Data Communication

Dr. Sanjeev Patel

Asst. Professor Grade-I
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
National Institute of Technology Rourkela, Odisha

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Outline
◼ Analog vs Digital transmission
◼ Encoding: RZ, NRZ, Manchester.
◼ Analog modulation: AM, FM, PM;
◼ Digital modulation (D/A): ASK, FSK, PSK, QAM
◼ Analog-to-digital conversion(A/D): PCM, Delta
modulation.

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Analog Signals Carrying Analog
and Digital Data
Digital Signals Carrying Analog
and Digital Data
Analog Transmission

◼ Analog signal transmitted without regard

to content
◼ May be analog or digital data
◼ Attenuated over distance
◼ Use amplifiers to boost signal
◼ Also amplifies noise
 Digital Transmission
◼ Concerned with content
◼ Integrity endangered by noise, attenuation
etc.
◼ Repeaters used
◼ Repeater receives signal
◼ Extracts bit pattern
◼ Retransmits
◼ Attenuation is overcome
◼ Noise is not amplified
Channel Capacity

◼ Data rate
◼ In bits per second
◼ Rate at which data can be communicated
◼ Bandwidth
◼ In cycles per second of Hertz
◼ Constrained by transmitter and medium
 Data Rate Versus Signal Rate
◼ The data rate defines the number of data elements
(bits) sent in 1s. The unit is bits per second (bps).
◼ The signal rate is the number of signal elements sent
in 1s. The unit is the baud.
◼ There are several common terminologies used in the
literature.
◼ The data rate is sometimes called the bit rate; the
signal rate is sometimes called the pulse rate, the
modulation rate, or the baud rate.
◼ One goal: To increase the data rate while decreasing
the signal rate.
◼ Increasing the data rate increases the speed of
transmission; decreasing the signal rate decreases the
bandwidth requirement.
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Nyquist Bandwidth
◼ If rate of signal transmission is 2B then
signal with frequencies no greater than B is
sufficient to carry signal rate
◼ Given bandwidth B, highest signal rate is
2B
◼ Given binary signal, data rate supported by
B Hz is 2B bps
◼ Can be increased by using M signal levels
◼ C= 2B log2M
 Shannon Capacity Formula
◼ Consider data rate, noise and error rate
◼ Faster data rate shortens each bit so burst of
noise affects more bits
◼ At given noise level, high data rate means higher
error rate
◼ Signal to noise ration (in decibels)
◼ SNRdb=10 log10 (signal/noise)
◼ Capacity C=B log2(1+SNR)
◼ This is error free capacity
Encoding Techniques

◼ Digital data, digital signal

◼ Analog data, digital signal
◼ Digital data, analog signal
◼ Analog data, analog signal
Digital Data, Digital Signal

◼ Digital signal
◼ Discrete, discontinuous voltage pulses
◼ Each pulse is a signal element
◼ Binary data encoded into signal elements
Terms (1)

◼ Unipolar
◼ All signal elements have same sign
◼ Polar
◼ One logic state represented by positive
voltage the other by negative voltage
◼ Data rate
◼ Rate of data transmission in bits per second
◼ Duration or length of a bit
◼ Time taken for transmitter to emit the bit
Terms (2)

◼ Modulation rate (or signaling rate)

◼ Rate at which the signal level changes
◼ Measured in baud = signal elements per
second
◼ Mark and Space
◼ Binary 1 and Binary 0 respectively
Interpreting Signals

◼ Need to know
◼ Timing of bits - when they start and end
◼ Signal levels
◼ Factors affecting successful interpreting of
signals
◼ Signal to noise ratio
◼ Data rate
◼ Bandwidth
Comparison of Encoding Schemes (2)

◼ Error detection
◼ Can be built in to signal encoding
◼ Signal interference and noise immunity
◼ Some codes are better than others
◼ Cost and complexity
◼ Higher signal rate (& thus data rate) lead to
higher costs
◼ Some codes require signal rate greater than
data rate
Encoding Schemes
◼ Nonreturn to Zero-Level (NRZ-L)
◼ Nonreturn to Zero Inverted (NRZI)
◼ Return to Zero (RZ)
◼ Bipolar -AMI
◼ Pseudoternary
◼ Manchester
◼ Differential Manchester
◼ B8ZS
◼ HDB3
 Figure 4.4 Line coding schemes

4.18
 Encoding Schemes
◼ Unipolar
◼ All the signal levels are on one side of the time
axis, either above or below
◼ Polar- two levels
◼ Bipolar- use three levels: positive, zero, and
negative
◼ Multilevel-multiple levels
◼ Multitransition
◼ uses three levels (+V, 0, and -V) and three
transition rules to move between the levels
Nonreturn to Zero-Level (NRZ-L)
◼ The signal does not return to zero at the
middle of the bit
◼ Two different voltages for 0 and 1 bits
◼ Voltage constant during bit interval
◼ no transition, i.e. no return to zero voltage
◼ e.g. Absence of voltage for zero, constant
positive voltage for one
◼ More often, negative voltage for one value
and positive for the other
◼ This is NRZ-L
Nonreturn to Zero Inverted
◼ Nonreturn to zero inverted on ones
◼ Constant voltage pulse for duration of bit
◼ Data encoded as presence or absence of
signal transition at beginning of bit time
◼ Transition (low to high or high to low)
denotes a binary 1
◼ No transition denotes binary 0
◼ An example of differential encoding
◼ Transition detection vs. threshold value
comparison
NRZ
 Figure 4.7 Polar RZ scheme

◼ Return-to-Zero (RZ) uses three values: positive, negative, and zero.

◼ Signal changes not between bits but during the bit.
◼ Occupy greater bandwidth as needs change during the bits.
◼ No DC component problem.
◼ Another problem is the complexity due to 3 signals.
◼ Not in use.

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Differential Encoding

◼ Data represented by changes rather than

levels
◼ More reliable detection of transition rather
than level
◼ In complex transmission layouts it is easy
to lose sense of polarity
NRZ pros and cons

◼ Pros
◼ Easy to engineer
◼ Make good use of bandwidth
◼ Cons
◼ dc component
◼ Lack of synchronization capability
◼ Used for magnetic recording
◼ Not often used for signal transmission
Multilevel Binary
◼ Use more than two levels
◼ Bipolar-AMI
◼ zero represented by no line signal
◼ one represented by positive or negative pulse
◼ one pulses alternate in polarity
◼ No loss of sync if a long string of ones (zeros still
a problem)
◼ No net dc component
◼ Lower bandwidth
◼ Easy error detection
Pseudoternary

◼ One represented by absence of line signal

◼ Zero represented by alternating positive
and negative
◼ No advantage or disadvantage over
bipolar-AMI
Bipolar-AMI and Pseudoternary

* AMI: alternate mark inversion

 Trade Off for Multilevel Binary

◼ Not as efficient as NRZ

◼ Each signal element only represents one bit
◼ In a 3 level system could represent log23 = 1.58
bits
◼ Receiver must distinguish between three levels
(+A, -A, 0)
◼ Requires approx. 3dB more signal power for
same probability of bit error
 Biphase
◼ Manchester
◼ Transition in middle of each bit period
◼ Transition serves as clock and data
◼ Low to high represents one
◼ High to low represents zero
◼ Used by IEEE 802.3
◼ Differential Manchester
◼ Midbit transition is clocking only
◼ Transition at start of a bit period represents zero
◼ No transition at start of a bit period represents one
◼ Note: this is a differential encoding scheme
◼ Used by IEEE 802.5
◼ In Manchester and differential Manchester encoding, the
transition at the middle of the bit is used for synchronization
Manchester Encoding
Differential Manchester
Encoding
 Biphase Pros and Cons
◼ Con
◼ At least one transition per bit time and possibly
two
◼ Maximum modulation rate is twice NRZ
◼ Requires more bandwidth
◼ Pros
◼ Synchronization on mid bit transition (self
clocking)
◼ No dc component
◼ Error detection
◼ Absence of expected transition
Modulation Rate
Scrambling
◼ Use scrambling to replace sequences that would produce
constant voltage
◼ Filling sequence
◼ Must produce enough transitions to sync
◼ Must be recognized by receiver and replace with original
◼ Same length as original
◼ No dc component
◼ No long sequences of zero level line signal
◼ No reduction in data rate
◼ Error detection capability
 B8ZS
◼ Bipolar With 8 Zeros Substitution
◼ Based on bipolar-AMI
◼ If octet of all zeros and last voltage pulse
preceding was positive encode as 000+-0-+
◼ If octet of all zeros and last voltage pulse
preceding was negative encode as 000-+0+-
◼ Causes two violations of AMI code
◼ Unlikely to occur as a result of noise
◼ Receiver detects and interprets as octet of all
zeros
 HDB3
◼ High Density Bipolar 3 Zeros
◼ Based on bipolar-AMI
◼ String of four zeros replaced with one or two
pulses
◼ If no. of Bipolar Pulses(non-zero) since last
substitution is odd, then use 000-, otherwise
+00+ (if polarity of precesing pulse is -)
◼ If no. of Bipolar Pulses since last substitution
is odd, then use 000+, otherwise -00- (if
polarity of precesing pulse is +)
B8ZS and HDB3
 Note

HDB3 substitutes four consecutive

zeros with 000V or B00V depending
on the number of nonzero pulses after
the last substitution.

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 Figure 4.20 Different situations in HDB3 scrambling technique

4.41
Digital Data, Analog Signal

◼ Public telephone system

◼ 300Hz to 3400Hz
◼ Use modem (modulator-demodulator)
◼ Amplitude shift keying (ASK)
◼ Frequency shift keying (FSK)
◼ Phase shift keying (PSK)
Modulation Techniques
Amplitude Shift Keying

◼ Values represented by different

amplitudes of carrier
◼ Usually, one amplitude is zero
◼ i.e. presence and absence of carrier is used
◼ Susceptible to sudden gain changes
◼ Inefficient
◼ Up to 1200bps on voice grade lines
◼ Used over optical fiber
Binary Frequency Shift Keying

◼ Most common form is binary FSK (BFSK)

◼ Two binary values represented by two
different frequencies (near carrier)
◼ Less susceptible to error than ASK
◼ Up to 1200bps on voice grade lines
◼ High frequency radio (3 to 30 MHz)
◼ Even higher frequency on LANs using
coaxial cable.
Multiple FSK

◼ More than two frequencies used

◼ More bandwidth efficient
◼ More prone to error
◼ Each signalling element represents more
than one bit
FSK on Voice Grade Line
Phase Shift Keying

◼ Phase of carrier signal is shifted to

represent data
◼ Binary PSK
◼ Two phases represent two binary digits
◼ Differential PSK
◼ Phase shifted relative to previous transmission
rather than some reference signal
Differential PSK
Quadrature PSK
◼ More efficient use by each signal element
representing more than one bit
◼ e.g. shifts of /2 (90o)
◼ Each element represents two bits
◼ Can use 8 phase angles and have more than
one amplitude
◼ 9600bps modem use 12 angles , four of which
have two amplitudes
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
◼ QAM used on asymmetric digital subscriber
line (ADSL) and some wireless
◼ Combination of ASK and PSK
◼ Logical extension of QPSK
◼ Send two different signals simultaneously on
same carrier frequency
◼ Use two copies of carrier, one shifted 90°
◼ Each carrier is ASK modulated
◼ Two independent signals over same medium
◼ Demodulate and combine for original binary output
QAM Levels
◼ Two level ASK
◼ Each of two streams in one of two states
◼ Four state system
◼ Essentially QPSK
◼ Four level ASK
◼ Combined stream in one of 16 states
◼ 64 and 256 state systems have been
implemented
◼ Improved data rate for given bandwidth
◼ Increased potential error rate
 Figure 5.13 Three constellation diagrams

5.53
 Figure 5.14 Constellation diagrams for some QAMs

5.54
Performance of Digital to Analog Modulation Schemes

◼ Bandwidth
◼ ASK and PSK bandwidth directly related to bit rate

(R) where R=Baud rate*log2(M)

◼ Bandwidth, BT=(1+r)R

◼ FSK bandwidth related to data rate for lower

frequencies, but to offset of modulated frequency

from carrier at high frequencies
◼ Bandwidth, BT= 2ΔF+(1+r)R where ΔF=f2-fc=fc-f1

◼ In the presence of noise, bit error rate of PSK and

QPSK are about 3dB superior to ASK and FSK
 Analog Data, Digital Signal
◼ Digitization
◼ Conversion of analog data into digital data
◼ Digital data can then be transmitted using NRZ-L
◼ Digital data can then be transmitted using code
other than NRZ-L
◼ Digital data can then be converted to analog
signal
◼ Analog to digital conversion done using a codec
◼ Pulse code modulation
◼ Delta modulation
Digitizing Analog Data
Pulse Code Modulation(PCM) (1)

◼ If a signal is sampled at regular intervals

at a rate higher than twice the highest
signal frequency, the samples contain all
the information of the original signal
◼ (Proof - Stallings appendix 4A)
◼ Voice data limited to below 4000Hz
◼ Require 8000 sample per second
◼ Analog samples (Pulse Amplitude
Modulation, PAM)
◼ Each sample assigned digital value
Pulse Code Modulation(PCM) (2)

◼ 4 bit system gives 16 levels

◼ Quantized
◼ Quantizing error or noise
◼ Approximations mean it is impossible to
recover original exactly
◼ 8 bit sample gives 256 levels
◼ Quality comparable with analog
transmission
◼ 8000 samples per second of 8 bits each
gives 64kbps
PCM Example
PCM Block Diagram
Nonlinear Encoding

◼ Quantization levels not evenly spaced

◼ Reduces overall signal distortion
◼ Can also be done by companding
Effect of Non-Linear Coding
Typical Companding Functions
Delta Modulation

◼ Analog input is approximated by a

staircase function
◼ Move up or down one level () at each
sample interval
◼ Binary behavior
◼ Function moves up or down at each sample
interval
Delta Modulation - example
Delta Modulation - Operation
Delta Modulation - Performance

◼ Good voice reproduction

◼ PCM - 128 levels (7 bit)
◼ Voice bandwidth 4khz
◼ Should be 8000 x 7 = 56kbps for PCM
◼ Data compression can improve on this
◼ e.g. Interframe coding techniques for video
Analog Data, Analog Signals

◼ Why modulate analog signals?

◼ Higher frequency can give more efficient
transmission
◼ Permits frequency division multiplexing
(chapter 8)
◼ Types of modulation
◼ Amplitude
◼ Frequency
◼ Phase
Analog
Modulation
 Figure 5.15 Types of analog-to-analog modulation

5.71
 Figure 5.16 Amplitude modulation

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 Note

The total bandwidth required for AM

can be determined
from the bandwidth of the audio
signal: BAM = 2B.

5.73
 Figure 5.17 AM band allocation

5.74
 Note

The total bandwidth required for FM can

be determined from the bandwidth
of the audio signal: BFM = 2(1 + β)B.

5.75
 Figure 5.18 Frequency modulation

5.76
 Figure 5.19 FM band allocation

5.77
 Figure 5.20 Phase modulation

5.78
 Note

The total bandwidth required for PM can

be determined from the bandwidth
and maximum amplitude of the
modulating signal:
BPM = 2(1 + β)B.

5.79
 References
▪ William Stallings, “Data and Computer Communications”, Seventh
Edition, PHI 2004.
▪ B. A. Fourozan, “Data Communications and Networking”, 4th Edition,
Singapore, McGrawHill, 2004.
▪ L. L. Peterson and B. S. Davie, Computer Networks: A Systems
Approach, 5th ed. Burlington, MA, USA: Elsevier, 2011.
▪ James F. Kurose, Keith W. Ross, “Computer Networking: A Top-Down
Approach Featuring the Internet”, 3rd Edition , Pearson Education 2009.
▪ Andrew S. Tanenbaum, ”Computer Networks” 4th Edition PHI
▪ B. A. Fourozan, “TCP/IP Protocol Suite”, 3rd Edition, Singapore,
McGrawHill, 2004.
▪ PPT available for the respective books
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 Thank You

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