PEARSON EDEXCEL INTERNATIONAL GCSE

COMPUTER SCIENCE
UNIT 1:
1. UNDERSTANDING ALGORITHMS
2. CREATING ALGORITHMS
3. SORTING AND SEARCHING ALGORITHMS
4. DECOMPOSITION AND ABSTRACTION

1. UNDERSTANDING ALGORITHMS

This section focuses on defining algorithms, understanding their

purpose, and exploring various ways to represent them.
What is an Algorithm? An algorithm is a precise method for solving
a problem. It is a set of clear, step-by-step instructions designed
to achieve a specific result. Algorithms are fundamental to
computer programming and form the basis of computer programs.
Characteristics of a Successful Algorithm When evaluating whether
an algorithm is successful, three key points are considered:

✓ Accuracy: It must consistently lead to the expected outcome

(e.g., creating a route from Beijing to Shanghai).
✓ Consistency: It must produce the same result each time it
is run with the same inputs.
✓ Efficiency: It must solve the problem in the shortest
possible time, using as few computer resources as possible.
An algorithm should also be:

✓ Unambiguous: Instructions must be clear and cannot be

misunderstood. For example, "turn left" is unambiguous,
while "turn" is not.
✓ A sequence of steps.
✓ Reusable and will always provide the same result for the
same problem.
✓ A solution to a problem.
Relationship Between Algorithms and Programs Algorithms and
programs are closely related but distinct.

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 ✓ An algorithm is the detailed design for a solution. It's
the logical sequence of steps to solve a problem.
✓ A program is when that design is implemented using a
specific programming language, making it executable by a
computer. A well-written algorithm should be free of logic
errors and easy to code in any high-level language.
Ways to Display an Algorithm Algorithms can be expressed in various
ways to make them understandable.
1. Written Descriptions

✓ This is the simplest way to express an algorithm, using

natural language to list the steps.
✓ Example: Algorithm for Making a Cup of Coffee
▪ Fill kettle with water.
▪ Turn on kettle.
▪ Place coffee in cup.
▪ Wait for water to boil.
▪ Pour water into cup.
▪ Add milk and sugar.
▪ Stir.
2. Flowcharts

✓ Flowcharts use diagrams with special symbols to show an

algorithm visually and represent its logical flow.
Standard Flowchart Symbols:

✓ Rectangle: Indicates a process or action to be carried out.

✓ Diamond: Indicates a decision to be made.
✓ Parallelogram: Indicates an input or output.
✓ Oval/Rounded Rectangle: Indicates the start or end of an
algorithm.
✓ Arrows: Show the logical flow of the algorithm and the order
of steps.
Example: Flowchart for Making a Cup of Coffee

✓ (Start) → Fill kettle with water → Turn on kettle → Place

coffee in cup → (Wait for kettle to boil) → Pour water into
cup → Add milk and sugar → Stir → (End).

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 ✓ The instruction "Wait for kettle to boil" is unambiguous,
meaning the water must be boiling, unlike "wait for the water
to heat".
3. Pseudocode

✓ Pseudocode is a structured, code-like language used to

describe an algorithm. It resembles programming code but
is not tied to any specific language.
✓ Purpose: It allows developers to concentrate on the logic
and efficiency of the algorithm without worrying about the
strict syntax rules of a particular programming language.
It is relatively straightforward to translate pseudocode
into any high-level programming language.
Key Concepts in Pseudocode:

✓ Variables and Identifiers: Variables are 'containers' used

to store data, and their values can change during program
execution. Constants are 'containers' that hold values that
remain fixed. Each variable and constant needs a unique,
descriptive identifier to make the code easier to read
(e.g., firstName instead of X). Common naming conventions
include 'camel case' (firstName) or 'snake case'
(first_name).
✓ Text (Strings): Text to be displayed is typically placed in
quotation marks (single or double). Variable names are not
put in quotation marks when their value is to be displayed.
✓ Arithmetic Operators: These are characters that perform
calculations on numbers.
Table 1.1: Arithmetic Operators

✓ +: Addition (e.g., 8 + 5 = 13)

✓ -: Subtraction (e.g., 17 - 4 = 13)
✓ *: Multiplication (e.g., 6 * 9 = 54)
✓ /: Real division (returns result with decimal places, e.g.,
13 / 4 = 3.25)
✓ DIV (Quotient): Returns only the whole number part of a
division (e.g., 13 DIV 4 = 3)
✓ MOD (Modulus/Modulo): Returns the remainder of a division
(e.g., 13 MOD 4 = 1)

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 ✓ ^: Exponentiation (to the power of, e.g., 3 ^ 3 = 27)

Example: Algorithm for Adding Two Numbers

Written Description:

✓ Enter first number.

✓ Enter second number.
✓ Calculate total by adding first and second numbers.
✓ Output total.
Flowchart:
(Start) → Input first number → Input second number → Total =
first number + second number → Output total → (End).
Pearson Edexcel Pseudocode:

✓ SEND ‘Please enter the first number’ TO DISPLAY

✓ RECEIVE firstNumber FROM KEYBOARD
✓ SEND ‘Please enter the second number’ TO DISPLAY
✓ RECEIVE secondNumber FROM KEYBOARD
✓ SET total TO firstNumber + secondNumber
✓ SEND total TO DISPLAY

2. CREATING ALGORITHMS

This section delves into how algorithms are constructed,

particularly for computer execution, introducing fundamental
programming constructs.
Algorithms for Computers Unlike humans who can infer meaning,
computers are "mindless machines" that follow instructions
exactly. Therefore, algorithms for computers must be explicit and
unambiguous. For instance, a human understands "Wait for water to
boil" by repeatedly checking, but a computer needs specific
conditions (e.g., "wait until the water reached 100°C").
Basic Constructs of Algorithms are created using three basic
constructs:

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1. Sequence

✓ This refers to step-by-step instructions in the correct

order. Most simple algorithms begin with a sequence of
commands.
2. Selection

✓ Selection (or conditional statement) allows a choice to

be made between different alternatives based on a
condition.
✓ It is often represented by an IF...THEN...ELSE statement.
✓ Flowchart Representation: A diamond symbol with two
outgoing paths labeled 'YES' and 'NO' represents a
decision, leading to different sequences of actions.
Example (Pseudocode):
▪ IF day = ‘Saturday’ OR day = ‘Sunday’ THEN
▪ SET alarm TO 11
▪ ELSE
▪ SET alarm TO 8
▪ END IF
3. Iteration (Loops)

✓ Iteration means a process is repeated. An action is repeated

until a condition is met or a particular outcome is reached.
It is often referred to as a 'loop'.
✓ Flowchart Representation: Arrows that loop back to a
decision symbol indicate iteration, where a question is
repeated until the desired outcome is achieved.
Types of Loops:

✓ Definite Loops: Used when the number of repetitions is known

in advance. In Pearson Edexcel pseudocode, these can be
REPEAT...END REPEAT or FOR...END FOR loops.
• REPEAT 50 TIMES SEND ‘*’ TO DISPLAY END REPEAT
• FOR times FROM 1 TO 100 DO SEND ‘*’ TO DISPLAY END FOR
✓ Indefinite Loops: Used when the number of repetitions is not
known in advance. They repeat until a specified condition
is reached. WHILE loops are common for indefinite iteration.
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 • SET counter TO 10
• WHILE counter > 0 DO
• SEND counter TO DISPLAY
• SET counter TO counter - 1
• END WHILE
✓ Everyday Examples of Iteration: Eating until a plate is
empty, waiting for traffic lights to change, an actor
repeating lines.

3. SORTING AND SEARCHING ALGORITHMS

This section explores common algorithms used for organizing and

finding data efficiently.
Importance of Sorting and Searching In computer programs, sorting
and searching are crucial tasks, especially with millions of data
items. Sorted data makes searching much more efficient, similar to
how an alphabetical dictionary or time-ordered train timetable is
more useful.
Sorting Algorithms Many algorithms exist for sorting data, with
varying efficiencies. Data items are compared and moved to achieve
either ascending order (smallest to largest) or descending order
(largest to smallest).
1. Bubble Sort

✓ Method: This algorithm starts at one end of a list and

repeatedly compares adjacent pairs of data items. If they
are in the wrong order (e.g., for ascending sort, the first
is larger than the second), they are swapped. This
comparison and swapping process continues to the end of the
list, completing a 'pass'. The entire process is repeated
until a pass occurs with no swaps, indicating the list is
fully sorted.
✓ Logic: Larger items "bubble up" to their correct position
at the end of the list after each pass.
✓ Flowchart representation: Involves loops and decisions to
compare and swap elements.
✓ Efficiency: Bubble sort uses a brute force approach,
repeating the same task. It is generally slower for lists
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 of more than 1000 items but might be acceptable for smaller
lists (less than 1000 items) due to its simpler coding. A
computer would need an extra pass to confirm no swaps were
made, even if a human could visually see the list was sorted
earlier.
2. Merge Sort

✓ Method: Merge sort uses a divide and conquer method. It

works by dividing a list into two smaller lists and continues
dividing these sub-lists recursively until the size of each
list is one. Once individual items are in lists of size one
(which are inherently sorted), these single-item lists are
then merged back together in the correct sorted order. This
process is repeated until the entire original list is
sorted.
✓ Recursion: The process of repeatedly applying a method to
the results of a previous application of that method.
✓ Efficiency: Merge sort is one of the most efficient sorting
algorithms. The graph comparing performance shows that merge
sort is significantly faster than bubble sort for lists with
many items.
Searching Algorithms These algorithms are used to find specific
items within a list.
1. Linear Search (Sequential Search)

✓ Method: This is a simple and straightforward algorithm. It

starts at the beginning of the list and checks each item,
one by one, in sequence. It continues until it finds the
item it is looking for or reaches the end of the list without
finding it.
Efficiency:

✓ Best case: The item is the first one in the list (1

comparison).
✓ Worst case: The item is the last one in the list or not
present (up to n comparisons for n items).
✓ When to use: A linear search is preferable if the list is
to be searched just once, especially if it's unsorted.

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2. Binary Search

✓ Method: Like merge sort, a binary search uses a divide and

conquer method. It works by repeatedly selecting the median
(middle item) of the list to reduce the search space.
✓ Prerequisite: The list must be sorted into ascending or
descending order for a binary search to work.
Steps:
1. Select the median item of the list.
2. If the median item is the search item, stop.
3. If the median is too high, repeat steps 1 and 2 with the sub-
list to the left of the median.
4. If the median is too low, repeat steps 1 and 2 with the sub-
list to the right of the median.
5. Repeat until the item is found or all items have been checked.
Efficiency:
Best case: The item is in the median position (1 comparison).

✓ Worst case: For a list of 1000 items, it would take a maximum

of ten comparisons. This is far more efficient than a linear
search for large lists.
✓ When to use: A binary search is better for a large list that
will be searched many times, as the initial cost of sorting
the list is offset by the efficiency of subsequent searches.

4. DECOMPOSITION AND ABSTRACTION

This section introduces two critical thought processes within

computational thinking that help computer scientists tackle
complex problems.
Computational Thinking Computational thinking is the approach
computer scientists use to solve problems, making solutions
executable by a computer. Beyond algorithm design, it includes
decomposition and abstraction as key skills.

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Decomposition

✓ Definition: Decomposition is the process of breaking a large

problem down into smaller, more manageable parts (sub-
problems). This is usually the first step in problem-
solving.
Benefits:

✓ Easier to solve: Smaller problems are less daunting and

easier to understand.
✓ Parallel work: Different sub-problems can be worked on by
different teams simultaneously.
✓ Easier error correction: Errors are easier to spot and
correct in smaller algorithms.
✓ Code reuse: Algorithms developed for sub-problems can often
be reused.
Example: Creating a 'Noughts and Crosses' (Tic-Tac-Toe) Game

✓ A large problem like creating a game can be decomposed into

sub-problems such as:
▪ Designing the 3x3 grid interface.
▪ Keeping track of selected squares.
▪ Deciding the computer's moves.
▪ Determining when the game is over and who won.
Abstraction

✓ Definition: Abstraction is the process of removing or hiding

unnecessary detail so that only the important points or
essential features remain. This simplifies a problem, making
it easier to understand and solve.
✓ Levels of Abstraction: There are different levels; higher
levels require less detail. For instance, when using a
'print' command, a programmer doesn't need to know the
intricate details of how the printer physically works.
Everyday Examples:

✓ When someone says "cat" or "street," you form a general

mental image, abstracting the essential features without
needing every minute detail of that specific cat or street.

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 ✓ Starting a car by turning a key is an abstraction; the driver
doesn't need to understand the complex mechanics of the
engine.
Computer Science Examples (Modelling Real-World Events):

✓ When creating algorithms, computer scientists abstract the

basic details of a problem to represent them in a way a
computer can process.
✓ Virtual Dice: In a computer game requiring a die roll, the
programmer abstracts the essential feature of a die
(selecting a random number from 1 to 6) and implements this
as a routine, rather than simulating the physical act of
rolling. This is a computer model or simulation of a real-
life event.
✓ Noughts and Crosses Game (Continued): After decomposition,
abstraction helps in defining the inputs, outputs, and
processing needed at a high level.
✓ Inputs: Start game, user entries, choice to play
again/finish.
✓ Outputs: Messages for user's turn, invalid square selection,
draw, winner, play again prompt.
✓ Processing and Initialisation: Setting up the grid,
initialising variables, computer's move logic, checking for
wins/draws.
✓ These processes can be further abstracted into subprograms
(self-contained modules of code) like computerEntry,
checkIfWon, or checkDraw, reducing complexity and promoting
code reuse.

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