QUESTION BANK

SUB. CODE: HBCA17E01 SUB.NAME: Computer Networks

DEGREE : BCA
UNIT V

1.What is Signal and its types? Mention the characteristics of Analog and
Digital signal?

 A signal is an electromagnetic or electrical current that is used for carrying data

from one system or network to another. The signal is a function that conveys
information about a phenomenon.
 In electronics and telecommunications, it refers to any time-varying voltage that is
an electromagnetic wave which carries information. A signal can also be defined as
an observable change in quality such as quantity. There are two main types of
signals: Analog signal and Digital signal.
Analog Signal

Analog signal is a continuous signal in which one time-varying quantity represents another
time-based variable. These kind of signals works with physical values and natural
phenomena such as earthquake, frequency, volcano, speed of wind, weight, lighting, etc.

Digital Signal
A digital signal is a signal that is used to represent data as a sequence of separate values at
any point in time. It can only take on one of a fixed number of values. This type of signal
represents a real number within a constant range of values. Now, let’s learn some key
difference between Digital and Analog signals.

Characteristics Of Analog Signal

Here, are essential characteristics of Analog Signal
 Minimum and maximum values which is either positive or negative.
 It can be either periodic or non-periodic.
 Analog Signal works on continuous data.
 The accuracy of the analog signal is not high when compared to the digital signal.
 It helps you to measure natural or physical values.
 Analog signal output form is like Curve, Line, or Graph, so it may not be meaningful to
all.

Characteristics of Digital Signals

Here, are essential characteristics of Digital signals

 Digital signals are time separated signals.
 This type of electronic l signals can be processed and transmitted better compared
to analog signal.
 Digital signals are versatile, so it is widely used.
 The accuracy of the digital signal is better than that of the analog signal.

Advantages of Analog Signals

Here, are pros/benefits of Analog Signals

 Easier in processing
  Best suited for audio and video transmission.
 It has a low cost and is portable.
 It has a much higher density so that it can present more refined information.
 Not necessary to buy a new graphics board.

Disadvantages of Analog Signals

Here are cons/drawback of Analog Signals:
 Analog tends to have a lower quality signal than digital.
 The cables are sensitive to external influences.
 The cost of the Analog wire is high and not easily portable.
 Low availability of models with digital interfaces.
 Recording analog sound on tape is quite expensive if the tape is damaged

Advantages of Digital Signals

Here, are pros/advantages of Digital Signals:
 Digital data can be easily compressed.
 Any information in the digital form can be encrypted.
 Equipment that uses digital signals is more common and less expensive.
 Digital signal makes running instruments free from observation errors like parallax
and approximation errors.
 A lot of editing tools are available

Disadvantages of Digital Signals

 Sampling may cause loss of information.
 A/D and D/A demands mixed-signal hardware
 Processor speed is limited
 Develop quantization and round-off errors
 It requires greater bandwidth

2. Explain the architecture of ISDN with a neat sketch?

ISDN is a set of protocols that is based on high-speed fully digitized telephone service. The
main aim of ISDN is to provide a fully integrated digital service to the users.
In ISDN there are following three types of ISDN services:
  Bearer Services
 Tele Services
 Supplementary Services

Bearer Services:
 This type of services is used to transfer information such as voice, data, and video
between the users without manipulating the content of the network information. It
belongs to the first 3 layers of the OSI reference model.
Tele Services:
 In these types of services, the network may change the contents of the data. It
belongs to the last 4 layers of the OSI reference model. It includes telephony, tele
box, fax, and teleconferencing etc.
Supplementary Services:
 It provides additional functionality to the bearer services and teleservices. Some of
the examples of supplementary services are reverse charging, call waiting, and
message handling.
Principles of ISDN:
 ISDN services provides maintenance.
 ISDN services includes some network management functions.
ISDN SERVICES:

Following are the two types of services associated with ISDN:

 Basic Rate Interface

 Primary Rate Interface

 Basic Rate Interface:

In the Basic Rate Interface digital pipe consists of 2 B channels and a 1 D channel. Therefore
it is denoted as "2B + 1 D". These two B channels have a data rate of 64 kbps each, and the
D channel have a data rate of 16 kbps. It has also a usable bandwidth of 144 kbps.
Basic Rate Interface allows the concurrent use of voice and various data applications such
as packet-switched access, a link to a central alarm service, video, tax, etc. The signaling
information for the two channels is sent onto the D channel. The two B channels can be
used for one 128 kbps connection or two independent connections on the two channels.
  Primary Rate Interface:
Primary Rate Interface consists of either 23 B channels or 30 B channels and a one 64 Kbps
D channel. In North America and the Japan, 23 B channels and one D channel are used. It is
also denoted by '23 B + 1 D'. In addition, the Primary Rate Interface service itself uses 8
kbps of overhead. Therefore 23D + 1D requires a data rate of 1.544 Mbps. In the case of 30
B channels and one D channel, the total bit rate is 2.048 Mbps.
The following figure shows the basic structure of the frame in the Primary Rate
Interface is:

3. Elaborate TCP/IP Network model with neat diagram.

TCP/IP model
 The TCP/IP model was developed prior to the OSI model.
 The TCP/IP model is not exactly similar to the OSI model.
 The TCP/IP model consists of five layers: the application layer, transport layer,
network layer, data link layer and physical layer.
 The first four layers provide physical standards, network interface, internetworking,
and transport functions that correspond to the first four layers of the OSI model and
these four layers are represented in TCP/IP model by a single layer called the
application layer.
 TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules, and each of them
provides specific functionality.
Here, hierarchical means that each upper-layer protocol is supported by two or more
lower-level protocols.
Functions of TCP/IP layers:

Network Access Layer

 A network layer is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP model.
 A network layer is the combination of the Physical layer and Data Link layer defined
in the OSI reference model.
 It defines how the data should be sent physically through the network.
 This layer is mainly responsible for the transmission of the data between two
devices on the same network.
 The functions carried out by this layer are encapsulating the IP datagram into
frames transmitted by the network and mapping of IP addresses into physical
addresses.
 The protocols used by this layer are ethernet, token ring, FDDI, X.25, frame relay.
Internet Layer
 An internet layer is the second layer of the TCP/IP model.
 An internet layer is also known as the network layer.
 The main responsibility of the internet layer is to send the packets from any
network, and they arrive at the destination irrespective of the route they take.
Following are the protocols used in this layer are:
IP Protocol: IP protocol is used in this layer, and it is the most significant part of the entire
TCP/IP suite.
Following are the responsibilities of this protocol:
 IP Addressing: This protocol implements logical host addresses known as IP
addresses. The IP addresses are used by the internet and higher layers to identify
the device and to provide internetwork routing.
 Host-to-host communication: It determines the path through which the data is to
be transmitted.
 Routing: When IP datagram is sent over the same local network such as LAN, MAN,
WAN, it is known as direct delivery. When source and destination are on the distant
network, then the IP datagram is sent indirectly. This can be accomplished by
routing the IP datagram through various devices such as routers.
ARP Protocol
 ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol.
 ARP is a network layer protocol which is used to find the physical address
from the IP address.
 The two terms are mainly associated with the ARP Protocol:
 ARP request: When a sender wants to know the physical address of
the device, it broadcasts the ARP request to the network.
 ARP reply: Every device attached to the network will accept the ARP
request and process the request, but only recipient recognize the IP
address and sends back its physical address in the form of ARP reply.
The recipient adds the physical address both to its cache memory and
to the datagram header
ICMP Protocol
 ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol.
 It is a mechanism used by the hosts or routers to send notifications
regarding datagram problems back to the sender.
 An ICMP protocol mainly uses two terms:
o ICMP Test: ICMP Test is used to test whether the destination is
reachable or not.
 o ICMP Reply: ICMP Reply is used to check whether the
destination device is responding or not.
4. Describe about the Transport Layers of TCP/IP in detail.

The transport layer is responsible for error-free, end-to-end delivery of data from the
source host to the destination host. It corresponds to the transport layer of the OSI model.
The functions of the transport layer are
 It facilitates the communicating hosts to carry on a conversation.
 It provides an interface for the users to the underlying network.
 It can provide for a reliable connection. It can also carry out error checking, flow
control, and verification.

The protocols used in this layer are

 Transmission Control Protocol, TCP
It is a reliable connection-oriented protocol that transmits data from the source to
the destination machine without any error. A connection is established between the
peer entities prior to transmission. At the sending host, TCP divides an incoming
byte stream into segments and assigns a separate sequence number to each
segment. At the receiving host, TCP reorders the segments and sends an
acknowledgment to the sender for correct receipt of segments. TCP also manages
flow control so that a fast sender does not overwhelm a slow receiver.

 User Datagram Protocol, UDP

It is a message-oriented protocol that provides a simple unreliable,
connectionless, unacknowledged service. It is suitable for applications that do
not require TCP’s sequencing, error control or flow control. It is used for
transmitting a small amount of data where the speed of delivery is more
important than the accuracy of delivery.
 Stream Control Transmission Protocol, SCTP

It combines the features of both TCP and UDP. It is message oriented like the
UDP, which providing the reliable, connection-oriented service like TCP. It is
used for telephony over the Internet.

The following diagram shows the transport layer in the TCP/IP protocol suite −
5. Draw and explain the Application Layers of TCP/IP .

The application layer is the highest abstraction layer of the TCP/IP model that provides the
interfaces and protocols needed by the users. It combines the functionalities of the session
layer, the presentation layer and the application layer of the OSI model.
The functions of the application layer are −
 It facilitates the user to use the services of the network.
 It is used to develop network-based applications.
 It provides user services like user login, naming network devices, formatting
messages, and e-mails, transfer of files etc.
 It is also concerned with error handling and recovery of the message as a whole.

This layer uses a number of protocols, the main among which are as
follows
 Hyper Text Transfer Protocol, HTTP
It is the underlying protocol for world wide web. It defines how hypermedia
messages are formatted and transmitted.
 File Transfer Protocol, FTP
 It is a client-server based protocol for transfer of files between client and server over
the network.

 Simple Mail Transfer Protocol, SMTP

It lays down the rules and semantics for sending and receiving electronic mails (e-
mails).
 Domain Name System, DNS
It is a naming system for devices in networks. It provides services for translating
domain names to IP addresses.
 TELNET
It provides bi-directional text-oriented services for remote login to the hosts over
the network.
 Simple Network Management Protocol, SNMP
It is for managing, monitoring the network and for organizing information about the
networked devices.

The following diagram shows the transport layer in the TCP/IP protocol
suite

6. Summarize the World Wide Web with suitable diagram.

 The World Wide Web is abbreviated as WWW and is commonly known as the
web. The WWW was initiated by CERN (European library for Nuclear Research) in
1989.
  WWW can be defined as the collection of different websites around the world,
containing different information shared via local servers(or computers).

System Architecture:

From the user’s point of view, the web consists of a vast, worldwide connection of
documents or web pages.
 Each page may contain links to other pages anywhere in the world. The pages can
be retrieved and viewed by using browsers of which internet explorer, Netscape
Navigator, Google Chrome, etc are the popular ones.
 The browser fetches the page requested interprets the text and formatting
commands on it, and displays the page, properly formatted, on the screen.
 The basic model of how the web works are shown in the figure below. Here the
browser is displaying a web page on the client machine.
 When the user clicks on a line of text that is linked to a page on the abd.com server,
the browser follows the hyperlink by sending a message to the abd.com server
asking it for the page.

Here the browser displays a web page on the client machine when the user clicks on a
line of text that is linked to a page on abd.com, the browser follows the hyperlink by
sending a message to the abd.com server asking for the page.
Working of WWW:
  The World Wide Web is based on several different technologies: Web browsers,
Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) and Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP).

 A Web browser is used to access web pages.

 Web browsers can be defined as programs which display text, data, pictures,
animation and video on the Internet. Hyperlinked resources on the World Wide
Web can be accessed using software interfaces provided by Web browsers.
 Initially, Web browsers were used only for surfing the Web but now they have
become more universal.
 Web browsers can be used for several tasks including conducting searches,
mailing, transferring files, and much more.
 Some of the commonly used browsers are Internet Explorer, Opera Mini, and
Google Chrome.
Features of WWW:

 HyperText Information System

 Cross-Platform
 Open Standards and Open Source
 Dynamic, Interactive and Evolving.

Components of the Web:

There are 3 components of the web:

1. Uniform Resource Locator (URL): serves as a system for resources on the

web.

2. HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP): specifies communication of browser

and server.

3. Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML): defines the structure, organisation

and content of a webpage.