not metaphorically. Because of this, many
Sustainer of all life, but, unlike the Bible, there is Muslims are creationists: they say it was God who
no one single creation story. Passages about the madethe earth; it could not possibly have come about
creation are scattered throughout the Qur’an. Muslims by itself. Islam tends to teach Old Earth creationism, the
believe that God created the heavens and the earth idea that God created the world over six long periods
from formless matter over six long periods of time. of time.
He created humans out of clay, molding Adam and Some Muslims will criticise the theory of evolution
breathing life and power into him. He took Adam to because ideas about evolution are often linked to
paradise and made a wife for him. atheism. The Qur’an makes specific reference to Adam’s
creation by God, so many Muslims, even if they accept
‘Indeed, your Lord is God who created the most aspects of evolution, refuse to accept the idea of
heavens and earth in six days and then human evolution.
established Himself above the Throne. He covers
the night with the day, [another night] chasing
Although, like the Bible, the Qur’an refers to creation
2 Issues of life and death

it rapidly; and [He created] the sun, the moon,

taking six ‘days’, the Arabic word used in the Qur’an
and the stars, subjected by His command.
is understood to mean six long periods of time,
Unquestionably, His is the creation and the
rather than exactly 24 hours.
command; blessed is God, Lord of the worlds.’

Qur’an 7:54
‘Is not He who created the heavens and the
earth Able to create the likes of them? Yes,
Islamic sacred writings and science [it is so]; and He is the Knowing Creator.’
Islam teaches that the Qur’an is a sacred text and that Qur’an 36:81
the words it contains are the actual word of God. Most
Muslims believe that the Qur’an must be understood

44
 How did the world begin?
However, there are also many Muslims who have ‘Have those who disbelieved not considered that
no difficulty with accepting scientific explanations the heavens and the earth were a joined entity,
of the world while also believing in the Qur’an. They and We separated them and made from water
have no major disagreement with science and they every living thing? Then will they not believe?.’
accept evolution, because they say that scientific Qur’an 21:30
ideas cannot disprove the existence of God. An
important part of being a Muslim is to strive for better
‘The book of God and the book of Nature can
understanding of the world, so greater scientific
be aligned.’
knowledge gives a deeper awareness of the way God
has created the world. Dr Hasan

Jewish attitudes to the creation of the world

Jews believe that there is one God who is the source and purpose of all life.
The Torah is the most sacred The Book of Genesis, which is the first book in the Torah, tells two stories
of all Jewish scriptures. It is a about the origins of the world.
collection of five books: Genesis,
The first creation story says:
Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and
Deuteronomy. Jewish tradition ‘In the beginning of God’s creating the heavens and the earth
teaches that these books were when the earth was astonishingly empty ... God said: “Let there
revealed to the Prophet Moses be light”.’
and they understand them to be Genesis 1:1–3
the ‘word of God’. However, many
Reform Jews believe the Torah This account goes on to describe the six ‘days’ of creation. On the sixth day
can be adapted sometimes and God created human beings: ‘So God created Man in his image...’
not taken literally. The second creation story (Genesis 2:4–25) gives a different account of God’s
creation, with Adam and Eve being created and placed in the Garden of Eden.
Many Jews believe that the Torah is the ‘Word of God’, but if this is the case,
then how can both these stories be true?
The Torah is part of the Tenakh.
Orthodox Jews believe that these stories are true accounts of the origin of the
Christians call the Tenakh
world. They say that they were revealed to Moses by God and they argue that
the Old Testament. Jews
the different accounts only appear to contradict each other because we have
and Christians both view the
not understood them properly.
Tenakh/Old Testament as
sacred scripture, but they don’t Reform Jews question whether Moses was the actual author of Genesis. They
always interpret the stories and might argue that there are different stories because they were written by
teachings in the same way. different authors and only put together in the Torah at a later date.

Jewish sacred writings and science

Some Orthodox Jews would understand the Genesis creation passages as
historical fact, so they would have difficulties accepting modern scientific
ideas. The creation stories picture God creating all species of animals just
as they are today, fixed forever. This leads them to reject ideas of evolution,
where species change and emerge over millions of years.
Other, more progressive Jews have no problem in accepting scientific
theories like the Big Bang and evolution. However, they would not accept the
conclusions that humanists come to, to say that therefore there is no need
for God. They still have faith in God as a sustainer and provider, but they argue
that God kick-started the universe through the Big Bang and has guided the
creation of life through evolution.

45
 Humanist attitudes to the creation of the world
Humanists believe that we can understand the world campaigning on issues such as peace and international
through science and that religious explanations of the co-operation, global justice, climate change and the
world are unreliable. They say that there are no good environment. They argue that the future of the world is in
reasons for believing in the existence of God and there our hands and if we do not act now we will do irreparable
is plenty of evidence to suggest that the world formed damage to the planet.
by itself, through slow gradual processes over billions ‘The humanist perspective places a strong
of years. Evolution can help us to understand the way emphasis on personal responsibility for
species are related to each other today, rather than relying our actions and the importance of social
on the religious belief that the creation of life is a ‘mystery’. co-operation, and we very much hope that
Humanists for a better world (H4BW) is a humanist group Humanists for a Better World can build upon
which was set up in 2011. It aims to create networks for this tradition.’
Humanists to share ideas about the need to be active in Andrew Copson, Chief Executive of the BHA

Tasks
1 What is a creationist?
2 How do creationists and humanists differ in their ideas about the
natural world?
3 Read the statement from Pope Francis.
‘When we read about Creation in Genesis, we run the risk of
imagining God as a magician, with a magic wand able to do
everything. But that is not so. God created human beings and let
them develop according to the internal laws that He gave to each
one so they would reach their fulfilment.’
Explain whether or not you think Pope Francis is a creationist. Use
quotes from his statement to support your point.
2 Issues of life and death

The ceiling of the Sistene Chapel, painted by Michelangelo, shows the creation of
humankind by God.

▶ Was the world designed?

The design argument
Many religious believers say that the fact that the world is so
beautiful and well ordered gives us strong evidence for the
existence of a creator God. They argue that the complexity and
interconnectedness of nature could not have come about by itself.
46 There must be a divine mind behind creation.
 Was the world designed?
William Paley
In 1802 the theologian William Paley In the same way, when looking at
put forward the famous watch analogy. the world with its complex patterns
If you were to find a watch, by accident, and structures, you would come to
you would think that it must have the conclusion that there must be a
been designed by a watch-maker. cosmic world-maker, a designer God.

Intelligent design
Intelligent design the idea that Intelligent design is a popular belief in the USA today among
certain features of life are best some Christians. The theory states that there are some organisms
explained by an intelligent cause, alive today that cannot have come about through the process of
rather than an undirected process, slow, random evolution.
such as natural selection. Michael Behe is a creation scientist who argues for intelligent
design. He uses the example of a mousetrap. He says that a mousetrap
depends on five parts and if one of the parts was not there it would
not work. The function of the mousetrap requires all the pieces. He
argues that the same is true for life: the individual parts cannot have
come together by chance; they must have all been designed together.

William Paley argued that the human other, less complex eyes in earlier
eye must have been created through species.
God’s design. He tried to show that it
could not have come about through
gradual change and progression from
simpler light-sensitive organs. However,
evolutionary biologists today believe
that there is good evidence to show
how the human eye has evolved from

The illusion of design

The biologist Richard Dawkins argues that the theory of evolution
is the best explanation of how life has come about. He argues that
the world might appear to have been designed, but that raises the
question: who designed the designer? Dawkins believes that natural
selection gives the solution to the question ‘Where do we come from?’.
As an atheist, he argues that evolution needs no help from God.

‘The illusion of design in the living world is explained with far greater
economy . . . by Darwinian natural selection.’
Richard Dawkins

Tasks
1 Summarise what is meant by ‘intelligent design’.
2 Outline the main argument (The Watch) offered by William Paley.
3 Give two examples which suggest that the world appears to be designed.
Include things which show order in the world, such as the seasons.
4 Richard Dawkins says that the appearance of design is an illusion.
Richard Dawkins argues that evolution What does he mean by this?
is the best explanation of how life has 5 Do you agree with William Paley or Richard Dawkins? Explain the reason
developed on Earth. for your opinion.
47
 ▶ Science and religion
Science and religion are opposed to each other
Tasks Evangelical Christians believe that where science seems to
contradict the Bible, science must be at fault. God has revealed
1 What is the key difference
his truth through scripture, for all time.
between science and religion
when thinking about creation? ‘The Bible has stood the test of time because it is divinely inspired by
2 Is it possible for Christians Almighty God, written in ink that cannot be erased by any man, religion or
to believe in both the biblical belief system.’
creation story and the theory Billy Graham (Evangelist)
of evolution?
3 (a) Analyse the results Many Muslims reject evolution. They refer to passages from
from ‘Life in twenty- the Qur’an which, if taken literally, imply the instant creation of
first-century Britain’. humans as we are today.
Explain what the results Atheist scientists believe that science gives us an accurate picture
tell us about modern of the world and that religion tells us nothing. The world may
ideas of creation. appear to have been designed, but this is an illusion.
(b) Why might some people
find these results Evolution is the ‘only known theory that could … solve the mystery of our
surprising? existence.’
Richard Dawkins
2 Issues of life and death

An ancient Hebrew view of the world: an attempt to picture the flat earth and dome-like heavens above, as described by the
Genesis creation stories.

Science and religion complement each other

Many religious people say there is no conflict between religion and
science. Science tells us how the world was made and religion tells
48 us why.
 Stewardship and the relationship between humans and animals
‘The account of the creation is ‘Genesis is not there to give short technical answers about how the
not to be taken literally.’ universe began. It gives us the big answer that things exist because of
Maimonides God’s will.’
Professor John Polkinghorne

‘The more I study science, the The Qur’an refers to God as Al Khaliq (The Creator) and Al
more I believe in God.’ Bari (The Evolver). Therefore, many Muslims see no contradictions
Albert Einstein between creation and evolution. There is a strong tradition within
Judaism which accepts science and religion.

Life in twenty-first-century Britain

In a survey of 2060 adults in Great Britain (carried out by %
Comres in 2008), people were told:
Definitely true 13
‘Atheistic evolution is the idea that evolution makes belief Probably true 21
in God unnecessary and absurd.’
Probably untrue 27
And then asked: Definitely untrue 30
‘In your opinion, is atheistic evolution . . .’ Don’t know 9
The results are shown in the table. Conclusion: only 42 per cent of British people accept
the idea of atheistic evolution.

▶ Stewardship and the relationship between

humans and animals
What is stewardship?
Stewardship means caring for the planet and managing its resources.
A steward is like a trustee or a caretaker; they are responsible for
looking after someone’s property while that person is away. Many
believers say that God has given humans the special duty to care for
the world in his place, as his precious possession.

‘Earth provides enough to satisfy

every man’s need, but not every Key Concept
man’s greed.’
Environmental sustainability Ensuring that the demands placed
Mahatma Gandhi
on natural resources can be met without reducing capacity to
allow all people and other species of animals, as well as plant life,
to live well, now and in the future.

Responsibility humans have a responsibility to care for the planet.

Global citizenship the idea that we should see ourselves as part of a world
community. We should view the whole world as our home, not just the town
where we live or our country of birth. We have a responsibility to care for
the Amazonian rainforests and for global climate change as much as for
pollution in our own local communities.
Stewardship means caring for the planet.

49
 Christian attitudes to stewardship
Christians believe that life is a gift from God and that God They say that humans have a responsibility towards the
has given humans the role of stewards in the world. Genesis environment, looking after the planet’s precious resources.
1:26 teaches that God made men and women in his own God has entrusted us to live as stewards and we should be
image, meaning that humans have a soul which is unique. responsible global citizens, using the earth’s resources in
Genesis 2:7 says that God formed Adam from the dust and a sustainable manner.
breathed his divine life into him. Both these passages imply Some ‘Green Christians’ are environmental activists who
that humans were created with a special status above the promote awareness and action at church, community
rest of nature. However, this leads to a disagreement among and national levels.
Christians about how we should treat the environment.
What did Jesus mean when he taught his followers to ‘love
‘You have made them (humans) a little lower than your neighbour’ (Matthew 5:43)? Some Christians argue that
the angels and crowned them with glory and in this statement Jesus is referring to our fellow humans and
honour. You made them rulers over the works of it is therefore acceptable to kill animals and eat their meat,
your hands; you put everything under their feet.’ since they are not our equals. Other more liberal believers
Psalm 8:5–6 would say that when interpreting this passage today it should
Dominion: to rule over nature teach us that we need to have respect for all living beings.
Evangelical Christians tend to take the Bible literally, so,
when it says, in Genesis 1:28, that God created humans
to ‘rule over’ nature, they believe that this gives us the
right to utilise the world’s natural resources. In other
words they believe they have ‘dominion’ over nature.
Stewardship: to live in harmony with nature
More Liberal Christians, however, argue that humans
should be stewards of the earth, rather than exploiters. ■ When Christchurch Cathedral in New Zealand was destroyed by
Genesis 2:15 speaks of God placing Adam in the Garden an earthquake in 2011, Christians decided to make an environmen-
of Eden to ‘cultivate and care for it’. tal statement, building a new cathedral from cardboard (a sustain-
able resource)!

Muslim attitudes to stewardship ‘The earth is green and beautiful. God has
Islam teaches that animals must be respected, but, unlike appointed you his stewards over it.’
human beings, they are not uniquely sacred. Muslims, like Hadith
Christians, believe that God is the all-powerful creator of Muhammad said animals must be treated with care and he
all life and that humans have been created with particular told a story about how, on a very hot day, a prostitute took
responsibilities. We are His trustees (khalifahs), appointed to water from a well to give water to a dog. He pronounced that,
care for the world and rule it as God would wish. It is not ours to for this act of kindness, all her sins would be forgiven by God.
waste or spoil; it must be safeguarded for future generations.
‘And it is He who has made you successors
2 Issues of life and death

Islam teaches that there is a pattern and balance in the upon the earth and has raised some of you
universe, known as fitrah. The survival and continuation above others in degrees [of rank] that He may
of the planet relies on this balance being maintained. It try you through what He has given you.’
is the role of humans, as khalifahs, to work to maintain
Qur’an 6:165
this fitrah (balance) by being aware of the need to use
the earth’s resources fairly. Many Muslims say that this ‘So direct your face toward the religion,
means that they should act as global citizens, living inclining to truth. [Adhere to] the fitrah of
sustainable lifestyles. God upon which He has created [all] people. No
change should there be in the creation of God.
Others argue that the reason Muslims should treat the
That is the correct religion, but most of the
earth with care is because we will be judged by God on
people do not know.’
the way they have looked after the natural world.
Qur’an 30:30

50
 Stewardship and the relationship between humans and animals
Jewish attitudes to stewardship
Jewish leaders today teach that human beings must behave as responsible
global citizens, acting as the stewards of God’s creation. There are a number
of teachings about how to care for the earth, some originating in the Tenakh,
others from the Talmud or from Jewish traditions. Genesis 1 describes how
God gave humans control over nature:
‘Rule over the fish of the sea, the birds of the air and everything
living that moves on the earth.’
Genesis 1:28

‘It is our Jewish responsibility Humans must treat the environment with respect, because the earth is God’s
to put the defence of the whole possession and we are the temporary caretakers; stewardship is both a gift
of nature at the very centre of and a duty.
our concern.’ The annual festival of Tu B’Shevat (New Year for Trees) is a powerful
Rabbi Arthur Hertzberg reminder that humans must learn to live environmentally sustainable
lives. Tu B’Shevat comes at the beginning of spring and Jewish people in
Israel and around the world mark the event by planting trees wherever
they can. They also celebrate the day by eating fruit, especially from
varieties that are mentioned in the Torah: grapes, figs, pomegranates,
Kosher food laws say that it
is acceptable to eat certain olives and dates.
types of animals, including The Jewish scriptures do not have very much to say about the rights of
sheep and cows. However, the animals, but they make it very clear that animals are an important part of
animal must be slaughtered God’s creation. Today most Jewish people are happy to eat meat, provided it
according to strict rules laid is killed according to kosher food laws. Others are vegetarians, believing that
down by Jewish religious this is the way God created us to be, living in harmony with animals as Adam
traditions. It must be carried and Eve did in the Garden of Eden.
out by a certified person and One of the great Jewish thinkers is Maimonides who lived in the twelfth
the animal’s throat must be century. He taught that animals must be respected for themselves; they
cut with a swift action, using a were not created by God just for the benefit of humans. The Torah teaches
special knife with a sharp blade. that, although humans have been given dominion over animals, this does
not give us the right to exploit and harm them.
The Torah does not say much about how to treat the environment, but there is
a passage in Deuteronomy 20:19 which says:
Bal tashchit referred to in the ‘When you lay siege to a city . . . do not destroy its trees by
Torah. Literally, it means ‘do not putting an axe to them.’
destroy’.
This teaching is known as bal tashchit. Jewish people see it as an instruction
Tikkun olam means ‘repair the to use the earth’s resources wisely and not to waste or exploit them for short-
world’. Jewish people believe term gain.
it is important to work to make
the world a better place for In Jewish tradition there is a strong emphasis on the importance of caring
everyone. for others. The phrase tikkun olam is an instruction to ‘repair the world’.
It encourages Jewish people to work to conserve the earth’s resources
Gemilut hasadim means making
through sensible use and recycling. In Judaism it is a mitzvah (duty)
‘acts of loving kindness’. It
for individuals to be generous, making gemilut hasadim (acts of loving
emphasises the need to be
kindness) towards others. Caring for the environment might mean going
charitable, caring for others and
out of your way not to be wasteful or being prepared to pay more for
for the world.
ethical products.

51
 ‘Tend well to the earth, for there There is a story in the Talmud which serves as a reminder to Jewish people
will be no one to make it right about the need to safeguard the environment for future generations. It tells
after you.’ of a character called Honi the circle-drawer, who lived in the first century
Talmud BCE. On one occasion, Honi was travelling along a road when he met a man
planting a carob tree. He asked the man how long it takes for a carob tree to
bear fruit. The man replied: ‘Seventy years’. Honi asked the man if he was
certain that he would still be alive in 70 years’ time and the man replied:
‘I found already grown carob trees in the world; as my forefathers planted
those for me so I too plant these for my children.’

Are humans most sacred? Humanist attitudes to stewardship

One of the physicists who have Humanists try to base their thinking on reasoning and evidence,
made the biggest contributions rejecting ideas that rely on belief in a supernatural being (God). Most
to the field of cosmology for humanists agree with the ideas of stewardship; they say that we have
over half a century is Stephen a responsibility to work for a more sustainable world, causing as little
Hawking. Hawking’s story is all harm to the environment as possible. However, they believe this because
the more remarkable because they say it makes sense, not because God has placed us here for that
he has been confined to a purpose.
wheelchair for much of his adult
life, suffering from motor neurone
disease that is slowly paralyzing Tasks
him. For many years now he has 1 Copy and complete the table below, adding three more points for
only been able to speak with each column.
the aid of a computerized voice
synthesizer. In the late 1960s Inheriting the earth Borrowing the earth
his ground-breaking research You own it. It still belongs to someone else.
showed that, at the birth of the
universe, the cosmos must have
emerged from a singularity. His
studies demonstrated that the
universe may look as if it is static, 2 Using some of the points from your table, explain the key difference
but it is actually expanding at an between ‘inheriting’ the earth and ‘borrowing’ it.
astonishing rate and that this 3 Look at the Amish saying below. How might it affect the way people
expansion can be traced back to treat the earth?
an initial event: the Big Bang.
2 Issues of life and death

‘We didn’t inherit the land from our fathers, we are borrowing it
from our children.’
Amish saying
4 What is environmental sustainability? Support your answer by giving
three different examples.

52
 ▶ End of section review

End of section review

Knowledge check
1 What does the word ‘stewardship’ mean?
2 In your own words, explain the difference between evolution and creation.
3 Explain ideas about creationism in two different religions or religious traditions.
4 Explain what Richard Dawkins means by the ‘illusion of design’.

Skills Link
1 Why might there be differences of belief about creation within the same
religion?
2 ‘Humans should be free to treat the world in any way they want.’ Discuss
this statement showing that you have considered more than one point of
view. (You must refer to religious and non-religious beliefs, such as those
held by humanists and atheists, in your answer.)
Stickability
Key concepts:
• Environmental sustainability
• Evolution The Big Question
Key teachings about:
‘Life must have come about by itself.’
• the origin of the world
• stewardship and environmental
responsibility Your task
• dominion Respond to the statement above, showing that you have considered more
• sustainability than one point of view. Give reasoned judgements on the validity and
• global citizenship strength of these views.

Task
For both of the religions (or denominations) you are studying, explain in detail religious teachings about
the origins of the universe.
Use the guidance below to help you to write a developed explanation for Christianity and a second one for your
other chosen religion or denomination. Ensure you use key terms fluently and frequently.
All/many/most Christians believe that ....................... . This comes from the teaching/Bible quote ....................... . This
means that/Because of this they ....................... .
Some/other Christians such as ....................... believe that ....................... . This comes from the teaching/Bible quote
....................... . This means that/Because of this they ....................... .
Finally, Christians such as ....................... believe that ....................... . This means that/Because of this they ....................... .
Their beliefs do/do not differ because ....................... .

53
 ■ The origin and value of human life
▶ What is sanctity of life?
Who owns my body? Am I special? Are
we simply the sum of the chemicals
and minerals that make up our bodies
or do we have greater worth than that?
Whose life is it anyway?

Key Concept
Sanctity of life The belief that life is precious, or sacred. For many
religious believers, only human life holds this special status.

Medical ethics the process of deciding what is good and acceptable in

medicine.

Most people, whether they hold a religious belief or not, would

accept that human life is special and worthy of being preserved.
For religious believers, life is special because it comes ultimately
from God. Life is a gift and is unique and priceless. For those
without a religious faith, life is no less precious, but its importance
does not hail from God. Life is priceless because it is the only life
we have.
This belief leads us to go to extraordinary lengths to protect
and preserve human life. It also has a huge impact on various
medical ethics issues, especially those which relate to life-creating
or life-ending procedures.

Task
2 Issues of life and death

For both of the religions (or denominations) you are studying, explain in detail religious teachings about
sanctity of life. Use the guidance below to help you to write a developed explanation for Christianity. Ensure
that you use key terms fluently and frequently.
All/many/most Christians believe that ....................... . This comes from the teaching/Bible quote ....................... . This means
that/Because of this they ........................
Some/other Christians such as ....................... believe that ....................... . This comes from the teaching/Bible quote
....................... . This means that/Because of this they ....................... .
Finally, Christians such as ....................... believe that ....................... . This means that/ Because of this they ....................... .
Beliefs do/do not differ because ....................... .

54
 ▶ What makes us human?

Religious teachings about the sanctity of life

Ingredients for human beings:

Seven bars of soap Lime – to whitewash a chicken coop Phosphorous – for 2,200 match heads

Magnesium – a small dose Iron – for a medium-sized nail Potassium – to explode a small toy cannon

Sugar – to fill a sugar sifter Water – five buckets Sulphur – a pinch

▶ Religious teachings about the sanctity of life

The sacred texts of Christianity, Islam and Judaism all emphasise
the sanctity of human life.

What is missing? Christian attitudes to the sanctity of life

The nine images above show the Christians believe that life is created by God, protected by God and valued
physical elements that make up by God. God is interested and involved in each human’s life. God has created
human beings. What do you think each individual person, and made them unique in their own right, just as he
is missing? made Adam and Eve. Genesis 1:27 states that God created humankind in
his own image. For literalist Christians this means that every human being
who has ever walked the earth bears God’s image. It is for this reason that
all Christians, irrespective of denomination, believe that life is sacred and is
a gift from God.

55
 Because of the belief in the sanctity of life, many Christians also accept
that only God should take life away. Quaker Christians oppose the death
penalty and fighting in wars because of the belief that each person contains
a reflection of the image of God, which makes every human sacred. This is
clearly shown in the Bible:
‘Don’t you know that you yourselves are God’s temple and that
God’s Spirit dwells in your midst?’
1 Corinthians 3:16

Similarly, only God should choose when life begins. Catholics hold
strictly to this belief, and as such disagree in practice with artificial
methods of contraception and with in vitro fertilisation (when an
embryo is created outside of the human body in a laboratory using
sperm and an egg).
Jesus also showed through his teachings and practice that all life should be
valued. The way in which he tended to the leper, visited the sick and spoke to
the Samaritan woman demonstrated that all lives are worthy of respect and
compassion because all life is descended from God (and therefore sacred).
‘God saw all that he had made, and it was very good. And there
was evening, and there was morning – the sixth day.’
Genesis 1:31

‘Before I formed you in the womb I knew you, before you were born
I set you apart; I appointed you as a prophet to the nations.’
Jeremiah 1:5

Muslim attitudes to the sanctity of life

Muslims believe that all life is created by God, and only he has the right
to take it away. This teaching applies to all creations of God and murder is
explicitly forbidden in the Qur’an:
‘And do not kill the soul which God has forbidden [to be killed]
except by [legal] right.’
Qur’an 6:151
Every soul has been created by God. God has a plan for each life, written
before each person is ‘planted as a seed in your mothers’ womb’.
2 Issues of life and death

No one has the right to take their own or anyone else’s life. This is discussed
in the Qur’an:
‘Because of that, We decreed upon the children of Israel that
whoever kills a soul unless for a soul or for corruption [done]
in the land – it is as if he had slain mankind entirely. And Our
messengers had certainly come to them with clear proofs.
Then indeed many of them, [even] after that throughout the
land, were transgressors.’
Qur’an 5:32

56
 Religious teachings about the sanctity of life
This essentially means that the killing of just one soul carries the sin of
killing all of humanity. Those who commit such crimes will face a severe
punishment by God on the Day of Judgement.
‘Say, “Come, I will recite what your Lord has prohibited to you.
[He commands] that you not associate anything with Him, and
to parents, good treatment, and do not kill your children out of
poverty; We will provide for you and them. And do not approach
immoralities – what is apparent of them and what is concealed.
And do not kill the soul which God has forbidden [to be killed]
except by [legal] right. This has He instructed you that you
may use reason.” ’
Qur’an 6:151

Jewish attitudes to the sanctity of life

Life is sacred and a gift from God. All humans are important. Their lives are
precious and cannot be thrown away. Murder is forbidden for both Jews and
non-Jews.
Humans are created in God’s image and are therefore important. The
Talmud (Sanhedrin 37a) explains that Adam was created to teach us the
significance, importance and sanctity of each individual:
‘Anyone who destroys a human life is considered as if he had
destroyed an entire world, and anyone who preserves a human
life is considered to have preserved an entire world.’
Pikuach Nefesh is the principle in Jewish law that the preservation of
human life overrides virtually any other religious consideration. This means
that if a person’s life is in danger, other mitzvot (duties) from the Torah
become irrelevant. Human life is so precious that most other laws should be
put aside to enable it to be protected and preserved, for example the laws of
Shabbat or other Jewish holidays are to be suspended for the purposes of
Pikuach Nefesh.
The Talmud discusses a number of cases as examples in which mitzvot can
be disregarded for the sake of saving a human life.

Humanist attitudes to the sanctity of life

Humanists see a special value in human life. Because it is an atheistic
tradition, humanism do not believe that the value of life comes from God.
Humanists do not believe that people have souls, or that there is an afterlife
in heaven, hell or purgatory, or that there is a God who judges where people go
in an afterlife. They believe that we only have this life, and that it ends forever
when we die. Life therefore has special importance because it is our only life.
As humanists believe that one of the central purposes of life is to make
ourselves and others around us as happy as possible, life is imbued
with importance because it is our opportunity to benefit others through
compassion and kindness. As such, life is not seen as sacred but is worthy
of the highest respect.
57
 ▶ The quality of life
Key Concept
Quality of life The extent to which life is meaningful and
pleasurable.

Many people believe that the quality of our life is more important than
whether it is special or sacred. If our life is relatively free from pain and
anxiety and if we live with freedom and dignity, then we have what is
considered a good quality of life. If the degree of pain and suffering
that we endure exceeds the pleasure that we gain from other areas of
our life, then we would be considered to have a poor quality of life.

How do we measure quality?

Assessing the extent to which a life has quality is a difficult
philosophical problem. One person can no more appreciate how
another experiences and tolerates pain than they can guess how
much pleasure they might get from eating a bar of chocolate. As
such, measuring the quality of a person’s life is incredibly difficult.
Quality of life indicators are used by governments across the world.
They look broadly at material living conditions, health and education
provision, leisure and social interactions, as well as economic
factors and the extent to which human rights are granted. Doctors
and clinicians also have tools to measure the quality of life of their
patients, looking at levels of pain, the extent of disability, the ability
to feed and toilet oneself, among other indicators. Most doctors,
however, understand that there are real limits to how accurate
these measurements can be. They similarly appreciate that there are
genuine ethical problems with trying to evaluate quality of life.
If a person’s life has insufficient quality, some would argue that they
should have the right to die. Some would also say that attempts to
treat a person’s illness should be weighed against the extent to which
they are going to live a life free from pain and suffering afterwards.

Tasks
1 In your own words, explain what is meant by sanctity of life. Aim to
2 Issues of life and death

include the following terms: sacred, priceless, value, God.

2 In a short paragraph, explain the differences between quality and
sanctity of life.
3 In a mind map, identify six different ways in which quality of life can be
measured (for example, material living conditions, etc).
4 What is the difference between a religious believers’ ideas on why life is
special and those of an atheist, for example a humanist?

Skills Link
Explain the teachings about why life is sacred from one religious tradition.

58
 ▶ When does life begin?

When does life begin?

Although it seems obvious to state that life begins at birth
and ends at death, there are real questions as to when a
‘person’ is first created. When does a person actually become
a person?
Some would argue that a person ‘begins’ when they are first aware
of their own existence; others when independent life is possible. Some
would claim that from the point a foetus can feel pain, they are a
person in their own right. Many religious believers would assert that
from the moment of conception, a life and therefore a person has been
created. There are no definitive or clear answers to this question, and
any answers offered are affected by what we think being a ‘person’ is
all about.

Conception Some believe that life begins at

conception because the egg and
sperm are a living source of life.

Some believe that when the first movements in the

womb can be felt (called quickening) from nine weeks
onwards that perceptible life has begun.

At around 19 weeks or 120 days some believe that

ensoulment happens and this marks the start of life.
Others link this point with the development of the
nervous system, brain activity or organ development.

At 24 weeks the foetus reaches viability – the

stage at which it could survive outside of the womb.

The baby Many believe that life properly starts at

is born birth (about 40 weeks after conception).

59
 ▶ The great abortion debate
Key Concept
Abortion When a pregnancy is ended so that it does not result in
the birth of a child.

The ethics of abortion have been widely debated since it was

first legalised in Britain in 1967. Those against abortion claim
that it is simply immoral to kill unborn babies, irrespective of the
circumstances of the mother. Others argue that it is the quality of life
that matters, and that sometimes in modern society procedures like
abortion are necessary. If a baby is going to be born severely disabled
or with a terminal or life-limiting condition, if the mother is going to
suffer mentally or physically as the result of the pregnancy, or even if
the pregnancy was the result of rape, some people feel that it is kinder
to permit an abortion so that quality of life is maintained. For reasons
such as these, abortion has become a massively controversial issue.
▶ ‘Pro-life’ is a term used to talk about people who believe that
abortion is always wrong and that every human being has a right
to life (even tiny embryos).
▶ ‘Pro-choice’ is a term used to talk about people who believe that
every woman should be able to choose what happens to her body.
That right includes choosing whether or not to continue with a
pregnancy and have a baby. This does not mean that a pro-choice
advocate is necessarily in favour of abortion absolutely – there may
well be some situations in which they would morally disagree with
abortion. Rather, it means that they support a woman’s right to
choose for herself.

The rights of the unborn child

Many people (religious and not religious) who oppose abortion argue
that the unborn child has rights – most specifically a right to life. The
law, however, is unclear about the rights of the unborn child, and in
practice their rights are not distinguishable from those of the mother.
In December 2014, as part of a court case not related to abortion, the
Court of Appeal ruled that an unborn child ‘was not a person’.
2 Issues of life and death

‘It takes two to create a human Life in twenty-first-century Britain

life, but only one to end it.’
Abortion is legal in Britain before 24 weeks of pregnancy. Two doctors must
What is your opinion on the fact
consent to the procedure, and decide whether there will be a risk to the
that fathers have no rights when it
mother’s physical or mental health if the pregnancy were to continue. In
comes to the abortion decision?
very rare cases, such as severe foetal abnormality or grave risk to the life of
the mother, an abortion can be performed after 24 weeks.
It is estimated that one in three women will, at some point in their life, have
an abortion. At the moment, the father of the foetus has no legal rights –
even if the couple are married.

60
 ▶ Religious teachings about abortion

Religious teachings about abortion

Christian attitudes to abortion
There is no single view on abortion in Christianity. Views The Church of England
differ due to the different priority given to concerns over The Church of England has a slightly different view, as
of the sanctity of life and the teaching of Jesus to act with represented in this resolution from its governing body:
compassion. ‘The Church of England combines strong
opposition to abortion with a recognition that
Catholics there can be – strictly limited – conditions
Catholics and other orthodox denominations agree under which it may be morally preferable to
that abortion is forbidden in all circumstances as life is any available alternative.’
sacred and God given. From the moment of conception
General Synod
a new and unique life begins. This is not a potential life,
but rather a human being with potential. Abortion is They do hold that all life is precious as it is made by God.
therefore murder and against the Ten Commandments. Abortion is not allowed for social reasons. However, if the
Catholics believe that the foetus has a right to live and mother’s life is in danger, abortion is permitted but not
develop, and that terminating this life is a great moral encouraged.
evil. The Catholic Church condemned abortion as early
Similarly, for ‘quality of life’ reasons and out of
as the second century CE. The Didache, written in the
compassion, abortion is permitted if the female has been
second century, states:
raped. Taking all of this into consideration, they also
‘You shall not kill the embryo by abortion and believe that the law in Britain has been interpreted too
shall not cause the newborn to perish’ liberally and that this has resulted in the performance of
an excessive number of abortions.

Muslim attitudes to abortion

The Qur’an does not explicitly refer to abortion but There exists real debate about the acceptability of
offers guidance on related matters. Muslims believe abortion and the conditions under which it should be
that God creates life and only he can end it (sanctity of permitted. Some schools of Muslim law permit abortion in
life). Abortion for purely economic reasons is forbidden the first 16 weeks of pregnancy, while others only permit
in the Qur’an: it in the first seven weeks. These differing interpretations
exist because each sets a different ‘point’ at which the
‘do not kill your children out of poverty; We will
embryo or foetus becomes a person. Even those scholars
provide for you and them.’
who permit early abortion in certain cases still regard
Qur’an 6:151 abortion as wrong, but do not regard it as a punishable
While many Muslims believe that abortion is wrong wrong. They would argue that the more advanced the
and haram (forbidden) some also accept that there are pregnancy, the greater the wrong.
situations in which an abortion can be permitted. Many The mother’s rights are greater than the child’s until
will allow abortion if the mother’s life is in danger or if 120 days after conception, which is when ensoulment
the child is likely to be seriously deformed or diseased. happens (the foetus gets its soul). Islam allows
However, such decisions should not be entered into abortion to save the life of the mother because it sees
lightly. The taking of the life of a child is a sin, and on the this as the ’lesser of two evils’ and there is a general
Day of Judgement a child will have the right to ask why principle in Shari’ah (Muslim law) of choosing the lesser
it was killed. of two evils.

61
 Jewish attitudes to abortion
Judaism as a whole does not forbid abortion, but it does not permit abortion
on demand. Abortion is only permitted for serious reasons. Every case is
expected to be considered on its own merits and the decision should be taken
only after consultation with a rabbi. The unborn foetus is not considered a
‘person’ in Jewish law until it has been born, and the principle of Pikuach Nefesh
(see page 297) allows for the life of the mother to be saved. There are, however,
differing beliefs among Jews as to when and whether abortion is permissible.
Abortion is largely opposed by Orthodox Jews. This is because life is God’s
greatest gift, and it should be preserved at all costs. God is the creator, and
he alone can take life. Destroying a life is therefore a heinous crime.
Reform and liberal Jews believe that abortion is permitted in some
circumstances, such as if the mother’s life is at risk. In such circumstances
(where allowing the pregnancy to continue would kill the mother) Judaism
insists that the foetus must be aborted, since the mother’s life is more
important than that of the foetus.
Some Jews accept abortion in cases of rape or, incest, or if the health of the
mother is generally poor.
‘They who have been born are destined to die. They that are dead
are destined to be made alive. They who live are destined to be
judged, that men may know and make known and understand that
He is God, He is the maker, He is the creator, He is the discerner,
He is the judge, He is the witness, He is the complainant, and it is
He who will in the future judge, blessed be He, in whose presence is
neither guile nor forgetfulness nor respect of persons nor taking
of bribes; for all is His. And know that everything is according to
the reckoning. And let not your evil nature assure you that the
grave will be your refuge: for despite yourself you were fashioned,
and despite yourself you were born, and despite yourself you live,
and despite yourself you die, and despite yourself shall you be
destined to give account and reckoning before the supreme King
of kings, the Holy One, blessed be He.’
Ethics of the Fathers 4:29

Humanist attitudes to abortion

In considering abortion, a humanist would consider the evidence, the probable
2 Issues of life and death

Situation ethics judging the consequences, and the rights and wishes of everyone involved. They would
rightness or wrongness of an act do this with the aim of trying to find the kindest course of action or the one
on a case-by-case basis. that would do the least harm. Because of this ‘situation ethics’ approach, there
is not one single humanist view on abortion, but humanists tend to take on a
liberal, pro-choice stance. Humanists value happiness and personal choice,
and many actively campaigned for legalised abortion in the 1960s. As life is
not sacred, the debate hinges on when one thinks human life begins, and a
foetus does not become a person, with its own feelings and rights, until well
after conception. As humanists take happiness and suffering as foremost
moral considerations, quality of life will often outweigh the preservation of life
at all costs. They believe that abortion is often a morally acceptable choice to
make. It is, however, a personal choice which should be made in an informed
fashion which considers both the long- and short-term effects.
62
 ▶ Abortion – case studies

Abortion – case studies

Savita Halappanavar
Savita Halappanavar was a 31-year-old dentist, recently
married and experiencing her first pregnancy. In October
2012, Savita was admitted to Galway Hospital in the Republic
of Ireland suffering from the early stages of a miscarriage.
Both her and her husband requested a termination, as it
was clear that the pregnancy was ending and she was in
great pain. The hospital refused, arguing that as a faint foetal
heartbeat had been detected a termination was impossible.
Ireland is a Catholic country where abortion is illegal. Savita’s
health rapidly deteriorated, and she died of septicaemia and
multi-organ failure days later.
An autopsy reported that her death was the direct result
of her miscarriage, and her husband believes that an
abortion would have saved her life. ■ Savita Halappanavar died after suffering a miscarriage

Gianna Jessen
Gianna was born weighing 2 lbs and with cerebral
palsy. She had survived an abortion in the final three
months of her 17-year-old mother’s pregnancy.
Gianna was adopted at the age of four and learnt
the truth of her traumatic birth (which resulted
in her cerebral palsy) from her adoptive mother
when she was 12. She is now an anti-abortion and
disability rights protestor. Although she has
forgiven her birth mother for making a choice
that has left her disabled for life, she questions
‘if abortion is about a women’s rights, then what are
my rights?’ ■ Gianna Jessen survived an attempted abortion

Tasks
1 Construct a timeline of the different stages of pregnancy. Identify
each key development point (for example, when the foetus can survive
on its own) and the points at which different people believe that the
foetus is a person (for example at 120 days when ensoulment happens).
2 Briefly explain when you believe life begins and mark it on your
timeline. Give a clear reason or justification for your belief.
3 Define what is meant by ‘pro-life’ and ‘pro-choice’.
4 What are the legal restrictions to abortion in twenty-first-century Britain?
5 Draw a table with two columns – one for each of the religions that you
are choosing to study. For each, summarise the religious attitudes
to abortion as bullet points. Remember to mention where there are
differences of belief within each religion.

63
 ▶ Euthanasia
Key Concept
Euthanasia From Greek, eu ‘good’ + thanatos ‘death’. Sometimes
referred to as ‘mercy killing’. The act of killing or permitting the
death of a person who is suffering from a serious illness.

Also known as mercy killing or assisted suicide, euthanasia comes

from the Greek word for ‘quiet death’. It is usually when a peaceful
and pain-free end is brought to a person’s life.
There are technically four different types of euthanasia.
▶ Voluntary euthanasia (or assisted suicide as it is known in law) is
when a person explicitly asks for help to die. Often this would be
due to a life-limiting or terminal illness.
▶ Active euthanasia is when a person takes a specific course
of action to end their own life, for example by taking an
overdose.
▶ Passive euthanasia is when life-sustaining treatment is removed,
for example a feeding tube or respirator. Often this would be
because it is believed that the patient would have wished for a
‘dignified death’ or if there is no hope of recovery.
▶ Involuntary euthanasia is where death is forced upon a person,
for example during ethnic cleansing or the death penalty.
The issue of euthanasia calls into question many different
religious, philosophical and ethical issues; such as whether we
have the right to end our own lives.

Why might people want to end their own life?

People suffering from incurable chronic degenerative
diseases (illnesses that steadily grow worse over
time for which there are no known cures) like motor
neurone disease might choose to end their own lives
before their illness reaches its final stages and they
are unable to communicate with others. Some people,
for example those suffering from terminal cancer, want
2 Issues of life and death

to choose to end their lives before the most painful

and life-limiting phase of their illness sets in. For
others, living with constant and unmanageable pain
(maybe linked to an injury, disability or side-effect
from previous illnesses) is reason enough to consider
seeking euthanasia. ■ Injections can provide a relatively painless way of dying

64
 Living wills

Euthanasia
Peter Singer is an atheist philosopher
and utilitarian. He argues that A living will is a legal document. It outlines for medical professionals
euthanasia is morally acceptable and and next of kin (close relatives) what a person wants to happen if
that it should be legalised with proper they find themselves critically or terminally ill. It normally instructs
safeguards put in place to protect doctors and other medical professionals not to resuscitate (revive
vulnerable people. He believes that once the heart has stopped) or intubate (insert a breathing tube) or
not legalising euthanasia harms more use artificial means to keep a person alive. Sometimes living wills are
than it protects, and that legalising very detailed, and specify exactly what point in a person’s illness to
euthanasia would benefit more people stop life-preserving or life-saving treatment. Sometimes this is for
than it would harm. religious reasons; sometimes it is for ‘quality of life’ considerations.
Singer believes that the Quality of Life A DNR, or Do Not Resuscitate order, is a type of living will.
ethic is more important and relevant in
the modern world than the traditional
(religious) Sanctity of Life belief. He
argues that even though all human life
has value, it is not all of equal value.
People must possess the qualities
of being a person (what Singer calls
‘personhood’) to count as being fully
alive and he believes that if a person
has no real ability to think, experience
life or relate to others, then their life
has limited value and euthanasia in
these circumstances is acceptable.
For example, if a person is brain
dead, unconscious or in a ‘persistent
vegetative state’, their life has no real
value and non-voluntary (or passive)
euthanasia should be permitted.
Singer also believes that a person who
is fully conscious and rational has the
freedom to choose whether or not they
want to live, and their desire to die should
be respected. This means that if a person
who suffers “an irreversible condition
causing protracted physical or mental
suffering” chooses to waive the right to
life, they should be permitted to end their Do not resuscitate wrist bands are used to show medical professionals that a patient
life or be assisted in ending their life. does not want medical treatments to be used to revive them.

Life in twenty-first-century Britain

Euthanasia is currently illegal in the UK. In reality, the Director of Public Prosecutions (DPP) has
Depending on the circumstances, euthanasia is regarded to decide whether taking someone to court for assisting
as either manslaughter or murder and is punishable by suicide is ‘in the public interest’. In 2010 the DPP said it
law, with a maximum penalty of life imprisonment. was unlikely that someone who helped someone else to
Assisted suicide (where for example you help to procure commit suicide would be prosecuted if:
drugs for someone, knowing that they intend to commit • the victim had reached a voluntary, clear, settled and
suicide) is illegal under the terms of the Suicide Act (1961) informed decision to commit suicide
and is punishable by up to 14 years’ imprisonment. • the suspect was wholly motivated by compassion.
Attempting to kill yourself is not a criminal act in itself.
65
 ▶ The ‘right to die’ debate – For
Free will
Daniel James was paralysed in
a rugby accident at the age of
22. He was in constant pain, had
no movement in any limbs, and
felt his body was a prison. He
decided to go to the Dignitas clinic
in Switzerland to end his life. He
was assisted by his parents.
Despite being investigated they
were not charged for helping him.
The Crown Prosecution Service
has now said that families who
help relatives die in this way are Campaigners supporting the ‘right to die’
unlikely to be prosecuted.
For many people with chronic degenerative diseases, they want to
control when and how they die. For them it is not just a matter of
free will but rather a matter of maintaining human dignity. Dr Anne
Turner, who suffered from a fatal degenerative nerve disease, decided
to end her own life before she reached a point when she could not
walk, feed, dress or speak for herself.

Those who believe in free will think it Baby RB

is ethically wrong to keep someone In November 2009, the father of a severely disabled baby boy, known
with no hope of recovery on as Baby RB, went to court to fight the hospital’s decision to turn off his
expensive life-support treatment. son’s life-support machine. At 13 months old, Baby RB was incapable of
moving his limbs, breathing or swallowing on his own. He had a severe and
incurable neuromuscular disorder and had been on a respirator since an
hour after his birth. His mother supported the hospital’s decision, as she
felt that her son had no quality of life.
The father eventually agreed with the hospital’s doctors and both parents
were present when Baby RB’s life support was turned off.

Stephen Hawking
In 2013, Stephen Hawking offered his
2 Issues of life and death

public support to the argument for

assisted dying, saying: ‘We don’t let
animals suffer, so why humans?’ He
said that he would consider euthanasia
if he reached a point where he felt he
had nothing left to offer or was a burden
to others.
General human dignity
If found
Please call
077 3858 1664
■ Stephen Hawking is a
supporter of assisted dying

66
 ▶ The ‘right to die’ debate – Against

The ‘right to die’ debate – Against

Harold Shipman (1946–2004) was a British doctor and
one of the most prolific serial killers in recorded history.
On 31 January 2000, a jury found Shipman guilty of
15 murders. He was sentenced to life imprisonment and
the judge recommended that he never be released.
After his trial, the Shipman Inquiry began. Lasting almost
two years, it was an investigation into all deaths certified
by Shipman. About 80 per cent of his victims were women.
His youngest victim was a 41-year-old man. They died as the
result of being given lethal injections of morphine. Much of
Britain’s legal structure concerning health care and medicine
was reviewed and modified as a direct and indirect result of
Shipman’s crimes. Shipman is the only British doctor to have
been found guilty of murdering his patients.
Legalising doctor-assisted euthanasia would make it
easier for people like Shipman to commit horrific crimes. ■ Harold Shipman was convicted of murder in 2000

If euthanasia is legalised, the stimulus or drive It’s murder All life is special and worthy of protection.
to research into terminal illnesses lessens.
The slippery-slope argument
The slippery-slope argument claims that the acceptance of certain practices,
such as physician-assisted suicide or voluntary euthanasia, will invariably
lead to the acceptance or practice of concepts which are currently deemed
unacceptable, such as involuntary euthanasia. In order to prevent these
undesirable practices from occurring, we need to resist taking the first step.

Legalising euthanasia could lead to those in

the latter stages of life feeling that they are
a burden or, even worse, feeling obliged to
consider ending their life. Hospices provide a real alternative to those feeling unable to
deal with the symptoms of terminal illnesses. 67
 ▶ Hospices
In 1967, St Christopher’s was opened in Sydenham, London. It was the
Hospice a place where people
first hospice in Britain and was opened by Dame Cicely Saunders. Her
with terminal illnesses can go to
aim was to provide physical, spiritual, emotional and psychological
die with dignity. A hospice focuses
support to those in the final period of their illnesses/lives. She wanted
on relieving the symptoms and
to offer care that considered all elements of a patient’s needs rather
pain of a terminal illness. Unlike a
than simply treating the physical symptoms of a patient. The Hospice
hospital, a hospice does not try to
Movement, as it has since become known, was born.
treat an illness or cure a patient.
Hospices also offer a type of
pastoral care, for both the patient Hospices and religion
and their family, not available in a Although hospices are not specifically religious places,
standard hospital. Dame Cicely did acknowledge that her Christian beliefs were
Palliative care care that focuses the main motivation for her work. Similarly, many hospices
on relieving pain and suffering. are supported or sponsored by religious institutions. They fulfi l
the Christian desire to support the suffering of both patients and
family in the final moments of life, as well enabling believers to
preserve the sanctity of life rather than resorting to euthanasia.
Many people believe that hospices provide a real alternative to
euthanasia. They allow people to die with their dignity intact in
a loving, caring environment, surrounded by family if desired.
Patients need not feel a burden and can still benefit from a
quality of life as pain relief is palliative and focused on managing
symptoms while maintaining consciousness.
‘We should concern ourselves with the quality of life as well as its length.’
Dame Cicely Saunders

Life in twenty-first-century Britain

There are currently over 260 inpatient hospices in The myth that people only go into hospices to die is
Britain. slowly being dispelled, as more and more patients are
Some are dedicated entirely to the care of children admitted for short periods of time (between 12 and
and infants, and offer invaluable support to both 14 days is the average stay) to help manage pain and
patient and family – providing respite care and relieve other symptoms of their illness.
end-of-life palliative treatment. Others focus purely Upwards of 4 per cent of deaths occur in a hospice setting,
on adult end-of-life care, with some specialising in with many more patients and their families benefiting from
specific diseases such as cancer. time spent in a hospice before their death.
2 Issues of life and death

■ A Katharine House Hospice

68
 ▶ Religious teachings about euthanasia

Religious teachings about euthanasia

Christian attitudes to euthanasia
Most Christians agree that euthanasia is not acceptable This allows patients to die with dignity while their pain
because: is managed.
• All life is sacred (sanctity of life) and taking any life Some Liberal Christians believe that it is acceptable to
is wrong. turn off life-support if there is medical evidence that
• Those who assist are involved in murder, which is a person is brain-dead. This is because they believe
against the Ten Commandments. that the person has already died, and that the machine
• Life is a gift from God and therefore is precious. is just performing bodily functions. They would also
• Suffering can have a purpose and should be endured, consider withholding treatment which prolongs a
as God will not give us more suffering than we are truly painful illness as they follow Jesus’ teaching of acting
able to cope with. in the most loving and compassionate way towards
• Hospices also offer an alternative where care and another person.
support can be given to the patient.

Muslim attitudes to euthanasia

need for euthanasia. No matter what state the body is in,
‘All life is made by God (sanctity of life) the soul is still perfect and that is what matters to God.
so taking any life is wrong. Only God can
decide when a person dies. Suffering has a Muslim lawyers have recently agreed that it is acceptable
purpose and is part of God’s plan for you.’ for a person who is in a coma, being kept alive by
machines and who has no hope of recovery to have the
It is important to show compassion to those who are in pain machines turned off. This is because their life has already
or are suffering. When this happens there should be no ended and the machine is of no real use as treatment.

Jewish attitudes to euthanasia

Jews are largely opposed to euthanasia. Active or intention here cannot be to kill, but to relieve pain.
euthanasia is seen as murder. All life is precious and Similarly, Jews can pray to end a person’s pain and
a gift from God – it is not ours to throw away. Only the suffering, but it is wrong to shorten a person’s life (even if
Creator can decide when life should end. Every moment it would naturally end very soon).
of human life is considered equal in value to many Some Jews believe that a life-support machine can be
years of life. turned off if the patient has no chance of recovery. There
Medicine which relieves pain can be administered even if is also a belief that doctors should not make a person
it hastens death as a side-effect. Crucially, the purpose suffer more by artificially extending their life.

Humanist attitudes to euthanasia

Humanists have supported attempts to legalise ‘permanently and incurably suffering’, for example
assisted dying, assisted suicide and voluntary people who are paralysed.
euthanasia across the UK. They believe that Humanists uphold the right to life but don’t believe that life
assistance should not be limited to terminally ill should be prolonged in the face of pointless suffering. Being
people alone and want to see reform of the law able to die, with dignity, in a manner of our choosing must
that considers the needs of other people who are be understood to be a fundamental human right.
69
 ▶ End of section review

Knowledge check
1 What is a hospice? How does it differ from a hospital?
2 Create a Venn diagram to compare sanctity and quality of life.
3 Explain three different reasons why Christians would disagree with
euthanasia. After you have stated each belief, extend your explanation
with a connective, such as ‘This means that . . .’ or ‘This is because . . .’ or
‘This comes from the teaching . . .’.

Skills Link
1 What is meant by ‘sanctity of life’?
Stickability
Key concepts:
• Abortion The Big Question
• Euthanasia
• Sanctity of life ‘Everyone should have the right to die.’
• Quality of life
Key teachings about: Your task
• the sanctity of life Respond to the statement above, showing that you have considered more
• abortion than one point of view. Give reasoned judgements on the validity and
• euthanasia strength of these views.

Task
For both of the religions (or denominations) you are studying, explain in detail religious teachings about
euthanasia. Use the guidance below to help you to write a developed explanation for Christianity. Ensure that
you use key terms fluently and frequently.
All/many/most Christians believe that ....................... . This comes from the teaching/Bible quote ....................... . This
means that/Because of this they ....................... .
Some/other Christians such as ....................... believe that ....................... . This comes from the teaching/Bible quote
....................... . This means that/Because of this they ....................... .
Finally, Christians such as ....................... believe that ....................... . This means that/Because of this they ....................... .
2 Issues of life and death

Beliefs do/do not differ because ....................... .

70
 ■ Beliefs about death and the afterlife

The soul
▶ The soul
Key Concept
Soul The spiritual aspect of a being; that which connects someone
to God. The soul is often regarded as non-physical and as living on
after physical death, in an afterlife.

Belief in the existence of a soul is a central feature of many

religious and philosophical traditions. According to Christianity,
Islam and Judaism, only human beings have immortal souls, other
species do not. Humanists deny the existence of a soul.
There are two distinct views about the soul and its relationship
with our physical body:
▶ Dualism is the belief that we are made of two separate parts:
a physical body and a spiritual soul. Dualists believe that
our soul (or spirit) lives in our physical body. This soul is
the true, inner part of us and it will live on after our material
body dies.
▶ Materialism is the view that nothing else exists apart from matter.
All we have, as human beings, is a physical body; there is no soul
or spirit.

Ensoulment the moment when Christian attitudes to death and the afterlife
the human soul is said to enter the
baby’s body (usually thought to Christians believe that the soul is the inner part of our being, and the
happen in the womb, at an early body is the home of the soul. It is the soul which gives us our sense of
point in the pregnancy). ‘aliveness’; it forms our personality and individuality. Genesis 2:7 says
that, after God had formed the body of Adam, the first human being, from
the dust of the earth, he breathed life (soul) into him. In the same way,
God creates a soul in each one of us. It is through our soul that we can
connect to God. Ensoulment is the moment when the soul is believed to
enter the body. St Thomas Aquinas taught that this happens while the
foetus is developing in the womb.
Some Christians are dualists. They believe that we are made from two
distinctive parts: body and soul. They say that the soul is the true, inner
part of us; it is eternal and will continue to live on, even after the death of
our material body. It is our soul that will rise to everlasting life in heaven.
Other Christians are non-dualists. They say that the body and soul are
one and they cannot be separated. They agree that we have a soul,
but believe it is an integral part of us, which is indistinguishable from
the body. After death the soul is temporarily apart from the body, but
body and soul will be reunited on Judgement Day. At the resurrection
we will rise bodily from the dead, just as Jesus rose from the dead and
ascended into heaven as a physical being.

71
 The philosopher Gilbert Ryle Humanist attitudes to death and the afterlife
used the phrase the ‘ghost in
Humanists are materialists, so they dismiss any suggestion that we have
the machine’. This refers to the
a soul. They believe in a scientific description of human life and they reject
idea that humans may think they
beliefs about our spiritual existence. We are physical beings who will
have a soul, but in reality there is
decompose when we die. No eternal, supernatural part of us will live on.
nothing there.

Muslim attitudes to death and the afterlife

Islam teaches that, as humans, we have both physical Islam teaches that when a child is born, its soul is
and non-physical aspects. The soul is an invisible part imprinted with a belief in God. This natural belief in God
of an individual’s existence which is ‘pure’ at birth. is called fitrah. For Muslims, the idea of fitrah describes
According to the Qur’an, God made Adam from the ‘earth’, our human nature: we are born in a state of purity, with
so we have a physical body. We are also blessed with an inbuilt, natural instinct to submit to God and live by
a soul (ruh); this is the non-physical part of our being his laws. So, according to Islam, this means that the true
which makes us a real person. nature of our soul is for us to grow up as a Muslim and
The Qur’an teaches that humans are created when submit our lives to God.
God ‘breathes’ a soul into them. In the Hadith there is a ‘Every new-born child is born in a state of
passage that says that this ensoulment happens in the “fitrah” (purity).’
womb at 120 days after conception. M. Hanif

Fitrah the natural instinct all Jewish attitudes to death and the afterlife
humans have, from birth, to know
In the Jewish tradition, the soul is a divine energy in each person, a
and worship God.
fragment of God within each human being. Body and soul are different
aspects of a person, but they cannot be separated. For Jews, the breath is
often a symbol of the soul (or spirit) within.
In Judaism, the soul is the ‘I’ which inhabits our body. A being without a soul
would be like a candle without a flame or a food without any flavour. The
soul gives the body life, personality, emotions and identity.
The soul is the spark of godliness in each one of us. It is the expression of
God’s desire for each of us to be an individual, unique being. It is more than
the engine of life, because it is the why of our existence: the soul embodies
the meaning and purpose of our lives.

Are humans born sinners? How do we get to heaven?

2 Issues of life and death

Traditionally Christianity has taught that as human Islam teaches that each human soul is created pure,
beings we are born with a sinful nature. This is called ready to worship God; this is called fitrah. If we faithfully
‘original sin’. Because Adam and Eve sinned by eating the follow Shari’ah law, we will be rewarded with paradise in
fruit in the Garden of Eden, all generations to follow will the afterlife.
inherit this sin. For humans to get to heaven, we must be Judaism (like Islam) teaches that humans are born
reconciled with God; we need to be ‘saved’ and forgiven. with a pure and untainted soul. Humans commit sins
This can only happen through believing that Jesus died because they are not perfect, not, as Christianity
on the cross to cleanse us from our sins. teaches, because we were born as sinners. Those
Liberal Christians do not accept the concept of ‘original who have lived a moral life will be rewarded with
sin’. They argue that we need to take responsibility for paradise.
our own ‘sin’. It is nothing to do with a mythical Adam!

72
Tasks

What happens when we die?

1 Create a mindd map for the concept of ‘soul’.
Include religious and non-religious ideas and
beliefs.
2 (a) Explain what is meant by ‘dualism’.
(b) How is dualism different to materialism?
3 Reproduce the Venn diagram below and use
it write down the key ideas about the soul
within Islam, Christianity and Judaism.

Judaism Islam

Christianity

The Reunion of the Soul and the Body by William Blake

▶ What happens when we die?

Key Concept

Afterlife Life after death; the belief that existance continues

after physical death.

There are three main types of belief about what happens after death:
1 Atheists and humanists believe that nothing survives death. They are
certain that humans do not have a soul; we are just physical, material
beings, so when we die that is the end. Nothing exists beyond the grave
– the chemicals of our bodies are recycled into the environment.
2 Hindus, Buddhists and Sikhs share a belief that life is a cycle of
birth, death and rebirth (samsara), with the form of our next life
being determined by our karma (good or bad actions). The aim of
every living being is to escape from the cycle of samsara by gaining
enlightenment. However, most of us will be reborn again and again
countless times on the way. Hindus and Sikhs believe in reincarnation
or the transmigration of the soul, where, at death, the soul passes
into a new body. Buddhists believe in rebirth; after death the mental
energy of our previous life will transmitted into a new body.
3 Jews, Christians and Muslims believe that, as humans, we only live
one earthly existence, followed by eternal life in the world to come.
Many traditional believers hold that after death we will rise from
the dead to be judged by God, with those who God deems worthy
(good) being raised to eternal life. There is less agreement amongst
Jewish, Christian and Muslim believers about the existence of hell.
73
 Concepts of heaven and hell:
Are they real places?
A simple view of heaven pictures it located in the
clouds, where angels drift around and God sits
on a golden throne. It is a ‘place’ where the souls
of people go to be rewarded for living a good life.
However, we know enough about the universe today
to be certain that heaven is not a place just above
the earth. For this reason, many religious people say
that the concept of heaven is better understood as
a metaphor representing the peace and harmony to
be found when we are in a relationship with God.
Is hell really a fiery place of everlasting torment,
The story of Jesus and the empty tomb gives Christians the
confidence to believe that, after death, God will raise the dead
deep beneath the earth? Could the concept of hell
to eternal life be a description of a state of mind when someone
is full of hatred, anger and resentment, rejecting all
kindness and love and cut off from God/goodness?

Tasks
1 Reproduce the table below. Complete it by outlining the belief about the afterlife for each group of religious
traditions; then summarise each in three words.
Tradition Belief Summarised in 3 words
Atheists and humanists Nothing survives death
Hindus, Sikhs and Buddhists
Jews, Christians and Muslims

2 Read this quotation from John’s Gospel and study the comments about it.

At the time of Jesus By claiming to be the

many Jewish people ‘resurrection’ and the
believed that God ‘life’ Jesus is saying
would raise people that he is the source
from the dead on the of both: there can
Martha answered, ‘I know
Day of Judgement. be no life after
he (Lazarus) will rise again in
the resurrection at the last day.’ death without him.
Jesus said to her. ‘I am the
resurrection and the life.
Jesus is teaching that The one who believes in me Most Christians hold
anyone who believes will live, even though they die; the view that only
2 Issues of life and death

in him will live again and whoever lives by believing those that ‘believe in’
after death. But in in me will never die. Jesus will be given the
what form? Will Do you believe this? ‘Yes, Lord,’ gift of eternal life.
people live as eternal she replied, ‘I believe that you
spirits, or will they are the Messiah, the Son of God,
have a resurrected who is to come into the world.’ The ‘Messiah’ is the
‘body’ like Jesus? John 11:24–27 special, chosen one
who the Jews believed
God would send
to save the world.

3 Explain what Christians can learn about life after death from this quote.

74
 ▶ Religious beliefs about judgement,

Religious beliefs about judgement, heaven and hell

heaven and hell
Christian attitudes to judgement, heaven and hell
Christians believe in resurrection and eternal life; death is not the end, but a
gateway to a perfect existence. Some Christians say that heaven is our true
home and our lives here on earth are the testing ground for life in eternity.
Christians believe that just as Jesus rose again after death, so will we. The
Bible teaches that God is the Divine Judge and on Judgement Day he will
decide who will be rewarded with eternal life in paradise and who will be
punished. Those who believe in Jesus and have lived a good life will be taken
to heaven. Those who have rejected God’s love and caused harm to others
will be sent to hell.
Some Christians are dualists. They believe that at the moment of death our
soul separates and leaves the body. The body will decay while the immortal
soul is united with God in heaven.
Other Christians (for example, Evangelicals) say that after death we will
experience a ‘bodily resurrection’, like Jesus, who came back to life in physical
form. In his letter to the Corinthians, St Paul says that, after our deaths, we will
be raised as spiritual bodies, not just disembodied souls.
‘So will it be with the resurrection of the dead. The body that is
sown is perishable, it is raised imperishable; it is sown in dishonour,
it is raised in glory; it is sown in weakness, it is raised in power; it
is sown a natural body, it is raised a spiritual body. If there is a
natural body, there is also a spiritual body.’
1 Corinthians 15:42–44

What does St Paul mean when he talks about a ‘spiritual body’? Probably the
closest we can get to understanding this idea is to picture an angel. Angels
are thought to be physical, but they are also spiritual and immortal. They can
be seen, but they are not of this world. Is St Paul saying that we will exist for
eternity like angels?
Read the Parable of the Sheep and the Goats (see p189). Explain what this
story teaches Christians about how Jesus' followers should live their lives.

One question which troubles Heaven and hell

many Christians is: How can a Christians believe that to be in heaven is to be in God’s presence, existing in a
loving God condemn people to state of pure beauty and kindness. To be in hell is to be in constant torment,
hell? Some reply that it is not cut off from all that is good and loving.
God, but us, as individuals, who
Many Evangelical Christians refer to heaven and hell as if they are real places
send ourselves to hell.
where humans will spend eternity. Liberal Christians say these ideas are symbolic.
They remind us that there are consequences to our thoughts and actions.

75
 Muslim attitudes to judgement, heaven and hell
For Muslims, this world is not all that there is. Our human existence will
continue after death; our earthly life is just a preparation for the eternal life
Akhirah the Islamic term for to come (akhirah).
the afterlife. There are many Muslims believe that at the end of the world there will be a Day of
references to it, and warnings Judgement. Only God knows when the Day of Judgement will come. Muslims
about it, in the Qur’an. believe that, for those who die before that day, the archangel of death, Azrail,
Barzakh a place of waiting, after will come to take their souls to await the day. They will be kept in a state of
death, before Judgement Day barzakh (waiting) until the archangel Israfil blows his trumpet to announce
comes. the resurrection of all from the dead.
Islam teaches that on the Day of Judgement the dead will be raised from
their graves and all people will stand before God to be sentenced according
to the way they have lived their lives. A book, which represents everything
an individual has done, is presented to each of them. If the person’s good
deeds outweigh the bad, then they will receive the book in their right hand
and pass into heaven. If it is placed into their left hand, they will be among
the damned.

The coming of the Mahdi

Muslims believe that the Mahdi (the ‘guided one’) will come on the Day of
Judgement. He is the long-awaited saviour who will come to rescue the
world. Sunnis believe that he will appear in the End Times, with Isa (Jesus).
Shi’as too are awaiting the Mahdi, but they believe his identity will be
revealed as the Hidden (or 12th) Imam (see page 228).
‘And everything they did is in written records.’
Qur’an 54:52

‘Fear God and know that God sees well what you do.’
Qur’an 2:233

‘And the evil consequences of what they did will appear to them,
and they will be enveloped by what they used to ridicule.’
Qur’an 46:33

Heaven and hell

Most Muslims understand accounts of the afterlife in a very literal
way. In the Qur’an, heaven (Janna) and hell (Jahannan) are
described in very physical terms. Heaven is a garden of contentment,
2 Issues of life and death

full of flowers, fruits and fountains. Hell is a state of torment and

terror, where the damned are separated from God; they face boiling
water, scorching fire and black smoke. There are some Muslims who
do interpret these descriptions symbolically.
‘Every soul will taste death.’
Qur’an 3:185

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 Religious beliefs about judgement, heaven and hell
Jewish attitudes to judgement, heaven and hell
Judaism teaches that the body and the soul are one; they are inseparable. The
soul has no existence without the body. When Adam was created it says that God
‘breathed into his nostrils the soul of life’, (Genesis 2:7). Jews see this ‘soul’ as
the ‘aliveness’ of a person. It is a metaphor for what makes us living beings; it is
not a separate thing that has a life of its own without the body.
Early Judaism
The Jewish scriptures say almost nothing about the afterlife: there is no
reference to figures like Adam, Abraham, Moses and David living on after
death. It was accepted that when they died, although they would live on
in the memories of generations to come, their body and soul passed away
forever. If there was any understanding of an afterlife it was that the dead
were transported to Sheol, a shadowy, dreary underworld existence, but
this was not a common idea.
Present-day Judaism
More recently Jewish thinking has come to accept the idea of an afterlife
Olam Ha-Ba the afterlife. It means (Olam Ha-Ba). Today, Judaism tends to teach that at death there will be a
‘the world to come’. temporary separation of body and soul, but they will be reunited on the Day
Messiah (Mashiach) the one who of Judgement.
will be anointed as king to rule in Many Orthodox Jews nowadays believe in some form of resurrection,
the world to come. believing that people will be raised to eternal life in a bodily resurrection
at the end of time. Righteous people will be rewarded with eternal life in
paradise, while the wicked will be sent to a place of punishment. Many
Jewish people believe that this judgement and resurrection will take place
after the coming of the Messiah (Mashiach).

Humanist attitudes to judgement, heaven and hell

Humanists believe that, as far as we know, we are unlike paradise or fiery hell. Because of this we should make
any other creatures in that we are able to reflect on our the most of our existence while we can, living moral lives,
own lives. One of the questions which has concerned not because God will judge us, but because it shows
humans since the dawn of time is what happens after compassion for others and respect for ourselves.
death. The humanist answer is: nothing; we only live Most humanists are materialists; they believe that we
once and there is no second chance. There is no soul are nothing more than matter. There is no spiritual or
or immortal consciousness, no cosmic judge, divine supernatural aspect to life.

Task
For both of the religions (or denominations) you are studying, explain in detail religious teachings about
the afterlife. Use the guidance below to help you to write a developed explanation for Christianity. Ensure
that you use key terms fluently and frequently.
All/many/most Christians believe that ....................... . This comes from the teaching/Bible quote ....................... .
This means that/Because of this they ....................... .
Some/other Christians such as ....................... believe that ....................... . This comes from the teaching/Bible quote
....................... . This means that/Because of this they ....................... .
Finally, Christians such as .......................believe that ....................... . This means that/Because of this they
....................... .
Their beliefs do/do not differ because ....................... .
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 ▶ How do funeral rites reflect people’s beliefs
about the afterlife?
When someone dies it is common to mark their death and celebrate
their life in some sort of ceremony. Different religions have their
own specific rituals and practices. This section gives details of
Rite A ritual or solemn ceremony. religious and non-religious funeral rites, explaining how these
ceremonies reflect beliefs about the afterlife.

Christian funeral rites and their meaning

When someone is close to death, if it is possible, a priest Jesus will be resurrected, to spend eternity
is called to say the last rites. Prayers are said for the with God.
dying person and they can ask God for forgiveness of Psalm 23, ‘The Lord is my shepherd’, is often read at
their sins. The last rites is a Catholic practice, which funerals. It says that even when I am ‘in the valley of the
might also involve the priest giving Holy Communion. shadow of death’, God is still by my side. Catholics may
• Meaning: This helps to ease the dying person into the hold a mass (communion service) with bread and wine at
afterlife, enabling them to die at peace, having asked a funeral.
for God’s forgiveness. • Meaning: We are not forgotten by God; he will comfort
The funeral itself is usually held in a church. The coffin those who mourn and accompany those who have
is carried to the front of the church and a service is held died.
in honour of the dead person: flowers are displayed, After this the person is buried, with the words ‘ashes to
prayers said and candles may be lit. The minister reads ashes, dust to dust’. Today, many Christians prefer to be
the words of Jesus: cremated, but traditionally the dead had to be buried.
‘I am the resurrection and the life.’ • Meaning: Christianity used to teach that the bones
John 11:25 of the dead must be left intact, so that on the Day
• Meaning: The candles represent Jesus as the ‘light of Judgement they could reform, rising to bodily
of the world’, because he guides a path into heaven. resurrection with God in heaven. Some Christians
The passage ‘I am the resurrection’ reminds today believe that only the soul goes to heaven, so it
the congregation that those who believe in is acceptable to cremate the body.

Jewish funeral rites and their meaning Before the burial takes place the mourners make a
As they are dying, Jews try to say the Shema prayer: tear in their clothes. This is called a keriah.
‘Hear, O Israel, the Lord is our God, the Lord is One.’ • Meaning: The prayer shawl fringes are cut off to show
• Meaning: This shows their deeply held belief in one that now they are dead they are now free of any
2 Issues of life and death

God. religious laws. Tearing their clothes represents the

grief felt by close family and friends.
When someone dies, arrangements must be made for
burial as soon as possible, preferably within 24 hours of Orthodox Judaism does not permit cremation, but some
death. The body will be washed and dressed in a simple progressive Jews allow it. After the burial a blessing is
white shroud (tachrichim). Men may also be wrapped in said: ‘May God comfort you among all the mourners of
their prayer shawl (tallit), which is sometimes cut. The Zion and Jerusalem.’
body will then be placed in a simple coffin. For the next seven days the family observes shiva, when
• Meaning: Being washed and dressed in a simple white they stay at home and a candle is kept burning. Kaddish
shroud and placed in a simple coffin is to show that is said three times a day. All the mirrors in the house are
the rich and poor are alike in death. covered, people sit on low stools and do not shave or cut
their hair.

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 How do funeral rites reflect people’s beliefs about the afterlife?
Mourning continues for 30 days after the burial and
mourners do not go out for pleasure. This is called
‘Sheloshim’.
The dead person is remembered each year, on the
anniversary of their death, by the lighting of a candle and
reciting the Kaddish.
• Meaning: These rituals and prayers are to show respect
to God and to the dead person and to help to keep them
in the memories of their loved ones. ■ Jewish burial ritual

Muslim funeral rites and their meaning

When a Muslim is close to death they try to repeat the final words of Prophet
Muhammad: ‘God, help me through the hardship and agony of death’. Those
around the person will respond: ‘To God we belong and to God we return’.
The Kalimah (often referred to as the shahadah) is whispered into their ears,
just as these words were whispered into their ears as a new-born baby.
• Meaning: This emphasises the belief that, at death, we are returning to
our creator (God).
If possible, funerals take place within 24 hours of death. The dead
person’s body is washed: this is called ghusl. The body is then wrapped
in a white shroud. In Britain it will be put into a coffin, but in some
Islamic countries Muslims prefer to be buried without one.
• Meaning: The simple white shroud represents purity and equality: all are
equal before God in death.
Muslims do not approve of cremation. Bodies are buried facing Makkah.
• Meaning: Muslims believe that the body must remain intact, facing
the Holy City. This will allow the person to be resurrected on the Day
of Judgement.
At the graveside they recite the first chapter (Surah) of the Qur’an, (the
al-Fatihah):
‘In the name of God, Most Gracious, Most Merciful. Praise be to
God, the Cherisher and Sustainer of the worlds …’
When the body has been lowered into the grave, the following words are
spoken:
‘From the earth We created you. And into it We shall cause you
to return and from it We shall bring you forth once more.’
Qur’an 20:55
• Meaning: These prayers emphasise the greatness of God and the belief
that he will bring people back to life.
Muslims do not usually have gravestones, but the site of the grave is often
raised in a mound, above the level of the ground.
• Meaning: everyone is equal in death.

Kalimah (shahadah) the statement: ‘There is no god

but God, and Muhammad is his prophet’.

79
 Non-religious funeral services
Many people today are uncomfortable
with religious ceremonies and, as a
result, non-religious funeral services
are becoming increasingly popular.
Many people want a more informal,
personal ceremony, where they can
choose the songs and readings and
where there is no mention of God.
At a humanist funeral those present
will remember the life of the person
who has died, reflecting on their
contribution to the world and to
others. It may include:
▶ music
Unusual coffins, designed to show something special about the life of the person who ▶ a non-religious reflection on death
has died ▶ readings of poetry
▶ reminiscences about the person
▶ a eulogy (a description of why they
were special)
▶ lighting candles
▶ moments of quiet reflection.
The service will be led by a humanist
celebrant.
▶ Meaning: The service will try to
show respect for the dead person
without suggesting that they are
going to a better place. They will
be remembered for their special,
unique qualities, the life they led
and the achievements they made.

Green burials are becoming more common in the UK. A growing number of
people are choosing to have woodland burials

Tasks
1 Copy and complete the table below, identifying the key rites during a Christian funeral and their symbolism or meaning.
2 Issues of life and death

Funeral Rite Symbolism/Meaning

2 Explain the key benefits of a funeral for both the living and dead. Where possible provide specific examples from
the religious traditions or denominations you are studying.

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 ▶ End of section review

End of section review

Knowledge check
1 Write a short paragraph (roughly three sentences) to explain what is
meant by the soul.
2 Why might there be differences of belief about the afterlife within one
religion?
3 Explain how a funeral reflects religious beliefs about the afterlife.

Skills Link
Stickability
1 From two different religions or two religious traditions, explain beliefs
Key concepts:
about life after death.
• Afterlife
• Soul
Key teachings about:
• the afterlife
• judgement The Big Question
Key practices:
• Religious and non-religious ‘Death is the end.’
attitudes towards funerals
Your task
Respond to the statement above, showing that you have considered more
than one point of view. Give reasoned judgements on the validity and
strength of these views.

Task
For both of the religions (or denominations) that you are studying, you need to explain in detail religious teachings
about life after death. Use the guidance below to help you to write a developed explanation for Christianity and
a second one for your other chosen religion or denomination. Ensure that you use key terms fluently and frequently.
All/many/most Christians believe that ....................... . This comes from the teaching/Bible quote ....................... . This
means that/Because of this they ....................... .
Some/other Christians such as ....................... . believe that ...................... . This comes from the teaching/Bible quote
....................... . This means that/Because of this they ....................... .
Finally, Christians such as ....................... . believe that ....................... .
This means that/Because of this they ....................... .
Their beliefs do/do not differ because ....................... .

81
 ▶ Exam focus
Issues of life and death
(a) questions
Tim has answered an (a) type of question. Look at the grade
descriptors on page vii. How many marks would you give. Why?
(a) What is meant by ‘sanctity of life’?
This means when life is considered sacred e.g. euthanasia.

(d) questions
For (d) type questions in the life and death unit responses must
include reference to non-religious beliefs. Look at the question
below:
(d) ‘It is a woman's right to choose abortion.’
Discuss the statement showing that you have considered more
than one point of view. (15)
(You must refer to religious and non-religious beliefs, such as
those held by humanists and atheists, in your answer.)
Sammy has considered a number of points he can make.
He wants to include two from different religious traditions but
also needs to identify religious teachings or a sacred text for each.
Look back through the chapter; which religious teachings would
you use? Which non-religious teachings would you use and what
evidence might you give?
▶ There are no hard and fast rules. All medical situations depend
upon the context (a relative/situationist approach).
▶ Application of the principle of utilitarianism.
▶ Many religions believe days are fixed and a part of God’s plan.
▶ Life is too sacred to be placed in the hands of human beings
(sanctity of life).
▶ Since life is created by God it must be revered from the moment
of conception.
▶ Up to four months after conception, ensoulment has not taken
place.
▶ The importance of Pikuach Nefesh.
▶ Peter Singer’s ideas that human beings have no special right to
life just because they are humans (speciesism).
▶ Circumstances should be taken into account: rape, poverty,
disability, situation of the mother and/or father etc. when
2 Issues of life and death

considering abortion – quality of life is paramount.

82