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Rome, Parthia, and the Politics of
Peace

This volume offers an informed survey of the problematic

relationship between the ancient empires of Rome and Parthia from
c. 96/95 BCE to 224 CE. Schlude explores the rhythms of this
relationship and invites its readers to reconsider the past and our
relationship with it.
Some have looked to this confrontation to help explain the roots
of the long-lived conflict between the West and the Middle East. It is
a reading symptomatic of most scholarship on the subject, which
emphasizes fundamental incompatibility and bellicosity in Roman–
Parthian relations. Rather than focusing on the relationship as a
series of conflicts, Rome, Parthia, and the Politics of Peace responds
to this common misconception by highlighting instead the more
cooperative elements in the relationship and shows how a
reconciliation of these two perspectives is possible. There was, in
fact, a cyclical pattern in the Roman–Parthian interaction, where a
reality of peace and collaboration became overshadowed by images
of aggressive posturing projected by powerful Roman statesmen and
emperors for a domestic population conditioned to expect conflict.
The result was the eventual realization of these images by later
Roman opportunists who, unsatisfied with imagined war, sought
active conflict with Parthia.
Rome, Parthia, and the Politics of Peace is a fascinating new study
of these two superpowers that will be of interest not only to
students of Rome and the Near East but also to anyone with an
interest in diplomatic relations and conflict in the ancient world and
today.

Jason M. Schlude is Associate Professor of Classics and Chair of

the Department of Languages and Cultures at the College of Saint
Benedict and Saint John’s University, Collegeville, Minnesota, USA. A
former Getty Scholar at the Getty Research Institute and Villa, he is
a specialist on the Roman Near East; has published on Roman–
Parthian relations in journals including Latomus, Athenaeum, and
Anabasis; and is coeditor of Arsacids, Romans, and Local Elites:
Cross-Cultural Interactions of the Parthian Empire (2017).
Routledge Studies in Ancient History

Titles include:

The Popes and the Church of Rome in Late Antiquity

John Moorhead

The Plight of Rome in the Fifth Century AD

Mark Merrony

Geopolitics in Late Antiquity

The Fate of Superpowers from China to Rome
Hyun Jin Kim

Image and Reality of Roman Imperial War in the Third Century AD

The Impact of War
Lukas de Blois

Sallust’s Histories and Triumviral Historiography

Confronting the End of History
Jennifer Gerrish

A History of the Pyrrhic War

Patrick Alan Kent

Rome, Parthia, and the Politics of Peace

The Origins of War in the Ancient Middle East
Jason M. Schlude

www.routledge.com/classicalstudies/series/RSANHIST
Rome, Parthia, and the
Politics of Peace
The Origins of War in the Ancient
Middle East

Jason M. Schlude
First published 2020
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN

and by Routledge
52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

© 2020 Jason M. Schlude

The right of Jason M. Schlude to be identified as author of this work has been
asserted by them in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs
and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised
in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or
hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information
storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.

Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered

trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to
infringe.

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

A catalog record has been requested for this book

ISBN: 978-0-815-35370-6 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-351-13571-9 (ebk)

Typeset in Sabon
by codeMantra
For Kat, Hen, and Gus,
with love and gratitude
Contents

List of maps and figures

Acknowledgments
Maps

Introduction

1 Rome and Parthia meet: from Sulla to Lucullus

2 Empires with a boundary: Pompey and Phraates III

3 An opportunist strikes: Crassus and the battle of Carrhae

4 Parthian–Roman fallout: Orodes II and Mark Antony in the Near

East

5 A diplomatic restart: Augustus, Phraates IV, and Phraates V

6 Instability at home and abroad: diplomacy and war under the

Julio-Claudians

7 Legions on the Euphrates: the Parthian policy of the Flavians

8 The model of Trajan: the final stage for Rome and Parthia

Conclusion
Bibliography
Index
Maps and figures

Maps
1 Eastern Roman Empire in the 2nd century CE. Ancient World
Mapping Center © 2020 (awmc.unc.edu). Used by permission
2 Parthian Empire. Courtesy of Wikimedia Commons
(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Parther_reich.jpg)
3 Armenia and its environs c. 50 CE. Courtesy of Cplakidas
(Wikimedia Commons,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Roman_East_50-
en.svg)

Figures
1 Silver drachm of Arsaces I, wearing a bashlyk, with reverse of
Arsaces I seated on a backless throne, holding a bow. Possibly
Nisa, c. 247-211 BCE. Sellwood 2.1 = Sunrise 237. Courtesy of
the Sunrise Collection
2 Silver drachm of Mithridates I, wearing a diadem, with reverse
of Arsaces I seated on an omphalos, holding a bow.
Hecatompylus, 148-132 BCE. Sellwood 11.1. Courtesy of G. R.
Assar
3 Silver drachm of Mithridates II, wearing a tiara, with reverse
of Arsaces seated on a throne and title ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΝ.
 Rhagai, 96/95-93/92 BCE. Sellwood 28.7. Courtesy of G. R.
Assar
4 Aureus of Pompey, with obverse of Africa wearing elephant
skin, and reverse of quadriga carrying Pompey. Rome, 61 BCE.
Roman Republican Coinage 402/1b. Courtesy of the British
Museum
5 Parthian woman and boy on Ara Pacis. Rome, 13 BCE.
Courtesy of Miguel Hermoso Cuesta (Wikimedia Commons,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ara_Pacis_relieve_Ro
ma_01.JPG)
6 Silver drachm of Phraataces, with reverse bust of Musa and
title ΘΕΑΣ ΟΥΡΑΝΙΑΣ ΜΟΥΣΗΣ ΒΑΣΙΛΙΣΣΗΣ. Ecbatana, 2 BCE-
4 CE. Sellwood 58.9. Courtesy of G. R. Assar
7 Denarius of Mark Antony, with reverse bust of Cleopatra and
title CLEOPATRAE REGINAE REGVM FILIORVM REGVM.
Alexandria, 34-32 BCE. Roman Republican Coinage 543/1.
Courtesy of Classical Numismatic Group
8 Provincial bronze of Augustus, with reverse bust of Livia and
title ΘΕΑ ΛΙΒΙΑ. Clazomenae, 27 BCE-14 CE. Roman Provincial
Coinage 2496. Courtesy of Classical Numismatic Group
9 Denarius of Augustus, with reverse of Parthian arch of
Augustus. Rome, 16 BCE. Roman Imperial Coinage 1.359.
Courtesy of Classical Numismatic Group
10 Denarius of Augustus, with obverse bust of Honos and reverse
of a Parthian kneeling and offering a standard. Rome, 19 BCE.
Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum 1.58.
Courtesy of Classical Numismatic Group
11 Augustus of Prima Porta. Rome, marble copy of an original
from c. 20 BCE. Courtesy of Sailko (Wikimedia Commons,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Augusto_di_pirma_p
orta,_inv._2290,_02.JPG)
12 Sesterius of Nero, with reverse of Parthian arch of Nero.
Lugdunum, 62–68 CE. Roman Imperial Coinage 1.393.
Courtesy of Classical Numismatic Group
13 Arch of Titus, with detail of Roman soldiers carrying Jewish
Temple’s spoils. Rome, c. 81 CE. Courtesy of Jebulon
(Wikimedia Commons,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Arch_Titus,_relief_Je
rusalem_treasure,_Forum_Romanum,_Rome,_Italy.jpg)
14 Denarius of Septimius Severus, with reverse of emperor
setting out on horseback and legend PROFECTIO AVG(VSTI).
Rome, 197 CE. Roman Imperial Coinage 4.1.106. Courtesy of
Classical Numismatic Group
15 (a and b) Aureus of Lucius Verus, with reverse of emperor on
horse spearing enemy. Rome, 166 CE. Roman Imperial
Coinage 3.567. Münzkabinett, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin.
Photography by Dirk Sonnenwald
16 Aureus of Trajan, with reverse of trophy flanked by Parthian
captives and legend PARTHIA CAPTA. Rome, 116 CE. Roman
Imperial Coinage 2.324. Courtesy of Classical Numismatic
Group
17 (a and b) Aureus of Septimius Severus and Caracalla, with
reverse of Victory advancing and legend VICTORIA PARTHICA
MAXIMA. Rome, 201 CE. Roman Imperial Coinage 4.1.311.
Courtesy of Numismatica Ars Classica NAC AG (auction 114,
lot 753)
18 (18a and b) Aureus of Hadrian, with obverse bust of divine
Trajan, and reverse of quadriga carrying effigy of Trajan.
Rome, 117–118 CE. Roman Imperial Coinage 2.26. Courtesy
of the British Museum
19 Sestertius of Antoninus Pius, with reverse of Parthia dragging
a bow and quiver and offering a crown. Rome, 139 CE. Roman
Imperial Coinage 3.586. Courtesy of Classical Numismatic
Group
20 Arch of Septimius Severus. Rome, 203 CE. Courtesy of
Rita1234 (Wikimedia Commons,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Rome_Forum_Roman
um_Arch_Septimius_Severus.JPG)
21 Arch of Septimius Severus, with detail of Victories in central
spandrels flying with Parthian trophies. Rome, 203 CE.
Courtesy of Daderot (Wikimedia Commons,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Arch_of_Septimius_S
everus_-_Rome,_Italy_-_DSC01604.jpg)
22 Arch of Septimius Severus, with detail of the northwest “Great
Panel” depicting siege of Seleucia or Babylon. Rome, 203 CE.
Courtesy of Amphipolis (Wikimedia Commons,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Relief_panel_on_the
_Arch_of_Septimius_Severus_(14636135523).jpg)
23 Arch of Septimius Severus, with detail of a pedestal depicting
a Roman soldier directing a Parthian captive. Rome, 203 CE.
Courtesy of Daderot (Wikimedia Commons,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Arch_of_Septimius_S
everus_-_Rome,_Italy_-_DSC01611.jpg)
24 Rock-cut relief of Sasanian king Shapur I receiving Roman
emperors Philip and Valerian. Naqsh-e Rostam, c. 260 CE.
Courtesy of Pentocelo (Wikimedia Commons,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Naqsh-
_e_Rostam_VI_relief_Shapur_Ist.jpg)
25 Denarius of Septimius Severus, with reverse of Mars standing
with a spear, foot atop a helmet, and legend MARTI
PACIFERO. Rome, 197–198 CE. Roman Imperial Coinage
4.113. Courtesy of Classical Numismatic Group
Acknowledgments

This book comes of twelve years of research and writing on the

relationship between the ancient Roman and Parthian empires. It
began as my dissertation in the Graduate Group in Ancient History
and Mediterranean Archaeology at the University of California,
Berkeley in 2007–2009, and then entered a long period of revision
and expansion before this publication. Such a long gestation has
deepened my debt to those who have supported its writing.
My champions at Berkeley were several: Anthony Bulloch,
Crawford Greenewalt, Christopher Hallett, Robert Knapp, Trevor
Murphy, Carlos Noreña, Martin Schwartz, and Andrew Stewart. I am
grateful to each of them. Most important was and is Erich Gruen,
who supervised the dissertation and has remained pivotal in the
manuscript’s development since that time. He reviewed the full draft
at an advanced stage and provided crucial feedback, leading me to
clarify and sharpen the argument at many points. Beyond the book,
his teaching and friendship have enriched my life. It is not an
exaggeration to say that my world would be unrecognizable without
him. The debt cannot be repaid—and I am happy to live with it.
My conversation partners for Parthian history have been many. In
addition to Erich Gruen and Martin Schwartz, I wish to thank Björn
Anderson, Matthew Canepa, Peter Edwell, Kenneth Jones, Jeffrey
Lerner, Jake Nabel, Marek Olbrycht, and Andrew Overman. In
particular, Rahim Shayegan and Benjamin Rubin have given me
many opportunities to work on the subject and challenged me to
engage with an ever-widening corpus of evidence. They remain two
of the sharpest and most generous scholars with whom I have had
the privilege to work.
 I finished drafting the manuscript while on a research residency
as a Getty Scholar at the Getty Research Institute and Getty Museum
in Spring 2019. I could not imagine a better setting for the
completion of this phase of the project. The resources available to
me there—and the skill and good cheer with which the Getty staff
offered them—were remarkable. Special thanks must go to Rose
Campbell, Thisbe Gensler, Kenneth Lapatin, Alexa Sekyra, and
Jeffrey Spier. The manuscript was improved by exchanges with my
fellow scholars at the Getty Villa: Zsuzsanna Gulácsi, Kathleen Lynch,
Robert Rollinger, and Antigoni Zournatzi. The list of other scholars at
the Getty who broadened my intellectual horizons is too lengthy to
recount here. I trust they each know how much I enjoyed and
appreciated our time together. I also must thank my colleagues at
the Omrit Settlement Excavation Project in Israel (Jennifer Gates-
Foster, Michael Nelson, Benjamin Rubin, and Daniel Schowalter) who
increased their workload to allow me to accept the research
residency and complete this book.
Also I must mention several parties who played an important role
in the book’s final shape and usefulness to readers. I wish to thank
the capable editorial staff at Routledge Press. Amy Davis-Poynter,
Ella Halstead, and Elizabeth Risch were supportive at every stage of
the writing process. They assisted in the proper conception of the
project, knew where to be flexible and where to hold firm, and
brought the book safely into print. G. R. Farhad Assar provided the
images for the Arsacid coins. His scholarly contributions and
generosity have enriched the study of the Parthian Empire. Other
image permissions were granted by the Ancient World Mapping
Center of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Classical
Numismatic Group, Münzkabinett Berlin, Numismatica Ars Classica,
Sunrise Collection, and Wikimedia Commons.
Between 2010 and 2019, I taught at three different universities,
with colleagues who were fierce advocates of this project (not to
mention my career in general) and who proved to be the most
reliable of friends: William Greenwalt and John Heath of Santa Clara
University, Sarah Miller and Stephen Newmyer of Duquesne
University, and Martin Connell and Scott Richardson of the College of
St. Benedict and St. John’s University. Once more this list could be
endlessly extended, especially at St. Ben’s and St. John’s, where I
have spent countless hours talking about Romans and Parthians to
my carpool companions and where I have found an institution willing
to allow its scholars the time necessary for a project to mature. My
debt to my students at these schools is another too great to
measure. They have debated this material with me, always leading
to fresh insights. Their intelligence, enthusiasm, and optimism give
us hope.
In the field of history, we are always after principal drivers. For
me, they are teachers and family. Steven Aylward, Richard Hadel, S.
J., Dano Monahan, and Joseph Koestner, teachers at St. Louis
University High School, and Nanette Scott Goldman, Andrew
Overman, Beth Severy-Hoven, and Calvin Roetzel, professors at
Macalester College, were those who fired my enthusiasm for
teaching, writing, history, and classics. I am a professor because of
their passion. As for my family, it is here that I struggle most to
articulate my gratitude. It is often that way when the tangibles and
intangibles of life merge completely and on a grand scale.
Scholarship is hard work. My parents Roger and Linda sacrificed so
that I could develop the tools necessary to do it, and my parents-in-
law Jeanette Eberhardy and Peter and Jennifer Pyclik have sustained
the effort. My wife and best friend Katrina has shared me with
academia and enabled my success in every way since our days
together at Macalester. Knowing the self-doubt of scholarship is no
stranger to me, Katrina and our sons Hendrick and August have
always reminded me to believe in myself. It is to them that I
dedicate this book.
Maps

Map 1 Eastern Roman Empire in the 2nd century CE. Ancient World Mapping
Center © 2020 (awmc.unc.edu). Used by permission.
Map 2 Parthian Empire. Courtesy of Wikimedia Commons
(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Parther_reich.jpg).
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