AP Physics C: Mechanics Summary

∗
Michel Liao
April 2021

Contents
1 Notes 3
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Things to Memorize/Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Contact Me . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

2 Kinematics 4
2.1 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.2 Uniformly Accelerated Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.3 Non-uniformly Accelerated Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.4 Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.5 Free Fall and Projectiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

3 Newton’s Laws of Motion 6

3.1 Newton’s Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.2 Weight, Normal Force, and Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.3 Inclined Planes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.4 Uniform Circular Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

4 Work, Energy, and Power 8

4.1 Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4.2 Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4.3 Potential Energy Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.4 Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

5 Systems of Particles and Linear Momentum 10

5.1 Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
5.2 Impulse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
5.3 Center of Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
∗ Many of these summaries are adapted from Princeton Review’s AP Physics C Prep Book.

1
6 Rotation 12
6.1 Linear and Angular Quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
6.2 Basic Rotation Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
6.3 Angular Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

7 Oscillations 14
7.1 Simple Harmonic Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

8 Gravitation 16
8.1 Kepler’s Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
8.2 Newton’s Law of Gravitation & Circular Orbits . . . . . . . . . . 16
8.3 General Orbits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
8.4 Gravity of Spheres and Shells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

2
1 Notes
1.1 Introduction
This summary includes the main ideas of every unit in mechanics. This
handout should act as a supplement to anything else you’re studying, and not
your main tool.
Equations that are on the equation sheet are boxed. Please use the equa-
tion sheet and this handout to determine which equations you should/shouldn’t
memorize.

1.2 Things to Memorize/Practice

1. Derivations for centers of mass

2. Derivations for rotational inertias

3. Common rotational inertias
4. Parallel-axis theorem

1.3 Contact Me
There may be some typos. If you notice any or have suggestions, please
email [email protected].

3
2 Kinematics
2.1 Definitions
• Position refers to an object relative to a coordinate axis.
• Distance refers to the total measure of the ground traveled by an object
• Displacement is how far an object is from where it started: ∆x = xf − x0 .
• Acceleration is a measure of change in velocity per some unit of time
(a = ∆v
∆t ). Acceleration is a scalar.

2.2 Uniformly Accelerated Motion

• There are 5 kinematics equations pertaining to uniformly accelerated mo-
tion (UAM)
– ∆x = vt
– v = vo + at
1
– x = x0 + vt − at2
2

– v 2 = v02 + 2a(x − x0 )
– v = 12 (v0 + v)

2.3 Non-uniformly Accelerated Motion

Unfortunately, this is where calculus comes in.
• Know your derivatives:

– The derivative of x(t) is velocity.

– The derivative of v(t) is acceleration.
• Know your integrals (remember +C):
– The integral of a(t) is velocity.
– The integral of v(t) is displacement.

2.4 Graphs
Know your integrals and derivatives as stated above. Use geometric figures
to calculate areas.

4
2.5 Free Fall and Projectiles
• Free fall is when an object is only affected by the force of gravity.

• 2D motion should be analyzed according to its x and y components sepa-

rately. The x and y components are independent.

5
3 Newton’s Laws of Motion
3.1 Newton’s Laws
Newton’s Laws, in order, are:
1. Objects will continue in their state of motion unless acted upon by a net
force.
X
2. F~ = m~a 1

3. When two objects interact, the force from the first object onto the second
object is equal to, and in the opposite direction of, the force the second
object exerts on the first object.

3.2 Weight, Normal Force, and Friction

• The weight of an object is not the mass of the object. Weight is given by
F~w = m~g .

• The normal force (FN or N ) is the component of the contact force exerted
on an object that is perpendicular to the surface.
• Friction is the component of the contact force exerted on an object that
is parallel to the surface.

• The inequality |F~f | ≤ µ|F~N | gives you the maximum force that friction
can apply 2
(see the footnote for more details).

– Static friction occurs when there is no relative motion between the

object and the surface.
– Kinetic friction occurs when there is relative motion between the
object and the surface.

3.3 Inclined Planes

• Rotate the x-y coordinate axis so that the x-axis and y-axis are parallel
and perpendicular, respectively, to the incline (or else your life becomes
way harder than it has to be).
P~
1 In F
your equation sheet, this is written as ~a = m .
2 Inthe case of static friction, we can imagine a box on a surface. The surface will only
apply enough static friction force such that the net force remains 0N . It doesn’t make sense for
the static friction force to always be equal to µ · F~N , or the box may accelerate "backwards"
when the forward force isn’t equal to the maximum frictional force. Once a forward force
exceeds the magnitude of maximum static friction force, the object will start sliding, and
static friction becomes kinetic friction.

6
 • There are two components of gravity that act on an object in an inclined
plane: the force parallel to the ramp (mg sin θ) and the force perpendicular
to the ramp (mg cos θ). 3

3.4 Uniform Circular Motion

• An object undergoes uniform circular motion when its speed is constant.
• The velocity vector is always tangent to the circle.
• Centripetal acceleration and force points toward the center.

v2
ac =
r

• Any force that points toward the center is positive, and any force that
points away from the center is negative.
• When an object is at the top of a vertical circle, your acceleration must
be at least a = 9.8 sm2 .
– The proof is as follows: Assume we have a roller coaster at the top
of a circular loop with mass m. For proof by contradiction, assume
that a < 9.8 sm2 . Then, we have

FN + Fg = ma
FN = ma − Fg = m(a − g)
FN < 0N

Which is clearly impossible. A normal force that is 0N implies that

it has no contact with the surface. Therefore, a must be at least
9.8 sm2 at the top of a vertical circle. 4

3 I recommend that you don’t memorize these formulas. Rather, know the definitions of

trigonometric functions (SOH CAH TOA).

4 Remember that acceleration is a vector. The speed of our object does not change, but

the direction does.

7
4 Work, Energy, and Power
4.1 Work
• Work is the dot product of force and displacement: W = F · x.
Z
• If work isn’t constant, then W = F (x)dx .

• Work is positive if the force is in the same direction of displacement.

Conversely, work is negative if the force is opposite the direction of dis-
placement.
• The total work done on an object/system isPthe sum of all work done by
every force on the object/system: Wtotal = W.
• The Work-Energy Theorem: Wtotal = ∆K. A corollary is ∆Ug = −Wby gravity .5

4.2 Energy
1
• Kinetic energy is energy associated with motion: K = mv 2 .
2

• Potential energy is stored energy, or the ability of “potentially” moving:6

– ∆Ug = mg∆h .

1
– Us = k(∆x)2 .
2
– You cannot have potential energy if you do not include the Earth in
your system.7
• A conservative force is defined by having the total work done by moving
between two points as independent of the path taken (e.g., Fg , Fs ).
• Work done by a non-conservative force (e.g., friction and air resistance)
depends on the path taken, and mechanical energy is lost by heat, sound,
etc.
• Conservation of Mechanical Energy occurs when there are no non-conservative
forces acting on the system. There are several ways to express conservation
of energy:
– E0 = Ef ⇒ K0 + U0 = Kf + Uf .
5 Thedistinction between Wtotal and Wby gravity is small, but important.
6 Potential energy is relative. To make your life easier, choose strategic inital potential
energy positions.
7 The statement isn’t exactly correct, but it’s a general way to think about things. If you

don’t include the Earth in your system, then Fg is an external force, which you would add
into the left side of your equation (look at the conservation of energy section).

8
 – ∆K = −∆U ⇒ ∆K + ∆U = 0J.
– If there are non-conservative forces that do work, then:

K0 + U0 + Wother = Kf + Uf .

4.3 Potential Energy Diagrams

• Potential energy is given as U (x). Then, F = − dU
dx .

• If dU
dx = 0, then F = 0 and it is an equilibrium point.8
– Stable equilibrium occurs when the force restores the object back
toward equilibrium after it is disturbed.
– Unstable equilibrium occurs when the force moves the object further
away from the equilibrium point after it is disturbed.

4.4 Power
• Power is the rate at which work is done.9
–
W dW
P = =
t dt
–
P = F~ · ~v 10

8 On an energy vs. position graph, think of the graph as a hill. Place a “ball” at some

point, and if it will roll to a point and stay there, that is a point of stable equilibrium. The
opposite is true, too.
9 The equation sheet has the first equation written as P = dE .
dt
10 This equation involves the dot product. Your velocity must be parallel to your force. (or

vice versa).

9
5 Systems of Particles and Linear Momentum
5.1 Momentum
• Linear momentum is given by the equation

p~ = m~v .

• We can derive momentum with respect to time to get force:

d~
p
F~net = .
dt

• The Law of Conservation of Momentum says that linear momentum is

conserved who no external forces act on the system, or p0 = p.

• Elastic collisions conserve kinetic energy.11

• Generally, for elastic collisions, the relative velocities (v2 − v1 ) after the
collision is equal in magnitude and opposite to the relative velocity before
the collision (v02 − v01 ).
• Inelastic collisions do not conserve kinetic energy. When objects stick
together post-collision, the collision is said to be perfectly inelastic.

5.2 Impulse
• Impulse is given by the equation
Z
J~ = F̄ ∆t = F~ dt = ∆~
p 12
.

5.3 Center of Mass

• Newton’s Second Law, F~ = m~a, calculates the acceleration of the center
P
of mass of your system. If the net external force on your system is 0 N,
then your center of mass does not accelerate.
• For a uniform density object, the center of mass is at its geometric center.
• For point masses, the center of mass is given by
P
m i xi
xcm = P .
mi
11 Kinetic energy is the key term. In general, every collision conserves energy (energy turns

into heat, sound, etc.), but not kinetic energy.

12 F̄ ∆t is not in your equation sheet, but you should memorize it

10
 • For non-uniform densities, the center of mass is given by
Z
1
xcm = r dm.
mtotal

where M is your total mass.13

– Use the definition of linear mass density (λ = dm

dx = L)
M
to get rid of
dm.

13 This equation isn’t on your equation sheet, but you should memorize it.

11
6 Rotation
6.1 Linear and Angular Quantities
• s = rθ
• v = rω 14
• at = rα15

Linear Variables Angular Equivalent

x θ
v ω
a α
p L
m I
F τ

6.2 Basic Rotation Information

• Rotational inertia is a measure of how difficult it is to change an object’s
rotational motion. Z
I = mr2 = r2 dm

• The Parallel-Axis Theorem applies when the object is uniform

I = Icm + mx2 .

• Torque is the ability to cause an object to rotate:

τ =r×F .

• Newton’s Second Law’s rotational equivalent is

X
τ = Iα .

• Rotating objects have rotational kinetic energy given by

1 2
Krotation = Iω .
2
14 This velocity is tangential velocity. This is sort of redundant to say, as all velocity must

be tangential in a curving path, but it is important to know that centripetal velocity doesn’t
exist.
15 This equation relates to tangential acceleration, not centripetal. To find the magnitude
q
of total acceleration, use the equation a = a2t + a2c .

12
 • If an object is rolling, the rotational kinetic energy is
1 1
Krolling = Krotation + Ktranslation = Icm ω 2 + mvcm
2
.
2 2
16

6.3 Angular Momentum

• Angular momentum for a point particle is given by the equation

L = Iω .

• Angular momentum for a rigid object is given by

~ = ~r × p~ .17
L

• Angular momentum is conserved unless a net external torque acts on the

object. We use the equation
X dL 18
τ= .
dt

• Know your different types of equilibrium:

– Translational equilibrium is when the net force is 0N.
2
– Rotational equilibrium occurs when the net torque is 0 kg·m
s2 .
– Equilibrium (by itself) occurs when there is both translational and
rotational equilibrium.19
– If an ob ject is at rest, it is in static equilibrium (both translational
and rotational).

16 Note the emphasis put on the center of mass.

17 This is how we find angular momentum in terms of linear momentum.
18 This equation isn’t on your equation sheet, but don’t worry! F = dp is, and you can just
dt
use your rotational equivalents.
19 Remember that when we’re in either translational or rotational equilibrium, it doesn’t nec-

essarily mean that our velocity or angular velocity is 0. It just means that our velocity/angular
velocity is not changing.

13
7 Oscillations
7.1 Simple Harmonic Motion
• Simple harmonic occurs when there is a restoring force on an object that
is proportional for the displacement. The restoring force for a spring is

Fs = −kx .

20

• The equation for an object undergoing SHM is

x = xmax cos(ωt + φ) .

• The period is the length of time it takes to copmlete one cycle and fre-
quency is the number of cycles the object completes in one unit of time:

1 cycles
f= = .
T time

• Differential equations are cool. We have two different cases, namely springs
and pendulums.21
– Springs: always start with F = ma and replace F.

F = ma
d2 x
−kx = m
dt2
2
k d x
− x= 2.
m dt

20 Remember, x is the length the spring will stretch beyond its natural length (nothing

attached to it).
21 You don’t actually have to start with F = ma, but it’s general rule. Sometimes, start

with τ = Iα.

14
 – Pendulums: always start with F = ma and replace F.22

F = ma
d2 s
−mg sin θ = m
dt2
2
d s
−gθ = 2
dt
d2 θ
−gθ =L 2
dt
g d2 θ
− θ = 2.
L dt

22 This is why small angle approximations are so key to SHM with pendulums—so we can
2 2
assume sin θ = θ. Also, note that because s = Lθ, ddt2s = L ddt2θ .

15
8 Gravitation
8.1 Kepler’s Laws
In order, Kepler’s Laws are:

1. Every planet moves in an elliptical orbit, with the Sun at one focus.23

2. A line draw from the Sun to the planet sweeps out equal areas in equal
time intervals, or conservation of angular momentum.
3. If T is the period and a is the length of the semimajor axis of a planet’s
orbit, then
T2
a3
if the orbit is elliptical, and
T2
R3
if the planet’s orbit is circular.24

8.2 Newton’s Law of Gravitation & Circular Orbits

• Newton’s Law of Gravitation:

Gm1 m2
Fg = .
r2

Use it in conjunction with Fg = mag to arrive at

Gm1
ag = .
r2

• Fg = Fc is very helpful to find the speed of an orbiting object.

•
2πr
v=
T

8.3 General Orbits

• Gravitational potential energy is given by

Gm1 m2
Ug = − .
r
23 This is technically wrong. The planet and the Sun will orbit around the planet-Sun

system’s center of mass. However, because the distance from the center of mass to the Sun is
so small, we approximate the center of mass to be at the position of the Sun.
24 R represents the radius of the circular orbit.

16
 • Mechanical energy and angular moment are conserved for orbits.
• Escape speed is derived when we set our kinetic and potential energy equal
to 0.
1 Gm1 m2
m1 vesc2 − =0
2 r
Which gives us r
2Gm2
vesc = .
r
• The total energy of a satellite in a circular orbit of radius R is
GM m
E=− .
2R
The total energy of a satellite in a elliptical orbit if the semimajor axis is
a is
GM m
E=− .
2a

8.4 Gravity of Spheres and Shells

• The force gravity outside a sphere is
GM m
Fg = .
r2
The force gravity inside a sphere is
GM m
Fg = r.
R3

17