Lecture One
Informed consumer of information can:
● Extract information accurately from visualized data
● Evaluate numerical arguments
● Decide whether to use the information
Informed producer of information can
● Collect data appropriately
● Summarize the data in an informative manner
● Analyze the data to draw appropriate conclusion
● Visualize the data to communicate it to the audience
Population: The entire collection of individuals or objects about which information is desired
Sample: A subset of the population from which information is collected
Descriptive Statistics: Statistics used to organize and summarize data
Inferential Statistics: Statistics used to make inference about the population from the sample
Data: A collection of observations on one or more variables
Variable: A characteristic whose value may change from one observation to another
Numerical Data: Data whose observations are numerical
Categorical (Qualitative) Data: Data whose observations are categorical
Univariate Data Set: A set of data whose observations vary on in one characteristics
Multivariate Data Set: A set of data whose observations vary in multiple characteristic
Discrete Numerical Variable: A numerical variable whose possible values are isolated and limited points on the
number line
Continuous Numerical Variable: A numerical variable whose possible values can be anywhere on the number
line
Frequency: The number of times the particular category is observed within a dataset
Relative Frequency: The proportion of the observations that belongs to the particular category
Observational Study: A study in which characteristics of a sample selected from one or more existing
populations are observed to draw some conclusion about the population or the difference in the populations
Selection (Sampling) Bias: Tendency for the sample to differ from the population as a result of systematic
exclusion of some part of the population
Measurement (Response) Bias: Tendency for the sample to differ from the population due to specifics of
methodologies employed to measure the characteristics of interest
Nonresponse Bias: Tendency for the sample to differ from the population because a subset of samples did not
contribute to the measurement of the characteristics of interest
Sampling Random Sample Size Of N: A sample size of n selected by ensuring that every different possible
sample of size n has the same chance of being selected
Sampling Without Replacement: Once an individual from the population is selected to be included in a sample,
the individual cannot be selected again in the sampling process
Sampling With Replacement: After an individual from the population is selected to be included in a sample, the
individual can be selected again in the sampling process
Stratified Random Sampling: Dividing the entire population into non-overlapping subgroups (strata), and
perform radon sampling within each subgroup (stratum)
Cluster Sampling: Perform random sampling at a group level
Systematic Sampling: After choosing the first sample randomly, and the sample subsequent data in a systematic
manner
Convenient Sample: Sampling data based on convenience and availability
Experimental Study: A study in which one or more explanatory variables are manipulated through experimental
conditions in order to observe their effects on a response variable
Explanatory Variable: Independent Variable (Controlled)
Response Variable: Dependent Variable (Measured)
Experimental Conditions: Any particular combinations of values for the explanatory variables
Extraneous Variable: Third Variable
Direct Control: Holding the extraneous variable constant across experimental conditions
Random Assignment: Assigning samples randomly across experimental conditions to even out the contribution
of extraneous variables
Blocking: Using the extraneous variables to create groups that are evenly assigned across experimental
conditions
Replication: Repeating the experiment multiple times to ensure that the observed effect is reliable
Lecture Three
When the graph is positively skewed, the value of the mean is higher than median
When the graph is negatively skewed, the value of the mean is lower than median
2
2 Σ(𝑥−𝑥) 2
𝑆𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑉𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑐𝑒 (𝑆 ) = 𝑛−1
, 𝑆𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝐷𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑆) = 𝑆
2
2 Σ(𝑥−µ) 2
𝑃𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑉𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (σ ) = 𝑁
, 𝑃𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝐷𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (σ) = σ
𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 (𝐼𝑄𝑅) = 𝑈𝑄 − 𝐿𝑄
1
𝐶ℎ𝑒𝑏𝑦𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑣'𝑠 𝑅𝑢𝑙𝑒 = 100(1 − 2 )%,
𝑘
The Empirical Rule: Approximately 68% of observations are within 1 standard deviation; Approximately 95%
of observations are within 2 standard deviation; Approximately 99.7% of observations are within 3 standard
deviation
𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒−𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛
𝑍 𝑆𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 = 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝐷𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Σ𝑍𝑥𝑍𝑦 Σ𝑍𝑥𝑍𝑦
𝑆𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝑟) = 𝑛−1
, 𝑃𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝑝) = 𝑁
Lecture Four
A or B (A∪B): A or B or both (union)
A and B (A∩B): A and B (intersection)
If A and B are mutually exclusive 𝑃(𝐴∩𝐵) = 0, 𝑃(𝐴∪𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐴) + 𝑃(𝐵)
If A and B are not mutually exclusive 𝑃(𝐴∩𝐵) ≠ 0, 𝑃(𝐴∪𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐴) + 𝑃(𝐵) − 𝑃(𝐴∩𝐵)
𝑃(𝐴∩𝐵)
Conditional Probability (A given B): 𝑃(𝐴|𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐵)
When A and B are independent (Occurrence of A does not indicate the occurrence of B):
𝑃(𝐴|𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐴), 𝑃(𝐵|𝐴) = 𝑃(𝐵), 𝑃(𝐴∩𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐴) × 𝑃(𝐵)
When A and B are dependent (Occurrence of A indicates the occurrence of B): 𝑃(𝐴∩𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐴|𝐵) × 𝑃(𝐵)
𝑃(𝐸|𝐴)×𝑃(𝐴)
When 𝑃(𝐴) + 𝑃(𝐵) = 1, 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑚𝑢𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒: 𝑃(𝐴|𝐸) = 𝑃(𝐸|𝐴)×𝑃(𝐴)+𝑃(𝐸|𝐵)×𝑃(𝐵)
𝑃(𝐸|𝐴1)×𝑃(𝐴1)
Bayes’ Rule: 𝑃(𝐴1|𝐸) = 𝑃(𝐸|𝐴1)×𝑃(𝐴1)+...+𝑃(𝐸|𝐴𝑛)×𝑃(𝐴𝑛)
Lecture Five
Mean (Expected) Value Of A Discrete Random Variable: µ𝑥 = Σ𝑥 · 𝑝(𝑥)
2 2
Variance Of A Discrete Random Variable: σ𝑥 = Σ(𝑥 − µ𝑥) 𝑝(𝑥)
2
Standard Deviation Of A Discrete Random Variable: σ = σ
𝑎−µ 𝑏−µ 𝑥−µ
When 𝑃(𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝑏) = 𝑝(𝑎 *< 𝑧 < 𝑏 *), 𝑎 *= σ
, 𝑏 *= σ
, 𝑍= σ
, 𝑥 *= µ + 𝑧 * σ
