Alexandria University

Faculty of Engineering,
Electrical Power and Machines Department

Fast DC Off-Board Charger for Electric Vehicles

Supervised by
Prof. Dr. Ragi Hamdy
Prof. Dr. Ayman Samy Abdel-Khalik

Hassan Tarek Ali Ahmed Saeed Abdullatif

Mahmoud Yousry Moustafa Mohamed Raafat Abdelgaber
Muhammad Ibrahim Gaber Alaa Ashraf Mohamed
Mennat Allah Hassan Ahmed Mostafa Kamel
Nouran Ahmed El-Sayed Mennat Allah Khaled
Yousef Mohamed Zaghlol Moamen Mohamed Eltayeb

Academic Year 2023/2024

2
Abstract

This graduation project presents the design and development of a fast off-board charger for electric
vehicles, involving two primary stages: AC to DC rectification and DC to DC conversion. The
integration of these stages is critical to ensure efficient, reliable, and high-performance charging.
The first stage, AC to DC rectification, employs a three-phase high-power inverter with a two-level
Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation (SPWM) technique. This stage converts incoming three-phase
AC power into a stable DC output. The use of SPWM enhances power conversion efficiency and
reduces harmonic distortions, essential for maintaining the quality of the DC power supplied to the
next stage.
The second stage, DC to DC conversion, is implemented using a Dual Active Bridge (DAB)
converter. The DAB converter is chosen for its high efficiency and bidirectional power transfer ca-
pabilities, crucial for fast charging applications. This stage steps down the high voltage DC from the
rectification stage to the appropriate voltage levels required by the electric vehicle’s battery.
Integration between these two stages is achieved through a well-coordinated control algorithm en-
suring seamless power flow and stability. The control algorithm monitors and regulates output voltage
and current, ensuring that the power delivered to the battery is within safe and optimal parameters.
This integration is further supported by the hardware design, which includes four key PCB boards:
the main inverter board, the interfacing board for connecting the inverter with the sensors, the current
sensor board, and the voltage sensor board.
The interfacing board plays a vital role in integrating the two stages by providing necessary feed-
back and control signals. It ensures accurate communication between the inverter and the DAB con-
verter, enabling real-time adjustments to maintain efficiency and safety. The current and voltage
sensor boards provide critical data for the control algorithm, allowing it to dynamically adjust the
system’s operation based on the charging conditions.
This project not only demonstrates the technical feasibility of a high-power fast off-board charger
but also addresses practical integration challenges, offering valuable insights into the design and im-
plementation of efficient electric vehicle charging systems.

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4
Acknowledgments

First and foremost, we would like to express our gratitude to our Mentor, Prof. Dr. Ayman Samy
Abdel-Khalik, who was a continual source of inspiration. He pushed us to think imaginatively and
urged us to do this homework without hesitation. His vast knowledge, extensive experience, and
professional competence in Automotive field enabled us to successfully accomplish this project. This
endeavor would not have been possible without his help and supervision. We could not have asked for
a finer mentor in our studies. This initiative would not have been a success without the contributions
of each and every individual.
We would also like to thank eJad for their generous support and funding of this project by supply-
ing the equipment that was essential and vital, without which we would not have been able to perform
efficiently on this project.
Last but not least, we would like to express our gratitude to our families, colleagues, and friends
for their invaluable assistance, and we are deeply grateful to everyone who has contributed to the
successful completion of this project.

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6
Contents

Abstract 3

Acknowledgments 5

I AC/DC Conversion 19

1 Introduction to AC/DC Conversion 21

1.1 What is Rectification? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.2 Topologies for AC/DC Conversion Stage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.2.1 Three-Phase Two-Level Six-Switch Boost-Type Rectifier . . . . . . . . . . . 22

2 Implementation of Closed-Loop AC/DC Converter 25

2.1 Proportional Integral (PI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.1.1 P-Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.1.2 I-Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.1.3 Tuning of PI Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.1.4 The Main Control Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.2 Phase-Locked Loop (PLL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.3 Clarke and Park Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.3.1 Clarke Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.3.2 Park Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

3 AC/DC Converter Simulation 33

3.1 Low-Rating System (1KW) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

4 AC/DC Converter Design 37

4.1 Filter Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

7
8 CONTENTS

4.1.1 Filters for Grid-Connected Inverters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

Design Example: Low-Rating System (1KW) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.2 DC-Link Capacitor Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
4.2.1 System Design (1KW) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
4.3 Component Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.3.1 The Inverter Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.3.2 The Current Sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.3.3 The Voltage Sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Interfacing with Micro-Controller - Op-Amp Technique . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.3.4 The Micro-Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.4 Hardware Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.4.1 The Inverter Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4.4.2 DC-Link . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.4.3 Current Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
4.4.4 Voltage Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.4.5 Micro-Controller Interfacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

5 Hardware Calibration 55
5.1 Testing of Voltage Sensor (LV 25-P) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
5.1.1 Objective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
5.1.2 Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
5.1.3 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
5.1.4 Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
5.1.5 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
5.2 Testing of Current Sensor (LTS 25-P) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
5.2.1 Objective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
5.2.2 Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
5.2.3 Connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
5.2.4 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
5.3 Open Loop Test Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
5.3.1 Objective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
5.3.2 Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
CONTENTS 9

5.3.3 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
5.3.4 Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5.3.5 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5.4 Phase Locked Loop Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5.4.1 Objective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5.4.2 Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5.4.3 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
5.4.4 Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
5.4.5 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
5.5 Current-Controlled Inverter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
5.5.1 Objective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
5.5.2 Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
5.5.3 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Part 1: Star-Connected Inductive Load Connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Part 2: Grid Connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
5.5.4 Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
5.5.5 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
5.5.6 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
5.6 VOC Controlled Rectifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
5.6.1 Objective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
5.6.2 Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
5.6.3 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Part 1: Current Control Rectifier connected to DC Supply . . . . . . . . . . 65
Part 2: Voltage Control rectifier with Charging the battery . . . . . . . . . . 65
5.6.4 Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
5.6.5 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

II DC/DC Conversion 67

6 Introduction to DC-DC Converters 69

6.1 Principle of Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
6.2 Types of DC-DC Converters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
6.3 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
10 CONTENTS

7 Dual Active Bridge 75

7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
7.2 Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
7.3 Simplified Circuit Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
7.4 Principle of Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
7.5 Control Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
7.5.1 Phase Shift Control PSC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
7.5.2 Single Phase Shift Control SPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
7.6 Some Considerations and Design Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
7.6.1 Zero Voltage Switching (ZVS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
7.6.2 Switching Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
7.6.3 Filter Circuit Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
7.6.4 HF Transformer Turns Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
7.6.5 Leakage Inductance Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
7.7 Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
7.7.1 MATLAB Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
7.7.2 PWM Generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
7.7.3 PI Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
7.7.4 The Results of Current Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
7.7.5 The Results of Voltage Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
7.7.6 Converter Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
7.8 Hardware Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
7.8.1 Power Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
7.8.2 Gate Drive Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
7.8.3 Current Sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
7.8.4 MCU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

8 LLC Converters 91
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
8.2 Resonant Tank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
8.3 Behavior of the Voltage-Gain Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
8.4 Design Steps and Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
8.5 Design Using MATLAB Script . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
CONTENTS 11

8.6 LLC Resonant Converter Closed Loop Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

8.7 Matlab Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
8.8 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

9 High Frequency (HF) Transformer Design 107

9.1 Introduction to HF Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
9.1.1 Operating Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
9.1.2 Core Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
9.1.3 Winding Configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
9.1.4 Wire and Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
9.1.5 Losses and Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
9.1.6 Magnetic Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
9.1.7 Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
9.1.8 Temperature Rise and Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
9.2 HF Transformer Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
9.2.1 General Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
9.2.2 Procedures in Detail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Starting with the Primary Side: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
9.2.3 Results for both high and low ratings: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

III Charger Integration 121

10 Introduction to Electric Vehicle Chargers 123

10.1 Wired Charging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
10.1.1 AC Charging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
10.1.2 DC Charging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
10.2 Wireless Charging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
10.3 EV Charging Stages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
10.3.1 AC-DC Rectifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
10.3.2 DC-DC Converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

11 Comparison Between On-Board and Off-Board Chargers 127

11.1 On-Board Chargers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
11.2 Off-Board Chargers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
12 CONTENTS

11.3 Summarized Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

11.4 Why Use Off-Board Chargers? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

12 MATLAB Simulation 131

12.1 Integrating the AFE Rectifier with DAB Converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
12.2 Integrating the AFE Rectifier with LLC Converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

Bibliography 134
List of Figures

1.1 Three-phase two-level six-switch boost-type rectifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

2.1 The implemented model of 10KW system using VOC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

2.2 The effect of P-gain on a system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.3 PI-control process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.4 Control circuit of AFE (Active Front-end Rectifier) with 800V output voltage . . . . 27
2.5 PI control loop of AFE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.6 PLL control using VOC method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.7 α − β signals to d-q signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.8 ABC frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.9 Clarke transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.10 Park transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

3.1 The implementation of PLL for 1KW system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

3.2 The outer loop PI-control block of 1KW system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.3 The inner loop PI-control block of 1KW system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.4 The quadrature PI-control block of 1KW system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.5 The three-phase input voltage and current of 1KW system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.6 The input voltage and current of phase-R of 1KW system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.7 The DC-link output of 1KW system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

4.1 Three-phase inverter with passive filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

4.2 The output voltage on the DC-link . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.3 The current and the phase voltage of phase R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.4 Vout versus Ip plot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.5 The schematic of the supply for the voltage sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
4.6 The internal connection of the voltage sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

13
14 LIST OF FIGURES

4.7 Op-amp circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

4.8 The circuit diagram of the op-amp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.9 The schematic of the op-amp circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.10 DSP LaunchpadF28069M . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.11 The schematic of the inverter module board . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4.12 Inverter module hardware board design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4.13 The schematic of the DC-link board . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.14 DC-link hardware board design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.15 The schematic of the current sensors board . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
4.16 Current sensors hardware board design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.17 The schematic of the voltage sensors board . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.18 Voltage sensors PCB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.19 The schematic of the DSP interfacing board . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.20 DSP interfacing hardware board design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

5.1 The schematic of the current sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

5.2 Current-controlled inverter - Simulink model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
5.3 Current behavior during normal operation with inductive load . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
5.4 Current behavior when DC supply voltage changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
5.5 Current behavior when reference current is changed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

6.1 DC-DC Conversion from one voltage level to another . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

6.2 DC-DC Converters for Multiple Voltage Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
6.3 Feedback and Control of a Closed-loop Isolated DC/DC Converter . . . . . . . . . . 71
6.4 ON and OFF States of Buck Converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
6.5 ON and OFF States of Boost Converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
6.6 ON and OFF States of Buck-Boost Converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
6.7 Applications of DC-DC Converters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

7.1 Diagram of a DAB DC-DC Converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

7.2 DAB Simplified Circuit Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
7.3 Gate Signals, Transformer Primary and Secondary Voltages, and Inductor Current . . 80
7.4 Dual Active Bridge DC-DC Converter Simulation Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
7.5 PWM Generator for Single Shift Control For DAB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
LIST OF FIGURES 15

7.6 Shifted PWM Signal Between First and Second Bridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

7.7 PI Controller for DAB converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
7.8 Output Current and Voltage Using CC for DAB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
7.9 Relation between The Primary Voltage, Secondary voltage and The Inductor Current 85
7.10 Output Current and Voltage Using CV for DAB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
7.11 DAB Power Circuit Design and 3D Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
7.12 Gate Drive Circuit Design and 3D Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
7.13 Current Sensor Module ACS712 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
7.14 F28069M LaunchPad™ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

8.1 LLC Resonant Converter circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

8.2 resonant tank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
8.3 parallel resonant tank response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
8.4 series resonant tank response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
8.5 Plots of voltage-gain function (Mg) with different values of Ln . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
8.6 voltage gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
8.7 The created M gap curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
8.8 Cascaded Closed Loop Control for LLC Resonant Converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
8.9 MATLAB Simulink Model For LLC Resonant Converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
8.10 LLC Resonant Converter Power Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
8.11 Cascaded Control for LLC Resonant Converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
8.12 Variable Frequency Pulse Generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
8.13 Results in case of Reference voltage equal 350V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
8.14 Results in case of Reference voltage equal 400V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
8.15 Results in case of Reference voltage equal 500V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

9.1 Typical Power Handling Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

9.2 Typical Power Handling Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
9.3 Typical Power Handling Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
9.4 Typical Power Handling Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
9.5 Typical Power Handling Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
9.6 Typical Power Handling Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
9.7 Flux Density Vs Frequency (P-Material) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
9.8 Core OR47228EC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
16 LIST OF FIGURES

10.1 Overall charging system for BEVs using wired/wireless . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

10.2 AC Vs DC Charging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
10.3 Electric vehicle (EV) charging system including off-board and on-board charger . . . 125

11.1 On-board charger versus off-board charger. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

12.1 The integration model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

12.2 The phase input voltage and current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
12.3 The DC output voltage from the rectifier side (DC-link voltage) . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
12.4 The DC output voltage from the DAB side (battery voltage) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
12.5 The output current flowing through the load (battery) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
12.6 The overall system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
12.7 The power factor in AC to Dc phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
12.8 The output DC voltage of the rectifier part . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
12.9 The output voltage and current in DC to DC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
List of Tables

4.1 Recommended connections for different sensitivities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

9.1 AWG Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

9.2 Core Dimension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
9.3 Comparison Between the Results for High and Low Rating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

11.1 Comparison between On-Board and Off-Board Chargers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

17
18 LIST OF TABLES
 Part I

AC/DC Conversion

19
Chapter 1

Introduction to AC/DC Conversion

The electrical power supplied by wall outlets varies globally, offering 50Hz or 60Hz AC with volt-
ages around 120VAC or 230VAC. Devices like phones and laptops, which run on low-voltage DC,
require adapters. Despite the prevalence of DC-powered electronics, AC is preferred for mains power
distribution due to historical and technical reasons.
AC became prominent because early AC generators were simpler and more reliable, transformers
allowed easy voltage changes, and multiple pole alternators enabled lower rotation speeds in powerful
generators. Thomas Edison initially supported DC systems but faced challenges with unreliable high-
voltage DC motors, leading him to adopt AC distribution [1].
AC minimizes power losses in transmission lines by allowing voltage to be doubled and current
halved, which made long-distance transmission practical. Modern technology allows efficient con-
version between AC and DC, increasing interest in DC distribution for long-distance transmission
without needing generator synchronization. An example is the 2000MW high-voltage DC link be-
tween England and France for power exchange based on demand [1].
AC/DC converters are essential for electric vehicles (EVs) to convert AC from outlets to DC
for charging batteries. Fast charging, requiring high power (over 50 kW), relies on larger AC/DC
converters typically located in charging stations rather than vehicles due to size constraints [2].

1.1 What is Rectification?

Rectification refers to the process of transforming an alternating current (AC) waveform into a direct
current (DC) waveform, producing a signal with a single polarity. It is essential to note that a DC
voltage or current does not necessarily have to be constant; it simply means the signal’s polarity
remains unchanged. In some cases, a varying amplitude DC signal is referred to as pulsating DC.
The concept of rectification is fundamental in modern electronic circuits as many electronic de-
vices require a stable, unvarying DC voltage to power their internal circuitry. Given that residential
and commercial power distribution is typically in the form of AC, some form of AC to DC conversion
is necessary.
Rectifiers, which perform the conversion of AC to DC, are classified into two categories based on
the type of conversion: half-wave rectifiers and full-wave rectifiers. The former involves converting
half cycles of AC into DC, while the latter processes full cycles of AC into DC. Understanding the

21
22 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO AC/DC CONVERSION

differences between half-wave and full-wave rectifiers, as well as a brief exploration of each type,
facilitates a clearer grasp of their distinct functionalities.

1.2 Topologies for AC/DC Conversion Stage

The AC-DC converter of an off-board charger is a front-end rectifier before the DC-DC conversion
stage of the complete EV fast charging station. Various topologies are available that convert AC power
from the utility grid to DC power. Such topologies are expected to manage high power fed directly to
the battery as part of an EV fast charging solution.

• Three-Phase Passive Rectifier

• Three-Phase Vienna Rectifier

• Three-Phase Two-Level Six-Switch Boost-Type Rectifier

• Three-Phase Three-Level Neutral Point Clamped Converter

• Three-Phase Three-Level T-Type Converter

but we will focus on a three-phase two-level six-switch boost-type rectifier for its simplicity.

1.2.1 Three-Phase Two-Level Six-Switch Boost-Type Rectifier

The configuration for the three-phase two-level boost-type rectifier is depicted in 1.1. It forms six
active switches (MOSFETs or IGBTs), AC side boost inductors, and a DC side filter capacitor. Known
for its simplicity, robustness, and familiarity, the two-level six-switch rectifier topology needs larger-
volume input inductors and is constrained by a maximum switching frequency compared to three-level
converters.

Figure 1.1: Three-phase two-level six-switch boost-type rectifier

The rectifier, being of a boosting nature, imposes a lower limit on the DC link voltage. For in-
stance, if the rectifier is connected to a three-phase grid with a 400 V RMS line-to-line voltage, the
smallest DC link voltage would be 653.19 V, equal to twice the phase voltage amplitude. Ideally,
keeping a DC link voltage 15–20% higher is recommended to mitigate distortion in current wave-
forms.
1.2. TOPOLOGIES FOR AC/DC CONVERSION STAGE 23

In a two-level topology line-to-neutral rectifier, the voltage is either zero or matches the DC link
voltage. Consequently, this gives rise to a three-level line-to-line voltage.
24 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO AC/DC CONVERSION
Chapter 2

Implementation of Closed-Loop AC/DC

Converter

We will now address challenges through the design and implementation of a closed-loop AC/DC rec-
tifier system. The closed-loop architecture, with its feedback mechanism, promises not only enhanced
control over the rectification process but also the mitigation of issues associated with traditional recti-
fiers. The journey towards an optimized closed-loop system involves a meticulous exploration of key
components, each playing a pivotal role in achieving the desired efficiency and stability.
The aims of this research encompass a detailed examination of critical aspects, including filter
selection, DC-link configuration, phase-locked loop (PLL), Clarke and Park transformations, and
Proportional-Integral (PI) control.

Figure 2.1: The implemented model of 10KW system using VOC

25
26 CHAPTER 2. IMPLEMENTATION OF CLOSED-LOOP AC/DC CONVERTER

2.1 Proportional Integral (PI)

A proportional-integral (PI) controller is a feedback mechanism used in industrial systems and ap-
plications requiring continuous modulation. It combines proportional and integral adjustments to
automatically compensate for system changes.
PI control is popular for its robust performance and simplicity. It uses two coefficients, propor-
tional and integral, which are adjusted for optimal response. It reduces error between the process
variable and the set point through closed-loop operations and tuning of its parameters.

2.1.1 P-Controller

Proportional or P- controller gives an output that is proportional to error e(t). It compares the desired
or set point with the actual value or feedback process value.

Figure 2.2: The effect of P-gain on a system

A proportional (P) controller multiplies the error by a proportional constant (KP ) to determine the
output. If the error is zero, the output is zero. The P controller requires biasing or manual reset because
it maintains a steady-state error. Increasing KP speeds up the response. P-Controller Equation:

u (t) = Kp e(t) (2.1)

2.1.2 I-Controller

Due to the limitation of p-controller where there always exists an offset between the process variable
and set-point, I-controller is needed, which supplies necessary action to cut the steady-state error.

Figure 2.3: PI-control process

2.1. PROPORTIONAL INTEGRAL (PI) 27

A PI controller integrates the error over time until it reaches zero, maintaining the value at which
the error becomes zero. It decreases output with negative error, affecting response speed and system
stability. Reducing the integral gain (Ki ) increases response speed. PI-Controller Equation:
Z t
u (t) = Kp e (t) + Ki e (τ ) dτ (2.2)
0

2.1.3 Tuning of PI Controller

In our project, we tuned the PI controller using the Trial and Error method for simplicity and effi-
ciency. We started with Ki set to zero and increased Kp until the system exhibited consistent oscilla-
tions. Then, we adjusted Ki to reduce these oscillations, enabling effective control.

2.1.4 The Main Control Circuit

The following figure shows the main control circuit which is used to control the voltage with the outer
loop and the current with the inner loop and finally generates the corresponding PWM signals that are
used to run and control the inverter.

Figure 2.4: Control circuit of AFE (Active Front-end Rectifier) with 800V output voltage

There are a lot of methods to control but we used a Voltage Oriented Control for its simplicity [3].
In voltage-oriented control (VOC), the line input current is oriented with respect to the line voltage
vector. The line voltage vector can be obtained by measurement by using sensors or estimation.
In synchronous rotating reference frame, the d-axis is aligned with the line voltage vector. The d-
axis component of the line current “id” is proportional to the active power and its q-axis component
is proportional to reactive power. To achieve unity power factor the reactive component of current
reference i∗q is set to zero. While the active component of current reference i∗d is obtained from the PI
controller, which gives the output by comparing the dc link voltage at the output with the reference
voltage set as per the load requirements.
Coupling occurs due to voltage drop across inductors due to orthogonal current component coming
in phase with the voltage components. Decoupling is essential to have proper control.
did
Vsd = Vld − L + ωLiq (2.3)
dt
28 CHAPTER 2. IMPLEMENTATION OF CLOSED-LOOP AC/DC CONVERTER

Figure 2.5: PI control loop of AFE

diq
Vsq = Vlq − L − ωLid (2.4)
dt

The voltage Vlq is zero by aligning the line voltage vector along the d-axis and q-axis current is
regulated to zero. The current controller is decoupled as

Vsd = ωLilq + Vld + ∆V d (2.5)

Vsq = −ωLild + ∆Vq (2.6)

where
Z
∆V d = Kp (i∗d − id ) + K i (i∗d − id ) dt (2.7)

Z
i∗q i∗q − iq dt



∆V q = Kp − iq + Ki (2.8)

In VOC it is possible to calculate the voltage across the input inductor by differentiating the current
flowing through it. It is then possible to estimate the line voltage by adding voltage drop across the
inductor with rectifier input voltage.
2.2. PHASE-LOCKED LOOP (PLL) 29

2.2 Phase-Locked Loop (PLL)

The reason why we need PLL is: suppose we want to send an active current to the grid the current
should be in phase with the voltage that means that for grid connected inverters we need synchroniza-
tion, so a reference signal is generated which is in phase with the actual voltage with an amplitude of
1, -1 using phase-locked loop (PLL).
The signal is used as a reference for the implementation of current controller in the grid connected
inverters.
Here we start by transforming ABC signals into α − β signals then into dq voltages as shown
in the figure below, this method is also called voltage oriented control (VOC), where the line input
current is oriented with respect to the line voltage vector [4].

Figure 2.6: PLL control using VOC method

We can observe from the phasor diagram that D-axis is not aligned with the grid voltage so, by
using the control mechanism shown in the figure we can make Vq = 0 using a PI controller and then
the o/p is given to an integrator to find ωt.

(a) With q-component (b) Without q-component

Figure 2.7: α − β signals to d-q signals

After making the Vq equal to zero the D-axis got aligned with the grid voltage and the angle
between alpha-component and the D-axis has also changed to a new value which will the angle used
in generating the reference signal.
30 CHAPTER 2. IMPLEMENTATION OF CLOSED-LOOP AC/DC CONVERTER

2.3 Clarke and Park Transformations

Clarke and Park transforms are commonly used in field-oriented control of three-phase AC machines.
The Clarke transform converts the time domain components of a three-phase system (in ABC frame)
to two components in an orthogonal stationary frame (α − β). The Park transform converts the two
components in the α − β frame to an orthogonal rotating reference frame (d-q). Implementing these
two transforms in a consecutive manner simplifies computations by converting AC current and voltage
waveform into DC signals.

Figure 2.8: ABC frame

2.3.1 Clarke Transform

Figure 2.9: Clarke transform

The Clarke Transform converts the time-domain components of a three-phase system in an ABC
reference frame to components in a stationary αβ0 reference frame. For a balanced system, the zero
part is equal to zero. The block implements the Clarke transform as
2.3. CLARKE AND PARK TRANSFORMATIONS 31

 −1 −1   
  1 √2 2
√
α 3 − 3 a
β  = 2  0

2 2  b (2.9)
3 ⊥ ⊥ ⊥ 
0 c
2 2 2

where

• a, b, and c are the components of the three-phase system in the ABC reference frame.

• α and β are the components of the two-axis system in the stationary reference frame.

• 0 is the zero component of the two-axis system in the stationary reference frame.

2.3.2 Park Transform

Figure 2.10: Park transform

The Park Angle Transform block converts the alpha, beta, and zero components of Clarke Trans-
former in a stationary reference frame to direct, quadrature, and zero components in a rotating refer-
ence frame. For balanced three-phase systems, the zero components are equal to zero.
The Clarke to Park Angle Transform block implements the transform for an a-phase to q-axis
alignment as
    
d sin(θ) − cos(θ) 0 α
q  = cos(θ) sin(θ) 0 β  (2.10)
0 0 0 1 0

where

• α and β are the components of the two-axis system in the stationary reference frame.

• 0 is the zero component of the two-axis system in the stationary reference frame.

• d and q are the direct-axis and quadrature-axis components of the two-axis system in the rotating
reference frame.
32 CHAPTER 2. IMPLEMENTATION OF CLOSED-LOOP AC/DC CONVERTER
Chapter 3

AC/DC Converter Simulation

It is very crucial to simulate the circuit before diving in hardware design to make sure that the circuit
would work fine when it’s fabricated. Therefore, for this chapter we will provide the steps to simulate
an AC/DC converter of low ratings and its results.
Refer to figure 2.1 that shows the model circuit diagram that was built on MATLAB Simulink for
1KW system which is almost the same implementation for the high-rating system in aspect of circuit
diagram. Note that for the low-rating system the reference voltage of the DC-link is set to be 200V.
The design of the filter design and the DC-link capacitor calculations will be discussed in details
in a later chapter.
The implementation of the PLL of the 1KW system is shown in the following figure with the value
of its PI-controller to produce zero-shift.

Figure 3.1: The implementation of PLL for 1KW system

33
34 CHAPTER 3. AC/DC CONVERTER SIMULATION

3.1 Low-Rating System (1KW)

The implementation of a three-phase low-rating rectifier was done to produce 200V at the DC-link
as an output while the input line-to-line voltage was 100V at 50Hz frequency. The parameters of the
system is as follows:
Cf = 15.915µF
Li = 4mH
Lg = 95.492µH
Rf = 0.8027Ω
Cdc = 1000µF

After the DC-link, a load was set in parallel to limit the current to produce exactly 1KW power at
the output. The value of the this resistance was set to be 40 Ω.
The PWM control block is implemented using three PI-controllers as discussed previously (refer
to figures 3.2 ∼ 3.4).

Figure 3.2: The outer loop PI-control block of 1KW system

Figure 3.3: The inner loop PI-control block of 1KW system

3.1. LOW-RATING SYSTEM (1KW) 35

Figure 3.4: The quadrature PI-control block of 1KW system

The following results were obtained to show the input voltages and currents, the synchronism
between the current and the voltage to show the power factor correction and the DC-link output
voltage.

Figure 3.5: The three-phase input voltage and current of 1KW system
36 CHAPTER 3. AC/DC CONVERTER SIMULATION

Figure 3.6: The input voltage and current of phase-R of 1KW system

Figure 3.7: The DC-link output of 1KW system

Chapter 4

AC/DC Converter Design

This chapter delves into the realm of AC/DC converter design, shedding light on key aspects such
as Filter Design, DC-link capacitor Selection, and Hardware Design. These components play a cru-
cial role in the functionality of the converter, akin to building blocks that contribute to its optimal
performance.
Firstly, we explore Filter Design, where we discuss various methods to improve the converter’s
performance using different types of filters. The aim is to provide a clear understanding of these
methods, enabling practitioners to choose the most suitable one for their specific applications.
Moving on, DC-Link Capacitor Selection takes center stage, emphasizing the importance of se-
lecting the right component for effective converter operation. This section guides through the consid-
erations involved in making informed choices.
The chapter then addresses Hardware Design, focusing on the configuration of electronic compo-
nents to ensure seamless functionality. We will discuss the software program used to design the PCB
boards and each board schematic will be presented for elaboration.
The discussion on the significance of precise calculations in determining system parameters forms
a critical part of this chapter. These calculations are essential, especially in the design of fast off-
board chargers for electric vehicles. By carefully considering factors like filter tuning and DC-link
optimization, engineers can make informed decisions, aligning the converter with the demanding
requirements of electric vehicle technology.
In essence, this chapter serves as a guide for practitioners, providing insights into the nuanced
world of AC/DC converter design, where methodical considerations and informed choices pave the
way for an efficient and reliable product.”

4.1 Filter Design

As we are concerned about our health, we use water filters to purify the water. The same happens with
electricity; there are impurities in it called harmonics, which are not wanted in our electrical systems.
Harmonics affect electrical equipment, increasing its heat, reducing its lifetime and efficiency, and
introducing noise to any system connected to the grid. These are just a few of the negativities of
harmonics.

37
38 CHAPTER 4. AC/DC CONVERTER DESIGN

So, we use filters, which are devices that filter the frequency of electronic signals by manipulating
the waves’ amplitude and phase shift. As we know, the sine wave has its amplitude and phase shift,
so anything outside the boundaries of its amplitude and phase shift is not desired and needs to be
eliminated. This leads us to Fourier series, a mathematical theory that analyzes the signal into the
fundamental wave and its harmonics[5].

4.1.1 Filters for Grid-Connected Inverters

The main consideration in choosing between LC and LCL filters is whether the system is connected
to the grid or not. Suppose we have an inverter connected to the grid, as in Figure 4.1. We cannot use
an LC filter here.

Figure 4.1: Three-phase inverter with passive filter

If we use an LC filter, the capacitors would be considered capacitive loads to the grid, so the
power factor (PF) would be leading. This means that the voltage across the capacitors would come
before the grid’s voltage, and the output current from the inverter would not pass through to the grid
but would flow to the capacitors.
In high-frequency harmonics, the grid impedance is less than the capacitive reactance, so in an
LC filter, the current will flow to the grid with harmonics. However, in the case of an LCL filter,
the grid-connected inductor will block the current, and it will flow to the capacitors. Therefore, we
use LCL filters in grid-connected inverters because of the tiny impedance of the grid, which causes a
problem in high frequencies.
Here are some specific scenarios where an LCL filter would be a better choice than an LC filter:

• Grid-connected inverters: LCL filters are commonly used in grid-connected inverters to atten-
uate harmonics and follow grid harmonics standards. The lower resonant frequency of LCL
filters makes them less susceptible to resonances caused by the grid impedance.

• High-power applications: In high-power applications, the switching frequency of the power

converter is often higher to reduce the size and weight of the inductors and capacitors. This
4.1. FILTER DESIGN 39

higher switching frequency can lead to more harmonics, so an LCL filter is often necessary to
supply adequate attenuation.

• Applications with a sensitive load: If the load is sensitive to harmonics, such as a motor or a
computer system, an LCL filter can help to protect the load from damage.

The design of LCL filters must consider several critical constraints, including current ripple, filter
size, and switching ripple attenuation. As noted in [6], the reactive power variation introduced by the
capacitor can cause resonance, potentially destabilizing the system. To address this issue, a damping
mechanism, such as a resistor in series with the capacitor, is recommended.
This method meticulously outlines the LCL filter design process, emphasizing the importance of
proper damping to prevent resonance. The algorithm for selecting LCL filter parameters utilizes the
converter’s power rating, grid frequency, and switching frequency as inputs.
The following parameters are needed for the design: En – Line to line RMS voltage (rectifier
input), Vph – phase voltage (rectifier input), Pn – rated active power, VDC – DC bus voltage, fg – grid
frequency, fsw – switching frequency andfres – resonance frequency.
The base impedance and base capacitance are defined by equations 4.1 and 4.2. Thus, the filter
values will be referred in % of the base values:

En 2
Zb = (4.1)
Pn

1
Cb = (4.2)
ωn Zb
For the design of the filter capacitance, it is considered that the maximum power factor variation seen
by the grid is 5%, as it is multiplied by the value of base impedance of the system: Cf = 0.05Cb . where
Li is inverter side inductor. A 10% ripple of the rated current for the design parameters is given by:

∆I Lmax = 0.1Imax (4.3)

where √
Pn 2
Imax = (4.4)
3V ph
VDC
Li = (4.5)
6fsw ∆I Lmax
The main objective of the LCL filter design is in fact to reduce the expected 10% current ripple limit
to 20% of its own value, resulting in a ripple value of 2% of the output current. To calculate the ripple
reduction, the LCL filter equivalent circuit is first analyzed considering the inverter as a current source
for each harmonic frequency.
The following equations give the relation between the harmonic current generated by the inverter
and the once injected in the grid:
q
1
Ka 2
+ 1
Lg = (4.6)
Cf ωsw 2
where, Ka is the desired attenuation.
40 CHAPTER 4. AC/DC CONVERTER DESIGN

A resistor in series (Rf ) with the capacitor attenuates part of the ripple on the switching frequency
to avoid the resonance. The value of this resistor should be one third of the impedance of the filter
capacitor at the resonant frequency and the resistor in series with the filter capacitance is given by 4.9.
s
Li + Lg
ωres = (4.7)
Li Lg Cf
10f g < fres < 0.5fsw (4.8)
It is necessary to check resonant frequency to satisfy 4.8. If it does not, the parameters should be
re-chosen.
1
Rf = (4.9)
3ωres Cf

Design Example: Low-Rating System (1KW)

A step-by-step procedure to obtain parameters of the filter with considering the following given data,
needed for the filter design: En = 100V- line to line RMS voltage, Vph = 57.73V- phase RMS voltage,
Pn = 1000W- rated active power, VDC = 200V- DC bus voltage, fg = 50Hz-grid frequency, fsw =
10KHz- switching frequency, Ka = 20%- attenuation factor is done. Therefore, the base impedance
and the base capacitance are:
1002
Zb = = 10Ω
1000
1
Cb = = 3.18 ∗ 10−4 F
2π ∗ 50 ∗ 10
The filter capacitance can be calculated by:
Cf = 0.05 ∗ 3.18 ∗ 10−4 = 15.915µF
To calculate the inverter-side inductor:
√
1000 2
Imax = = 8.16A
3 ∗ 57.73
∆I Lmax = 0.1 ∗ 8.16 = 0.816A
200
Li = = 4mH
6 ∗ 10000 ∗ 0.816
For the grid-side inductor:
q
1
0.22
+ 1
Lg = = 95.492µH
15.915 ∗ 10−6 (2π ∗ 10000)2
Now, we shall check if the system is within the stable region to avoid resonance:
r
4 ∗ 10−3 + 95 ∗ 10−6
ωres = = 25952.26rad
4 ∗ 10−3 ∗ 95 ∗ 10−6 ∗ 15.915 ∗ 10−6
25952.26
fres = = 4130.4Hz
2π
10 ∗ 50 < fres < 0.5 ∗ 10000
Therefore, the resonant frequency satisfies the equation, and the damping resistance can be calculated
as follows:
1
Rf = = 0.8027Ω
3 ∗ 2π ∗ 4130.4 ∗ 16 ∗ 10−6
4.1. FILTER DESIGN 41

Simulation

A simulation of this method was done on MATLAB-Simulink to check the performance of the system
with the filter using the design example that was mentioned previously in that method. Here is the
output voltage VDC :

Figure 4.2: The output voltage on the DC-link

Also, we had to check the phase shift between voltage and current of one of the phases as shown
in Figure 4.3:

Figure 4.3: The current and the phase voltage of phase R

Note that this is not the actual waveform of the current but a multiple of it. It was multiplied by
fifty just so we can observe the two wave-forms at the same time.
The PI controllers were calibrated in a way to have a leading power factor of 0.9998 with settling
time of less than a half cycle with settling error of 0.5%. Also, this method’s design was checked by
equation 4.8, to make sure that the design would avoid resonance problems.
42 CHAPTER 4. AC/DC CONVERTER DESIGN

4.2 DC-Link Capacitor Calculations

The DC link capacitor in a three-phase grid-connected inverter serves several critical functions:

• Smoothing pulsating DC voltage: Acts as a reservoir to smooth out pulsations, providing stable
DC voltage to the inverter.

• Energy storage: Provides or absorbs energy during transient conditions to maintain the desired
DC voltage level.

• Filtering harmonics: Filters harmonic currents generated by the inverter’s switching operations,
ensuring a cleaner DC supply.

• Limiting fault currents: Limits surge currents during faults, protecting the inverter and con-
nected equipment.

Selecting the appropriate DC link capacitor size is critical and depends on several factors:

1. Power rating of the inverter.

2. DC voltage level.

3. Permissible ripple current.

4. Desired ripple voltage.

5. Transient response requirements.

6. Environmental factors (temperature, humidity, vibration).

Using capacitor’s stored energy law:

2 ∗ Pdc
Cdc = (4.10)
Vdc 2 ∗ f
where

• f is the grid frequency

• Vdc is the DC voltage.

• Pdc is the maximum DC power.

4.2.1 System Design (1KW)

A step-by-step procedure to obtain parameters of the filter with considering the following given data,
needed for the filter design: Pn = 1KW- rated active power, VDC = 200V- DC bus voltage, fg = 50Hz-
grid frequency. Therefore, the DC-link capacitance is equal to:
2 ∗ 1000
Cdc = = 1mF
2002 ∗ 50
4.3. COMPONENT SELECTION 43

4.3 Component Selection

4.3.1 The Inverter Module

We chose an inverter module for the AC/DC rectification stage prototype in our project. We aim to
build a charger that can scale from 7kW to 22kW by cascading. To validate our topology, we started
with a lower-rated prototype of 1kW, providing 200V DC and 5A at the output. We selected the
3-phase inverter IC IKCM30F60GDXKMA1, rated at 600V and 35A. We biased the bootstrap with
15V using a DC/DC transformer for isolation and built a protection circuit against over-current and
overheating. The module includes an ITRIP pin for automatic shutdown in case of faults, sending a
signal to the micro-controller for alerts.

4.3.2 The Current Sensor

The core of our topology is the closed loop feedback, so the measurement must be as we could to
be accurate. We have chosen the CAS transducer, the latest version of the LTS series. The nominal
current is 25A to help us with future products. The transducer has a multi-functional primary circuit
that changes the nominal current lower to get more accuracy.

Table 4.1: Recommended connections for different sensitivities

Figure 4.4: Vout versus Ip plot

44 CHAPTER 4. AC/DC CONVERTER DESIGN

In our Prototype, we used the second technique nominal current 12A. The biggest advantage is
that the output signal does not need to re-scale or bias and is ready to send to the micro-controller.

4.3.3 The Voltage Sensor

We have chosen LV 25-P voltage transducer to get the voltage feedback

This transducer needs an external circuit to re-scale and biasing the output signal before the con-
troller, so we used an op-amp circuit after simulating it and get the desired output.
The transducer and the op-amp needed a positive and negative source power, so we used this
topology to get the negative source. The following figure shows the internal connection of the sensor:

Figure 4.5: The schematic of the supply for the voltage sensor

Figure 4.6: The internal connection of the voltage sensor

4.3. COMPONENT SELECTION 45

Primary Side (High Voltage):

• P1 and P2: terminals Connected to the voltage to be measured.

• R1 (External Resistor): Sets the primary voltage range corresponding to primary current of 10
mA.

Secondary Side (Low Voltage):

• +Vc: Connect this terminal to a positive power supply (5 to 15 V DC).

• -Vc: Connect this terminal to the negative power supply.

• OUT: signal to the micro-controller

• Rm (Scaling Resistor): Sets the output voltage range and sensitivity.

The resistors values can be calculated using the following equations:

Vout
Rm = = 132Ω (4.11)
Iout
where

• Vout is the desired output voltage. (designed for 3.3V)

• Iout is the secondary circuit current.

Vin
R1 = = 50KΩ (4.12)
Ip
where Vin is equal to 500V and Ip is 10mA.

Interfacing with Micro-Controller - Op-Amp Technique

In case of AC voltage measurements, DSP can not receive negative voltage So we need to shift the
signal out of the transducer to the positive and re-scale it to get the desired output. Op-amp adder
circuit will preform this operation to convert .(-3.3V, 3.3V) to (0V, 3.3V). Procedures to Design the
Op-Amp circuit:

Figure 4.7: Op-amp circuit

where the first terminal represents the scale of input signal and the second terminal is the shift for
scaled signal.
46 CHAPTER 4. AC/DC CONVERTER DESIGN

For input signal from sensor ,the AC voltage is first scaled to half, then shifted above x axis by
this scaled value to obtain its peak positive value (Vin ) and 0V.
   
Rf Rf
−Vout = ∗ Vin + ∗V2 (4.13)
R1 R2

for AC Vin = 3.3V

Figure 4.8: The circuit diagram of the op-amp

1. Scale the input signal to 12 Vin

Rf
R1
∗ Vin = 3.3/2, assumeRf = 10kΩ, soR1 = 20kΩ

2. Shift by 12 Vin
Rf
R2
∗ (V2 ) = 3.3/2, assumeV2 = −12v, soR2 = 72.7kΩ

Figure 4.9: The schematic of the op-amp circuit

4.4. HARDWARE DESIGN 47

4.3.4 The Micro-Controller

We have chosen to use DSP LaunchpadF28069M, because it is the easier controller to generate our
model on it. We built a DSP interfacing with the inverter using optocoupler circuit to make the suitable
isolation. For further references click here: datasheet.

Figure 4.10: DSP LaunchpadF28069M

4.4 Hardware Design

Our hardware design process involved developing five specialized PCBs—Inverter module, DC-link
board, current sensors board, voltage sensors board for feedback, and a micro-controller interfacing
board. Altium Designer, version 2024, played a pivotal role in this endeavor, chosen over alternatives
like Eagle for specific reasons.
Altium Designer’s selection hinged on its robust feature set. Its advanced tools facilitated precise
design implementation, crucial for our intricate requirements.
Choosing Altium Designer over Eagle was a strategic decision based on its advanced features,
multi-board design capabilities, documentation quality, community support, and scalability. This
choice streamlined our PCB design for the inverter system efficiently.
48 CHAPTER 4. AC/DC CONVERTER DESIGN

4.4.1 The Inverter Module

This board is considered the main board as it interfaces with the micro-controller and the DC-link
board, also it interfaces to collect the feedback from the current and the voltage sensors boards. This
board has indicating green LED to indicate the power connection, a red LED to indicate faults, several
test points, IDC connecting cable to interface with the micro-controller and bootstrap circuits.

Figure 4.11: The schematic of the inverter module board

Figure 4.12: Inverter module hardware board design

4.4. HARDWARE DESIGN 49

4.4.2 DC-Link

According to our calculations that we have done in previous sections, we have designed a DC-Link to
suit our project to literally link between the AC/DC Conversion and the DC/DC Conversion boards.

Figure 4.13: The schematic of the DC-link board

(a) DC-link PCB 3D design

(b) DC-link board - bottom layer

Figure 4.14: DC-link hardware board design

50 CHAPTER 4. AC/DC CONVERTER DESIGN

4.4.3 Current Sensors

This board is designed for three current sensors. It also has LED indicator to indicate the power
connection. It interfaces with the main board to provide current feedback.

Figure 4.15: The schematic of the current sensors board

4.4. HARDWARE DESIGN 51

Figure 4.16: Current sensors hardware board design

4.4.4 Voltage Sensors

This board is designed for three voltage sensors, two of them will be used as feedback of the input
line voltage and the last one will be used as feedback for the output DC voltage. It also has an LED
indicator to indicate the power connection.

Figure 4.17: The schematic of the voltage sensors board

52 CHAPTER 4. AC/DC CONVERTER DESIGN

Figure 4.18: Voltage sensors PCB

4.4.5 Micro-Controller Interfacing

This board acts as a shield for the DSP. It has several isolation optocouplers to protect the micro-
controller from any fault.

Figure 4.19: The schematic of the DSP interfacing board

4.4. HARDWARE DESIGN 53

Figure 4.20: DSP interfacing hardware board design

54 CHAPTER 4. AC/DC CONVERTER DESIGN
Chapter 5

Hardware Calibration

This chapter includes tests of various components such as voltage sensor, current sensor, etc. Also, it
includes the final hardware product and its operation.

5.1 Testing of Voltage Sensor (LV 25-P)

5.1.1 Objective

Evaluate the performance of the voltage sensor, ensuring accurate output and proper biasing within
predefined voltage ranges.

5.1.2 Equipment
• Voltage sensor LV 25-P.

• Designed Rin ,Rm values of the sensor.

• Op-amp circuit with calculated resistor values.

• Single-phase auto-transformer.

• Micro-controller (DSP LaunchPad F28069M).

5.1.3 Procedure
1. Voltage Circuit Setup:

• Connect the voltage circuit with designed Rm value for required output voltage of the
transducer. This will regulate the output voltage feeding into the op-amp circuit.
• Design Rin for the required ratings of the measured voltage.

2. Op-Amp Biasing Circuit Construction:

55
56 CHAPTER 5. HARDWARE CALIBRATION

• Build the biasing circuit using the op-amp adder configuration with pre-calculated resistor
values. This sets the desired output voltage delivered to the DSP (including biasing and
gain adjustments for the op-amp input signal).

3. Primary Side Connection:

• Connect the primary side of the sensor to the auto-transformer.

4. Biasing Verification:
• With 0V input, measure the output voltage. This should correspond to the predetermined
op-amp biasing value.

5. Output Voltage Verification:

• Apply various input voltage values.
• Compare measured output voltages with pre-calculated values for accuracy.
• Ensure the maximum output voltage never exceeds 3.3V.

6. Sensor Calibration:
• Connect the sensor circuit output (output of op-amp circuit) to the DSP.
• Utilize the DSP’s ADC block to convert the analog signal to a digital reading.
• Set the pin name corresponding to the connected output.
• Expect the analog reading to match the digital reading after multiplying by (3.3/4095)
(considering 12-bit ADC with reference voltage of 3.3V).
• Account for the biasing value shifting the signal above the x-axis in the analog domain.
• Subtract the measured practical shift from the signal to center it around the x-axis.
• Determine the actual maximum value achieved.
• Apply a gain factor to scale the measured input voltage to match the sensor’s expected
output range.

5.1.4 Documentation
• Record all measured data (input voltages, output voltages, biasing values).
• Calculate discrepancies between measured and expected values.
• Note any observations regarding sensor behavior or circuit limitations.

5.1.5 Notes
• Exercise caution when handling high voltage. Ensure proper safety procedures are followed.
• Double-check all connections and resistor values before applying power.
5.2. TESTING OF CURRENT SENSOR (LTS 25-P) 57

5.2 Testing of Current Sensor (LTS 25-P)

5.2.1 Objective

Evaluate the performance of the voltage sensor, ensuring accurate output and proper biasing within
predefined voltage ranges.

5.2.2 Equipment

• Current sensor LTS 25-P.

• Rl ”10KΩ”.

• AC & DC current controlled power supplies.

• Micro-controller (DSP LaunchPad F28069M).

Figure 5.1: The schematic of the current sensor

5.2.3 Connection

• The 6 pins of input and outputs are connected in different ways according to the current rating..

• GND: connected to gnd of power supply.

• Vout: connected to micro-controller and it’s value is corresponding to the current flow through
the sensor.

• Rl: resistor to limit output current and typically equal to 10KΩ.

58 CHAPTER 5. HARDWARE CALIBRATION

5.2.4 Procedure
1. Connect the Uc to a 5V DC supply.

2. Check the output voltage of the sensor at no input current using oscilloscope “typically 2.5V”.

3. Connect the sensor to DC current controlled power supply and start with 1Ampere.

4. Connect the sensor output to an ADC input pin of micro-controller “DSP”.

5. Convert the output of ADC to an equivalent volt by multiplying the output by gain.”gain
=3.3/4095 in case of DSP F28069M”

6. Subtract the output by the measured Voltage value at no input.

7. Convert this measured value to a corresponding current value using a gain equal to (max current
/ (3.3 -2.5) ) “typically equals 20”. Where 3.3 is the output voltage at maximum current flowing
through the sensor.

8. Change the input current to 2Amp then 3amp . . . and notice the sensor response.

9. Monitor the output of and begin to change the gain slightly until making the sensor output equal
to the actual applied current.

10. Repeat the steps with AC current controlled supply.

5.3 Open Loop Test Procedure

5.3.1 Objective

As in the industry we wanted to take the tests gradually till we reach the closed loop voltage control
which is the endpoint purpose.

5.3.2 Equipment
• DC Voltage Supply.

• Micro-controller (DSP LaunchPad F28069M).

• Three-Phase motor.

5.3.3 Procedure
1. Hardware interfacing with the Micro controller:

• Connect the DC supply to input of the board with the inverter module to operate as an
inverter.
5.4. PHASE LOCKED LOOP TEST 59

• Connect the output to a 3-phase motor as to a load to be fed from the inverted signals
coming from the inverter module.

2. Loading the Software to the Micro controller:

• As there is no control it’s just needed to apply PWMs to the inverter module with the
desired duty cycle.
• Build a model like the one showing in the following figure.

5.3.4 Documentation

• Observe the Motor reaction to the applied voltage.

• Note the applied voltage out from the inverter Board.

• Note any observations regarding Motor behavior or circuit limitations.

5.3.5 Notes

• Be cautious not to apply a very high voltage from the DC supply.

• check connections and make sure every component is well-handled.

5.4 Phase Locked Loop Test

5.4.1 Objective

Phase Locked Loop plays an important role in Grid Synchronization so we first need to make sure of
the phase angle produced is proper before going into the upcoming step which is integration of the
system with the gird.

5.4.2 Equipment

• Voltage sensor LV 25-P.

• Three-phase auto-transformer.

• Three-phase high power resistor.

• Micro-controller (DSP LaunchPad F28069M).

60 CHAPTER 5. HARDWARE CALIBRATION

5.4.3 Procedure

1. Hardware adjustment:

• Connect the Three-Phase Transformer with the Grid then, in series with the inputs of the
Voltage Sensors add the Three-Phase Resistor.
• Connect the previously determined analog pins of the Micro-Controller to the Voltage
Sensors.
• Upload the already built simulink model to the Micro-Controller.

2. Loading the Software to the Micro controller:

• The model is mainly consists of measuring the line voltages across the grid (VUV and
VUW) and then, calculating the phase voltages.
• The measured phase voltages (in per-unit) are inputs the Three-Phase PLL Block.
• Build a model like the one showing in the following figure.

5.4.4 Documentation

• Observe the angle signal as it should be a saw-tooth.

• make sure of the grid sequence as any outage leads to a phase change from the grid.

• any phase change will lead to undesired results as instead of the two quadrature components
cancel each other they would be added so the result won’t be zero.

5.4.5 Notes

• any phase change will lead to undesired results as instead of the two quadrature components
cancel each other they would be added so the result won’t be zero.

• check connections and make sure every component is well-handled.

5.5 Current-Controlled Inverter

5.5.1 Objective

This test is performed to control the output current. It consists of two main parts: Connection to star-
connected inductive load and connection to the grid. the first part of the test is done as an essential
procedure before connecting the converter to the grid.
5.5. CURRENT-CONTROLLED INVERTER 61

5.5.2 Equipment
• DC Voltage Supply.
• Micro-controller (DSP LaunchPad F28069M).
• Three-Phase inductive load.
• Current sensors.
• Voltage sensors.

5.5.3 Procedure
Part 1: Star-Connected Inductive Load Connection

1. Hardware Interfacing with the Micro-Controller:

• Perform the PLL test to have the required ωt signal.
• Connect the DC supply to input of inverter module (dc side) to operate as an inverter.
• Connect the output of the inverter module (ac side) to the input of the current sensors.
• Connect the output of the current sensors to the three-phase star-connected inductive load.
• The ADC pins of the micro-controller should be connected to the current sensors.
• And finally the PWM pins should be connected to the gating signals in the inverter module.

2. Loading the Software to the Micro-Controller:

• Download the Simulink model to the micro-controller which is as shown in the following
figure.

Figure 5.2: Current-controlled inverter - Simulink model

62 CHAPTER 5. HARDWARE CALIBRATION

3. Operation:

• Start from zero voltage after making sure that the PLL test is performed correctly.
• Set the current to be controlled to one ampere and increase the voltage gradually.
• Monitor the current scope to make sure that the current reaches the required limit.
• Change the reference current to ensure the operation of the system.

Part 2: Grid Connection

4. Hardware Modifications:

• Disconnect the electricity from the whole circuit and stop the simulation.
• Disconnect the current sensors from the inductive load and connect them to the grid.
• Perform the operation procedure once more.

5.5.4 Documentation
• Note any observations regarding the DC supply current.

5.5.5 Notes
• Make sure that the connection with the current sensors is configured correctly in order to control
the flow of the current.
5.5. CURRENT-CONTROLLED INVERTER 63

5.5.6 Results

Figure 5.3: Current behavior during normal operation with inductive load

Figure 5.3 shows the current behavior during normal operation with inductive load. The current is
controlled to maintain a steady value as specified by the reference current setting. The waveform
indicates stable operation under nominal conditions.

Figure 5.4: Current behavior when DC supply voltage changes

Figure 5.4 illustrates the current response when the DC supply voltage is changed. The current
controller adjusts to maintain the desired current, showcasing the system’s robustness against supply
voltage variations.
64 CHAPTER 5. HARDWARE CALIBRATION

Figure 5.5: Current behavior when reference current is changed

Figure 5.5 demonstrates the current behavior when the reference current is altered. The system
responds by adjusting the output current to match the new reference value, verifying the dynamic
response and accuracy of the current control mechanism.

5.6 VOC Controlled Rectifier

5.6.1 Objective

This test is performed to control the output current. It consists of two main parts:
1- Connection to a DC Supply
2- Connection to a Battery.
the first part of the test is done as an essential procedure to tuning the inner PI controller. the
second part is done as as essential procedure to tuning the outer PI Controller.

5.6.2 Equipment

• Three-Phase Power Supply.

• DC Voltage Supply.

• Micro-controller (DSP LaunchPad F28069M).

• Current sensors.

• Voltage sensors.
5.6. VOC CONTROLLED RECTIFIER 65

5.6.3 Procedure
Part 1: Current Control Rectifier connected to DC Supply

1. Hardware Interfacing with the Micro-Controller:

• Perform the PLL test to have the required ωt signal.

• Connect the DC supply to the input of the inverter module (DC side) to operate at a
constant voltage.
• Connect the output of the inverter module (AC side) to the output of the current sensors.
• Connect the input of the current sensors to the three-phase Supply.
• The ADC pins of the micro-controller should be connected to the current sensors.
• And finally the PWM pins should be connected to the gating signals in the inverter module.

2. Operation:

• Start from zero voltage after making sure that the PLL test is performed correctly.
• Set the current to be controlled to one ampere and increase the voltage gradually.
• Monitor the current scope to make sure that the current reaches the required limit.
• Change the reference current to ensure the operation of the system.

Part 2: Voltage Control rectifier with Charging the battery

3. Hardware Modifications:

• Disconnect the electricity from the whole circuit and stop the simulation.
• Disconnect the DC supply from the inverter module.
• Connect DC load to the inverter module.

5.6.4 Documentation
• Note any observations regarding the DC supply current in part 1.

• Note any observations regarding the DC output voltage in part 2.

5.6.5 Notes
• Make sure that the connection with the current sensors is configured correctly in order to control
the flow of the current.
66 CHAPTER 5. HARDWARE CALIBRATION
 Part II

DC/DC Conversion

67
Chapter 6

Introduction to DC-DC Converters

DC-DC converters are essential components in modern electronic systems, facilitating the efficient
conversion of one DC voltage level to another. These converters play a pivotal role in a wide array
of applications, ranging from portable electronic devices to large-scale power distribution systems.
By altering voltage levels, DC-DC converters enable the optimization of power delivery, enhancing
energy efficiency and system performance.

Figure 6.1: DC-DC Conversion from one voltage level to another

Furthermore, DC-DC converters are essential electronic circuits that play a critical role in modern
power management systems. Their primary function is to convert the voltage of a direct current (DC)
source from one level to another, ensuring stable and efficient power delivery to various electronic
devices and systems. In applications where input voltage levels can fluctuate due to factors such as
battery discharging over time or changes in load conditions, DC-DC converters maintain a constant
output voltage, providing reliable power to the system’s components.
One significant advantage of DC-DC converters is their superior power conversion efficiency. By
using switching techniques, DC-DC Converters can minimize power losses associated with resistive
elements, such as transformers or linear regulators, which typically generate heat and waste energy.
This results in better overall efficiency and prolonged battery life in portable devices. Moreover,
DC-DC converters offer the flexibility to step up or down voltage levels, allowing for efficient power
distribution management in electronic systems. They can also provide galvanic isolation, separating
the input and output grounds to reduce the risk of ground loops and safeguard sensitive components
from voltage spikes and noise.

69
70 CHAPTER 6. INTRODUCTION TO DC-DC CONVERTERS

Figure 6.2: DC-DC Converters for Multiple Voltage Requirements

Another noteworthy feature of DC-DC converters is their precise voltage regulation. Some con-
verters can maintain output voltage accuracy within a narrow range, typically with less than a 1 per-
cent deviation. This level of precision is vital for ensuring the proper operation of electronic devices
and systems that require stable power supplies.
DC-DC converters come in various topologies and configurations, catering to a broad range of
applications and power requirements. They can be designed as standalone devices, integrated into
larger power management systems, or embedded into individual components, such as microprocessors
or micro-controllers.[7]

6.1 Principle of Operation

The fundamental principle behind DC-DC converters is the conversion of electrical energy from one
voltage level to another. This conversion is achieved through the manipulation of electrical compo-
nents such as semiconductor switches (transistors), inductors, capacitors, and diodes.
DC-DC converters operate on the principle of energy storage and transfer. They utilize switches
to control the flow of electrical current through inductive and capacitive elements, thereby altering
the voltage levels while maintaining the continuity of power delivery.
The operation of DC-DC converters involves switching cycles where the input voltage is mod-
ulated to produce the desired output voltage. Control mechanisms such as pulse-width modulation
(PWM), voltage regulation feedback loops, and control algorithms ensure precise voltage regulation
and efficient power conversion.
Power supply designers often use isolated DC/DC converters to realize galvanic isolation, meet
safety requirements and enhance noise immunity. When designing an isolated DC/DC converter,
output voltage regulation accuracy is one of many design objectives to consider and the required level
can vary from one application to the next. Better than ±5 percent overall voltage regulation is adequate
in some while ±10 percent might be necessary for others.
The many power management topologies and regulating schemes for isolated DC/DC converters
differ widely in voltage regulation accuracy. For example, the feedback and control of a closed-loop
isolated DC/DC converter is shown in Figure 6.3. [8]
6.2. TYPES OF DC-DC CONVERTERS 71

Figure 6.3: Feedback and Control of a Closed-loop Isolated DC/DC Converter

In this example, a transformer is used to electrically isolate the output from the input of the power
stage. In a closed-loop isolated DC/DC converter, the feedback circuitry senses the output voltage
and generates an error by comparing the sensed voltage with a voltage reference. The error is then
used to adjust the control variable, for example, duty cycle, to compensate for the output deviation.
Galvanic isolation between control circuitry on the primary side and secondary side is also essential.
Such isolation can be achieved by utilizing either a transformer or an optocoupler. Assuming the
reference voltage is precise and stable over temperature changes, regulation accuracy mainly depends
on output voltage sensing accuracy. In other words, how well VSENSE resembles VOUT . [8]

6.2 Types of DC-DC Converters

Buck Converter (Step-Down Converter): The buck converter is a widely used DC-DC converter
that produces an output voltage lower than the input voltage. It achieves this by intermittently connect-
ing the input voltage source to the output load through a semiconductor switch (usually a MOSFET).
The energy stored in the inductor during the ON state of the switch is transferred to the output during
the OFF state, resulting in a lower output voltage. [7]

Figure 6.4: ON and OFF States of Buck Converter

72 CHAPTER 6. INTRODUCTION TO DC-DC CONVERTERS

Boost Converter (Step-Up Converter): The boost converter increases the output voltage level
compared to the input voltage. It operates by storing energy in an inductor while the switch is ON and
releasing it to the output during the OFF state. This continuous energy transfer results in an output
voltage higher than the input voltage. [7]

Figure 6.5: ON and OFF States of Boost Converter

Buck-Boost Converter: The buck-boost converter is capable of producing an output voltage

either higher or lower than the input voltage. It combines the principles of both buck and boost
converters by intelligently controlling the duty cycle of the switch. The buck-boost converter is ideal
for applications requiring versatile voltage regulation capabilities. [7]

Figure 6.6: ON and OFF States of Buck-Boost Converter

6.3. APPLICATIONS 73

6.3 Applications
There are many DC-DC converters applications across a wide range of industries and systems:
Portable Electronics: Mobile phones, laptops, tablets, and other battery-powered devices rely on
DC-DC converters to efficiently manage power consumption and extend battery life.

Renewable Energy Systems: Solar photovoltaic systems and wind turbines employ DC-DC con-
verters to interface with the electrical grid and efficiently convert variable DC voltages into usable
power.

Automotive Electronics: Electric vehicles (EVs), hybrid vehicles, and onboard electronics uti-
lize DC-DC converters for voltage regulation, battery charging, and power distribution.

Industrial Automation: Robotics, motor drives, PLCs (Programmable Logic Controllers), and
factory automation systems benefit from DC-DC converters for precise voltage regulation and power
efficiency.

Figure 6.7: Applications of DC-DC Converters

In addition, DC-DC Converters can be used in many other applications like Medical Devices,
Smart Lightning and other small-scale electronic appliances.[9]
74 CHAPTER 6. INTRODUCTION TO DC-DC CONVERTERS
Chapter 7

Dual Active Bridge

7.1 Introduction

The isolated bidirectional DC-DC converters has become so popular. These converters find applica-
tions in various fields, including uninterruptible power supplies (UPS), energy storage management
systems, and electric vehicles which is exactly our concern in this book.
Several DC-DC converter topologies have been explored to meet this growing need. Among them,
the dual-active bridge (DAB) converter stands out. Since its introduction, it has gained popularity,
particularly for high-power applications, due to its high power density, simple implementation, mini-
mal passive components, and zero-voltage-switching (ZVS) characteristic which will be discussed in
details throughout this chapter. [10]
The DAB DC-DC converter, with its electrical isolation, high power density, and modularity, is
well-suited for such high-power applications. However, input voltage fluctuations and load changes
can cause instability, making the development of control strategies for the DAB DC-DC converter to
enhance energy storage performance a critical area of research. [11]

7.2 Structure

A DAB is basically composed of two converters which are coupled together with the help of High
Frequency (HF) transformer. That’s why it’s called dual. In other words, dual means using two
converters together, inverter on one side and a rectifier on the other side. The two converters, either
inverter or rectifier are Full Bridge (FB). Figure 7.1 illustrates DAB diagram. [12]
A DAB is a bidirectional DC-DC converter as it allows the power transfer or flow between the 2
sides or converters. It’s an isolated DC-DC converter because there is a HF transformer between the
two converters. hence, the two converters are isolated from each other. Consequently, this converter
has the advantages of electrical isolation and large boost range making it widely used in important
applications with high power and high reliability requirements like railway and all electric ships.[11]
A parallel capacitor at both sides or converters is used for filtration, fixation, stabilizing, regulating
and smoothing the required voltages especially the output voltage which can be used with a load or a
battery to be charged.

75
76 CHAPTER 7. DUAL ACTIVE BRIDGE

There should be an inductor as shown in Figure 7.1 which is essential for:

• Energy Storage and Transfer:The auxiliary inductor stores and transfers energy between the
primary and secondary sides of the converter. It helps in shaping the current waveform and
ensuring efficient power transfer between the two bridges.

• Soft Switching: The auxiliary inductor facilitates Zero-Voltage Switching (ZVS) or Zero-
Current Switching (ZCS) by providing the necessary conditions for the switches to turn on
and off with minimal losses. This reduces switching losses and improves the overall efficiency
of the converter.

• Regulating Power Flow: By adjusting the phase shift between the primary and secondary
bridges, the auxiliary inductor helps regulate the amount of power transferred. It works in
conjunction with the control strategy to manage the power flow and maintain stable operation.

• Reducing Circulating Current: The auxiliary inductor helps minimize circulating currents
within the converter, which can otherwise lead to increased losses and reduced efficiency.
Proper design and placement of the inductor can significantly improve the converter’s perfor-
mance.

• Handling Load Variations: In applications with varying loads, the auxiliary inductor helps
maintain stable operation by smoothing out fluctuations in the input and output currents. This
contributes to the converter’s ability to handle dynamic load conditions effectively.

Hence, the auxiliary inductor is a key component and indispensable in this converter.

Figure 7.1: Diagram of a DAB DC-DC Converter

7.3 Simplified Circuit Model

A DAB can be modelled in a simplified manner to be two AC voltage sources and an inductor repre-
senting line reactance in between. The voltage source V1 is the output of the first converter (inverter
in this case) and V2′ is the secondary voltage after being referred to the primary side whereas V2 is the
AC input voltage to the other converter (rectifier in this case).
V2′ = V2
N
where N is the number of turns of the HF transformer (For turns ratio 1:N)
7.4. PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION 77

For the power to be transferred between the two AC sources V1 and V2′ , the voltage which leads
the other will be the sending end, while the one which lags will be the receiving end. This emphasizes
that in AC system, the voltage magnitudes don’t matter that much while the phase angle between the
two voltages matters V1 and V2′ in the power transfer issue.
For example, if V1 leads V2′ by angle δ, therefore:

• V1 is the sending end.

• V2′ is the receiving end.

• Power is transferred from V1 side to V2′ side.

• And vice versa.

(a) Simplified Circuit Model for a DAB converter (b) Power Transfer Between Voltage Bus

Figure 7.2: DAB Simplified Circuit Model

V1 V2 sin(Φ)
P = (7.1)
wL
Similarly, power transfer happens in a dual-active bridge where two high-frequency square waves
are created in the primary and secondary side of the transformer by the switching action of MOSFETs.
These high-frequency square waves are phase shifted with respect to each other. Power transfer takes
place from the leading bridge to the lagging bridge, and this power flow direction can be easily
changed by reversing the phase shift between the two bridges. [13]
This simplified circuit model will make it easy to understand the principle of operation of the
DAB converter.

7.4 Principle of Operation

Assuming the converter on the left to be an inverter and the one on the right to be a rectifier, the
principle of operation of the converter can be described as follows:

• A DC Source -which is the input to the whole converter- is converted to high frequency AC
with the help of the inverter.
78 CHAPTER 7. DUAL ACTIVE BRIDGE

• The AC output of the first converter ”FB inverter on the left” is then transformed to a higher
or a lower voltage with the help of the HF transformer.
• The stepped up or down AC output Voltage is again converted to DC with the help of the
second converter ”FB rectifier on the right”.
• The previous operation allows the power flow from the converter on the left ”FB Inverter” to
the converter on the right ”FB Rectifier”. However, the power flow can be reversed whereas
the converter on the right will be a FB inverter and the one on the left will be a FB rectifier.
That’s why a DAB converter is a bidirectional DC-DC converter. This is based on the idea
of power transferred between two AC sources previously explained in the Simplified Circuit
Model Section.
• The rate of change of current passing across the inductor depends upon the kind of voltage
across the inductance which in turns is decided by the status of the switches T1 , T2 , T3 , T4 , T5 ,
T6 , T7 and T8 . That’s the reason the power flow could be controlled quite easily by controlling
these switches.
• To sum up, each bridge is controlled with constant duty cycle (50%) to generate a high-
frequency square-wave voltage at its transformer terminals (±Vi , ±Vo ). Considering the pres-
ence of the leakage inductance of the transformer, with a controlled and known value, the two
square waves can be appropriately phase shifted to control the power flow from one DC-source
to the other, so bidirectional power transfer can be achieved. Power is delivered from the
bridge which generates the leading square wave. [13]

7.5 Control Techniques

• There are many modeling techniques and control methods for a DAB[14]:
– Feedback-only control. Linearisation Control, Feed-forward Plus Feedback, Disturbance-
Observer-Based Control, Feed-forward Current Control, Model Predictive Current Con-
trol (MPC), Sliding Mode Control (SMC) and Moving Discretized Control Set Model
Predictive Control.
– Phase Shift Control (PSC) which is our concern and it includes:
* Single-Phase Shift (SPS) Control.
* Dual-Phase Shift (DPS) Control.
* Triple-Phase Shift (TPS) Control.
* Extended Phase-Shift (EPS) Control.
• These techniques represent a broad spectrum of control strategies for DAB converters, each
suited to different application requirements and performance goals. The choice of control
method depends on the specific needs of the application, such as desired efficiency, response
time, complexity, and robustness.

7.5.1 Phase Shift Control PSC

• Phase Shift Control is a general term that encompasses several specific techniques, including
Single-Phase Shift, Dual-Phase Shift, and Triple-Phase Shift control.
7.5. CONTROL TECHNIQUES 79

• The primary idea is to control the phase difference between the voltages of the primary and
secondary bridges to regulate the power transfer.
• The phase shift control (PSC) technique can be done by applying a delay of angle theta θ
between the two sides by applying a firing delay between the switches of the inverter T1 and
T4 and these of the rectifier T5 and T8 shown in Figure 7.1.
• The output voltages of primary and secondary side (Uab and Udc ) form square wave with 50%
duty ratio and have shifted-phase between two sides. The average transferring power is con-
trolled by adjusting the phase-shift angle. This control strategy is very intuitive and easy to
implement. However, this method can only manage the average output power, because it has
only one degree of freedom. Other variables are not considered in deciding the phase-shift an-
gle, such as circulating reactive power, current flowing on the transformer, which can deteriorate
the system performance. [10]

7.5.2 Single Phase Shift Control SPS

• Single-Phase Shift Control is a specific implementation of PSC where only a single phase shift
angle is adjusted. It is the simplest form of PSC with limited control capabilities and involves
shifting the phase of one of the bridges relative to the other.
• In SPS, only one degree of freedom (the phase shift angle) is used to control the power flow.
• Since only one phase shift is adjusted, SPS may not be able to optimize other performance
aspects, such as minimizing circulating currents or improving efficiency under varying load
conditions. So, SPS is limited to some applications.
• In this phase shifted mode of operation and concerning the firing of the first bridge (the one on
the left), gate signal for Q2 should be 180 degrees out of phase with respect to Q1 to prevent
shoot through.
• The firing of Q4 is the same as that of Q1 and that of Q3 is the same as of Q2 . Hence, Q1 and
Q4 work at the same time interval and Q2 and Q3 work at the same time interval.
• For the second bridge (The one on the right), there should be some phase shift from these for
the the first bridge. Both Q5 and Q8 have the same firing. Similarly, Q6 and Q7 have the same
firing. However, there is a shift between between the firing of Q1 and that of Q5 and the same
shift between the firing of Q2 and that of Q6 .
• Figure 7.3 illustrates the waveform of these these gate signals or firing.
• If Q1 and Q4 are ON, the output voltage on the primary side is the voltage Ui . If Q2 and Q3 are
ON, the primary output voltage will be - Ui .
• Similarly, for the secondary side, if Q5 and Q8 are On, the output voltage is the voltage Ui .
While, if Q6 and Q7 are On, the output voltage is the voltage - Ui .
• In this way, the obtained voltages on both primary and secondary sides will be square waves
but with some phase shift as previously mentioned. The diagonal switches turn on and turn off
together so that the output of each bridge is a square wave. The switching sequence is divided
into four intervals based on the inductor current waveform and phase shift between the voltages
at the primary and secondary of the transformer as shown in Figure 7.3 [13].
80 CHAPTER 7. DUAL ACTIVE BRIDGE

• From the DAB simplified circuit model shown in Figures 7.2a and 7.2b, the voltage across the
inductor can be determined as the voltage difference between the primary voltage and secondary
voltage referred to primary side ( VL = V1 - V2′ or V1′ - VN2 ).

• For interval 1, the term ( V1 - V2′ ) is large since V1 has a max positive value and V2′ has a large
negative value. Hence, the voltage across inductor is large. Similarly, for interval 3, the voltage
across inductor is large but with a negative value.

• For both intervals 2 and 4, the term ( V1 - V2′ ) becomes smaller which leads to smaller voltage
across inductor either of a positive or a negative value.

• The inductor current waveform for intervals 1 and 3 is rising or decaying quickly due to large
value of VL . For both intervals 2 and 4, it’s rising or decaying a little bit due to small value of
VL .

Figure 7.3: Gate Signals, Transformer Primary and Secondary Voltages, and Inductor Current

7.6 Some Considerations and Design Parameters

7.6.1 Zero Voltage Switching (ZVS)

During the transition from interval one to two, there exists a small dead time where the inductor-
stored energy discharges the output capacitances of the MOSFETs and holds them close to zero
voltage before they are turned on. This phenomenon, where the voltage across the MOSFET is close
to zero at turn on, is referred to as zero voltage switching (ZVS). This is a major advantage with this
topology, where due to the natural lagging current in one of the bridges, the inductive stored energy
causes ZVS of all of the lagging bridge switches and some of the switches of the leading bridge.
7.6. SOME CONSIDERATIONS AND DESIGN PARAMETERS 81

[13] This depends on the stored inductive energy EL available to charge and discharge the output
capacitances of MOSFETs:
1
EL = LI 2 (7.2)
2

1
Ec = CV 2 (7.3)
2
When transition happens from interval one to two, the primary side switches Q1 and Q5 continue
conduction, whereas in the secondary, Q6 and Q7 turn off and Q5 and Q8 turn on. Initially the voltage
across Q6 and Q7 is zero when they are conducting, and Q5 and Q8 block the entire secondary
voltage. During dead time, when all of the switches in the secondary are off, the inductor-stored
energy circulates current which discharges the capacitor across MOSFETs Q5 and Q8 to zero and
charges the capacitor across MOSFETs Q6 and Q7 to the full secondary voltage. [13]

7.6.2 Switching Frequency

Switching frequency is important design parameter which affects the efficiency and power density of
power converter. The input and the output voltage levels primarily determine the type of switches
used in the power stage. Operating at higher switching frequencies enables reduced size of magnetics
which helps in improved thermal solution, thereby improving the power density of the converter. [13]
By increasing switching frequency, the size of leakage inductor used will be smaller and easier to
be implemented in DAB converter. However, we should choose the optimal switching frequency as
the selection of switching frequency is primarily a trade-off between the allowable heat sink solution
and transformer size for a given efficiency target. [13]

7.6.3 Filter Circuit Design

The output parallel capacitor used for filtration and smoothing the converter output must be designed
based on the following procedures:

• First: determine some parameters required to be achieved like:

– Input and Output Voltages Vi , Vo .

– The output Current and Power Io , Po .
– The Switching Frequency Fsw .
– The Voltage and Current Ripples Percentage Allowed.

• Secondly: Calculate the Duty Ratio D from the relation:

1 RequiredOutputV oltage(Vo )
D= ∗ (7.4)
2 M aximumOutputV oltage

Where, the maximum output voltage should be greater than the required output voltage by
the voltage drop across the transistors (the bridges’ MOSFETs), diodes, transformer and the
inductor.
82 CHAPTER 7. DUAL ACTIVE BRIDGE

• Thirdly: Calculate the Ripple Current Iripple from the relation:

CurrentRipplesP ercentageAllowed
Iripple = ∗ Io (7.5)
100

• Fourthly: Calculate the Ripple Voltage Vripple from the relation:

V oltageRipplesP ercentageAllowed
Vripple = ∗ Vo (7.6)
100

• Finally: Calculate the output Capacitance Co of the filter from the relation:
D ∗ Tsw
Co = IRipple ∗ (7.7)
Vripple

Where, Tsw is the switching time which is the reciprocal of the switching frequency Fsw .

7.6.4 HF Transformer Turns Ratio

The turns ratio of the transformer (N) must be chosen in a way to make sure that the output voltage
meets the application requirements.
That’s why the voltage drops across transistors, diodes, transformer itself and inductor should
be taken into consideration. There should be margin depending on the application for the voltage.
Hence, we can’t use the required output voltage directly to get the turns ratio. Instead, the voltage
after a margin from 20 to 30 percent or whatever depending on the application should be taken into
consideration:
Np Vo
N= = (7.8)
Ns Vi
Where, Vo = Actual Required Output voltage * ( 100 + Margin ) %
However, the turns ratio of the HF transformer used will be discussed in detail in High Frequency
(HF) Transformer Design Chapter.

7.6.5 Leakage Inductance Design

The following equation is considered the main design criteria required to find the leakage inductance
of the HF transformer, as it is the main element in the DAB:

N Vi Vo D(1 − D)
Lleakage = (7.9)
2Fsw Po

7.7 Simulation
Simulation Parameters:

• Input voltage: 800V.

7.7. SIMULATION 83

• Output battery 400V (nominal voltage).

• Switching frequency 100KHz.
• Inductance 42uH.

Control method used is single phase shift. There are two parameters to be controlled output voltage
(constant voltage charging mode) and current control (constant current charging mode).
CC Phase: Fast charging with constant current until the battery reaches its maximum safe voltage.
CV Phase: Tapering off the current while maintaining constant voltage until the battery is fully
charged.

7.7.1 MATLAB Model

Figure 7.4: Dual Active Bridge DC-DC Converter Simulation Model

7.7.2 PWM Generator

The main function of this subsystem is to generate pulses for the two bridges. The PWM signal of
Second bridge is shifted by an angle (0 - 90 ) degree as shown in figure 7.5.

Figure 7.5: PWM Generator for Single Shift Control For DAB
84 CHAPTER 7. DUAL ACTIVE BRIDGE

Figure 7.6: Shifted PWM Signal Between First and Second Bridge

7.7.3 PI Controller

Controlling Current and controlling voltage required PI controller its input is the error in current or
voltage and its output is the shift angle that used in PWM pulse generator to shift the firing of second
bridge than the first bridge. the control loop shown in figure 7.7.

Figure 7.7: PI Controller for DAB converter

7.7. SIMULATION 85

7.7.4 The Results of Current Control

The figure 7.8 shown the controlling on current that charges the battery and shown the variation of
output current due to change in current reference.

Figure 7.8: Output Current and Voltage Using CC for DAB

Figure 7.9: Relation between The Primary Voltage, Secondary voltage and The Inductor Current

Note: inductor current multiplied by 10 to show the shape of wave form.

86 CHAPTER 7. DUAL ACTIVE BRIDGE

7.7.5 The Results of Voltage Control

Figure 7.10: Output Current and Voltage Using CV for DAB

The figure 7.10 shown the controlling on voltage that applied on the battery and shown the variation
of output voltage due to change in voltage reference.

7.7.6 Converter Efficiency

The efficiency is around 97% for the rated designed state. By controlling the current, the efficiency
decreases and it can reach to around 60%. This is one of the main disadvantages of this converter.

7.8 Hardware Implementation

The setup mainly consists of six main boards:

• Power circuit.

• Gate drive circuit.

• High frequency transformer

• Coil

• Current sensor.

• F28069M LaunchPad™.
7.8. HARDWARE IMPLEMENTATION 87

7.8.1 Power Circuit

Power circuit is the circuit which includes the two bridges and an input for external coil. The main
component of this circuit is the MOSFET (IRFP460 N-Channel MOSFET). Rating at 500V and 20A.
Shown in figure 7.11 the bottom layer design of the circuit and 3D model for it.

Figure 7.11: DAB Power Circuit Design and 3D Model

7.8.2 Gate Drive Circuit

Gate drive circuit provide protection and isolation for the MCU and isolate it from the power circuit
using optocoupler 6N139. It also drive the MOSFET on power board using IC IR2111 that generate a
signal and its complement to drive a leg of H bridge. So four signals only from controller are needed
to control the two bridges.
Shown in figure 7.12 the bottom layer design of the circuit and 3D model for it.
88 CHAPTER 7. DUAL ACTIVE BRIDGE

Figure 7.12: Gate Drive Circuit Design and 3D Model

7.8.3 Current Sensor

Controlling the output current of DAB needs a current sensor. Current Sensor Module ACS712 30A
is a good selection for reading the value of the output current and convert it to analogue signal that
can be used by controller to control the current at reference value.

Figure 7.13: Current Sensor Module ACS712

7.8. HARDWARE IMPLEMENTATION 89

7.8.4 MCU

Generating shifted PWM with high switching frequency needs an efficient MCU so using DSP
F28069M LaunchPad™ is suitable for our application. It can generate PWM with specific duty cycle
and switching frequency. It also can delay the PWM signal of bridge 2 from bridge 1 by a specific
angle. It also has a simple interfacing with MATLAB simulink.

Figure 7.14: F28069M LaunchPad™

90 CHAPTER 7. DUAL ACTIVE BRIDGE
Chapter 8

LLC Converters

8.1 Introduction
LLC resonant converters have become an important topic in power electronics because they can meet
the demanding performance requirements set by modern power supply designs. The LLC is one of a
significantly larger family of resonant converter topologies, all of which are based on resonant tanks.
Resonant tanks are circuits made up of inductors and capacitors that oscillate at a specific frequency,
called the resonant frequency. Because they allow for higher switching frequencies (fSW) and reduce
switching losses, these switch-mode DC/DC power converters are often used in high-power, high-
efficiency applications.

Figure 8.1: LLC Resonant Converter circuit

An LLC converter is made up of 4 blocks: the power switches, resonant tank, transformer, and
diode rectifier First, the MOSFET power switches convert the input DC voltage into a high-frequency
square wave. This square wave then enters the resonant tank, which eliminates the square wave’s
harmonics and outputs a sine wave of the fundamental frequency. The sine wave is transferred to
the secondary of the converter through a high-frequency transformer, which scales the voltage up or
down, according to the application. Lastly, the diode rectifier converts the sine wave into a stable DC
output.

91
92 CHAPTER 8. LLC CONVERTERS

Gain = bridge gain ∗ resonant tank gain ∗ turns ratio (N s/N p) (8.1)

Ns: Secondary side turns ratio

Np: Primary side turns ratio

The bridge can be full bridge or half bridge. Full bridge gain = 1 and half bridge gain = 0.5. Full
bridge consists of 4 switches but half bridge consists of only two switches. in our design we will use
full bridge inverter as shown in Figure 8.1 so the bridge gain equals 8.1.

8.2 Resonant Tank

The resonant tank is made up of a resonant capacitor (CR) and two inductors: the resonant inductor
(LR), in series with the capacitor and transformer, and the magnetizing inductor (LM), in parallel.
The tank’s role is to filter out the square wave’s harmonics, outputting a sine wave of the fundamental
switching frequency to the input of the transformer.

Figure 8.2: resonant tank

The resonant tank has a gain that varies according to the frequency and the load applied to the sec-
ondary side and the ratio between Lm and Lr (Ln) Designers must tune these parameters to ensure
that the converter efficiently operates across a wide range of loads by designing the tank’s gain to
exceed 1 for all load values. This Figure shows the resonant tank’s gain for a range of loads if the
resonant tank were only composed of the resonant capacitor and the magnetizing inductor. At light
loads, there is a clear peak in the resonant tank’s gain. However, the gain for the heavy load does not
peak — instead, it has a dampened response and only achieves unity gain at very high frequencies.
If the resonant tank is only made up of the resonant inductor (LR) in series with the resonant capacitor,
the behavior is different. The gain does not exceed 1, but when the load is heaviest, the tank reaches
unity gain much more quickly than it would with the parallel inductor.
By implementing both inductors in the resonant tank, the resulting frequency gain response ensures
that the converter can adequately respond to a much larger range of loads —in addition, it can enable
stable control for the entire load range
8.3. BEHAVIOR OF THE VOLTAGE-GAIN FUNCTION 93

Figure 8.3: parallel resonant tank response

Figure 8.4: series resonant tank response

8.3 Behavior of the Voltage-Gain Function

The voltage-gain function expressed by Equation

VOV T fN2 × (LN − 1)

MG (Q, Ln, F n) = = 2 2 (8.2)
VIN (fN − 1) + fN2 x (fN2 − 1) × (LN − 1)2 × Q2

the quality factor (Q), which is dependent on the load connected to the output. However, using the
value of the load is not accurate, since there is a transformer and a rectifier between the output of
the resonant tank and the load Therefore, we must use a primary-referenced value for the load, called
RAC. RAC and Q can be estimated with these two equations respectively

Voe 8 × n2 Vo 8 × n2
Re = = × = × RL (8.3)
Ioe π2 Io π2
p
Lr /Cr
Qe = (8.4)
Re
94 CHAPTER 8. LLC CONVERTERS

it is necessary to understand how Mg behaves as a function of the three factors f n, Ln, and Q. In
the gain function, frequency fn is the control variable. Ln and Q are dummy variables, since they are
fixed after their physical parameters are determined Mg is adjusted by fn after a design is complete.
As such, a good way to explain how the gain function behaves is to plot Mg with respect to fn at given
conditions from a family of values for L n and Q
Regardless of which combination of Ln and Q is used, all curves converge and go through the point

Figure 8.5: Plots of voltage-gain function (Mg) with different values of Ln

of (fn, Mg) = (1, 1). This point is at fn = 1, or f sw = f0 By definition of series resonance, XL r – XC r

= 0 at f0. In other words, the voltage drop across Lr and Cr is zero, so that the input voltage is applied
directly to the output load, resulting in a unity voltage gain of Mg = 1.
It is obvious that lower values of Ln can achieve higher boost gain, in addition to the narrower range
of the frequency modulation, meaning more flexible control and regulation, which is valuable in ap-
plications with wide input voltage range. Nevertheless, low values of Ln for the same quality factor
Q and resonant frequency fr means smaller magnetizing inductance Lm, hence, higher magnetizing
peak-peak current ripple, causing increased circulating energy and conduction losses.

For summarize, After analysis of the tank circuit, the resonant tank gain equation:

Fx2 (m − 1)
K(Q, m, Fx ) = p (8.5)
(m · Fx2 − 1) + Fx2 (Fx2 − 1)2 · (m − 1)2 · Q2
8.3. BEHAVIOR OF THE VOLTAGE-GAIN FUNCTION 95

where, p
Lr /Cr
Q= (Quality factor) (8.6)
Rac

8 Np2
Rac = 2 · 2 · R◦ (Reflected load resistance) (8.7)
π Ns

fs
Fx = (Normalized switching frequency) (8.8)
fr

1
fr = √ (Resonant frequency) (8.9)
2π Lr · Cr

Lr + Lm
m= (Ratio of total primary inductance to resonant inductance) (8.10)
Lr

using previous equations we can design our resonant tank by assuming variable with a constant value
then start to calculate other parameters.
At Resonant frequency Above resonant frequency Below resonant frequency
operation operation operation
fs=fr. fs>fr. fs<fr
Each half of the switching cycle Each half of the switching cycle Each half of the switching cycle
contains a complete power contains a partial power contains a power delivery
delivery operation (described delivery operation (described operation (described above), at
above), where the resonant above), similar to the resonant the time when resonant half cycle
half cycle is completed during frequency operation, but it s completed and resonant
the switching half cycle. differs in that the resonant half inductor current ILr reaches the
By end of the switching half cycle is not completed and magnetizing current, the
cycle, the resonant inductor interrupted by the start of the freewheeling operation (as
current ILr reaches the other half of the switching described above) starts and
magnetizing current cycle, hence primary side carries on to the end of the
ILm, and the rectifier current MOSFETs have increased switching half cycle, hence
reaches zero. turn off losses and secondary primary side have increased
The resonant tank has unity rectifier diodes have hard conduction losses due to the
gain and best optimized commutation. The converter circulating energy.
operation and efficiency, operates in this The converter operates in this
therefore, transformer mode at higher input voltage, mode at lower input voltage,
turns ratio is designed such where a step down gain or buck where a step up gain or boost
that the converter operates at operation is required. operation is required.
this point at nominal input and
output voltages
8.4. DESIGN STEPS AND CONSIDERATIONS 97

8.4 Design Steps and Considerations

Line regulation is a requirement needs to be considered , it is defined as the maximum output voltage
variation caused by an input voltage variation over a specified range, at a given output load current.A
minimum and maximum output voltage, V omin and V omax , respectively, will be assumed. To simplify
the discussion, it will also be assumed that all parasitic voltage drops—for example, from PCB traces,
the MOSFET’s Rdson , the diode’s forward voltage, etc.—are already converted or lumped into a part
of the output-voltage range Mg should be designed to meet the conditions which says that all possible
Mg values must contain the value of both M gmin and M gmax within the fn limits.
n × Vo− min n × Vo− max
Mg− min = , Mg− max = (8.11)
Vin− max Vin− min

1. Selecting the Transformer Turns Ratio (n)

Initially the gain can be set at unity (Mg = 1) for the output voltage at its middle value between
V omin and V omax . This middle value can be called the output voltage’s nominal value, V onom
, Similarly, the input voltage’s nominal value can be called V innom . Then the transformer turns
ratio.
Mg × Vin om
n= (8.12)
Von om
2. Selecting Ln and Q
there is two ways for selecting these values
first method :
first we need to select Qmax , it depends on the load current. Heavy load conditions operate
at high Q values, while lighter loads have lower Q values. It is important to set a value for the
Qmax associated with the maximum load point
To illustrate the effect of the Q value on voltage regulation, Figure below shows an example
voltage gain plot for different Q values. Let’s assume that the resonant tank gain is required to
range from 0.8 to 1.2 for example, we can see that the low Q value curve (Q=0.3) can reach
higher boost gain, but it is less sensitive to frequency modulation in the “above resonance fs¿fr”
region, hence, switching frequency has to increase much in order to reach the minimum voltage
gain (K=0.8), causing extra switching losses, while the higher Q value curve (Q=1) can reach
the minimum gain (K=0.8) with less switching frequency increase, but unable to reach the max-
imum gain (K=1.2). Therefore, a moderate Q value of around 0.5 seems to satisfy the voltage
gain requirement in this specific case.
and then we can assume a suitable value for Ln which is around 6 and then plot gain curve
, M gmax can be plotted to the gain curves to obtain cross point between Qmax and M gmax it
will define the minimum frequency to operate to make sure that we operate in inductive region
Because the gain curves are dependent on Ln and Q, several gain curves may need to be drawn
to find a proper point This is certainly one way to make the initial selection of L n and Q, but it
is a difficult way and most likely will require some wild guess.
second method : A more desirable approach is to create a common tool to represent the gain
curves that can be shared and reused by different designs. Since the attainable peak gain (M gap )
corresponding to Qgmax is the highest gain of concern for a design, gain-curve plots can be cre-
ated beforehand to show M gap with different values of Ln and Q. Then Ln and Q can be selected
to achieve M gap > M gmax based on a common tool—the M gap curves. How this method is
used will be described after a discussion of how the M gap curves are obtained. the created
M gap curves are shown in Fig. a The horizontal axis is Q and the vertical axis is M gap with
98 CHAPTER 8. LLC CONVERTERS

Figure 8.6: voltage gain

Figure 8.7: The created M gap curves

respect to a family of fixed values for Ln. Fig. b is used to illustrate how Fig. a is formed From
a plot of gain curves, for example from Fig. b, which is partially copied to the lower half of
Fig. b, one attainable peak-gain value, M gap = 1.2, can be located at the curve with (Ln, Q) =
(5, 0.5). This point can be plotted to Fig. a at (M gap , Q) = (1.2, 0.5). (Note that Ln = 5 at this
point.) Because all curves in Fig. b have a fixed Ln = 5, that figure can be used to repeat the
process with different Q values. Then a peak-gain curve can be formed as a function of Q with
a fixed Ln = 5
With M gmax already determined , M gmax can be plotted as a horizontal line on Fig. a , Any
M gap values above this line are greater than M gmax , so the designed converter should operate
in the inductive region. For example, for M gmax = 1.2, any values of M gap can be selected that
are greater than 1.2, as shown in Fig. a. Then the selected value meets the maximum-gain re-
quirement. From the selected M gap value, Ln and Q values can then be selected. For example,
selecting a value from the curve of L n = 5 provides the Ln value right away. Since a gain value
greater than M gmax needs to be selected, Q would have to be less than 0.5, based on Fig. a.
8.5. DESIGN USING MATLAB SCRIPT 99

Similarly, a smaller Ln provides more gain and Ln can be selected by interpolating as shown in
Fig. a. For example, if a value of 0.45 is selected for Q, the corresponding M gap value with Ln
= 3.5 would be 1.56 > M gmax x = 1.2, which satisfies the design requirements

3. determining Re and resonant circuit parameters.

1 1
Cr = , Lr = , Lm = Ln × Lr (8.13)
2π × Qe × f0 × Re (2π × f0 )2 Cr

8.5 Design Using MATLAB Script

This MATLAB Script used to find the values of components of resonant tank.

%−−−−−−−−−−−−−− DC I n p u t −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
Vin = 7 0 0 ; % operating input voltage
Vin rated = 700; % rated input voltage
Vin min = 6 5 0 ; % minimum i n p u t v o l t a g e
Vin max = 8 0 0 ; % maximum i n p u t v o l t a g e
%−−−−−−−−−−−−−− O u t p u t Load −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
Vo = 4 5 0 ; % operating output voltage
Vo rated = 450; % rated output voltage
Vo min = 4 0 0 ; % minimum o u t p u t v o l t a g e
Vo max = 6 0 0 ; % maximum o u t p u t v o l t a g e
Po rated = 7000; % r a t e d o u t p u t power
% load percentage with r e s p e c t to the rated load
K load = 1;
Q rated = 0.3; % Q factor at the rated condition
%−−−−−−−−−−−−−− O p e r a t i n g C o n d i t i o n s −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
f r e s = 70000; % resonant frequency
K ind = 6 ; % p a r a l l e l −t o − s e r i e s i n d u c t a n c e r a t i o
% r e l a t i v e f r e q u e n c y f a c t o r f o r open −l o o p o p e r a t i o n
K rel freq = 0.75;
%********************************************
%
% Parameters from C a l c u l a t i o n
%
%********************************************
fsw = f r e s * K r e l f r e q ; % s w i t c h i n g frequency fsw
%−−−−−−−−−−−−−− T r a n s f o r m e r and Load −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
a s p = ( Vo max+Vo min ) / ( 2 * V i n r a t e d ) ; % Ns / Np r a t i o
a sp2 = a sp * a sp ;
% rated load r e s i s t a n c e
Ro rated = Vo rated * Vo rated / Po rated ;
% Ro rated r e f e r r e d to the primary side
Ro rated pri = Ro rated / a sp2 ;
% load r e s i s t a n c e at the operating c o n d i t i o n s
100 CHAPTER 8. LLC CONVERTERS

Ro = R o r a t e d / K l o a d ;
%−−−−−−−−−−−−−− R e s o n a n t C i r c u i t −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
% Minimum g a i n and maximum g a i n r e q u i r e d
G dc min = Vo min / ( a s p * Vin max ) ; % minimum g a i n
G dc max = Vo max / ( a s p * Vin min ) ; % maximum g a i n
% resonant inductance
Ls = ( Q r a t e d * R o r a t e d p r i ) / ( 2 * p i * f r e s ) ;
% resonant capacitance
Cs = 1 / ( 2 * p i * f r e s * Q r a t e d * R o r a t e d p r i ) ;
% transformer magnetizing inductance
Lm = K i n d * Ls ;
% Q value at the operating conditions
%Q = Zo / R ; Zo = s q r t ( Ls / Cs ) ;
Q = s q r t ( Ls / Cs ) / ( Ro / a s p 2 ) ;

8.6 LLC Resonant Converter Closed Loop Control

In any DC-DC converter, it’s important to keep the value of the output voltage constant. The change
in load leads to a change in output voltage in the case of open-loop control. Using closed-loop control
is necessary, so LLC converter closed-loop control can be achieved by the cascaded control loop, as
shown in the Figure 8.8.

Figure 8.8: Cascaded Closed Loop Control for LLC Resonant Converter

The cascaded control loop is used to control both the output voltage and the current value. If
the control loop consisted of a single PI controller that only controls the output voltage, during the
transient of the circuit, the current value may become too high, potentially exceeding the rated switch
current. There are two PI controllers used in this setup. The first PI controller’s input is the voltage
error (the reference value minus the measured value), while the second PI controller’s input is the
current error (the output of the first PI controller minus the measured current value), as shown in the
Figure 8.8.
8.7. MATLAB MODEL 101

8.7 Matlab Model

The simulation ratings:

• Input voltage: 650 - 800 volt rated 700 Volt.

• Output voltage: 350 - 500 volt rated 400 Volt.

• Transformer turns ratio Np/Ns = 700/400.

• Frequency 70K Hz.

• Rated power: 7000 watt.

• Lr: 3.8e-05 H.

• Lm: 2.32e-04 H.

• Cr: 1.3e-07 F.

The MATLAB Simulink model:

Figure 8.9: MATLAB Simulink Model For LLC Resonant Converter

This model consists of three main sections:

• The power circuit [8.10].

• Voltage controller [8.11].

• Variable frequency pulse generator [8.12].

102 CHAPTER 8. LLC CONVERTERS

The power circuit has input DC source, active bridge, resonant tank, transformer, diode bridge and
output DC link.

Figure 8.10: LLC Resonant Converter Power Circuit

The voltage controller is a cascaded control ”multi loop control” using PI controller, It controls
the output voltage and limit the transient current.

Figure 8.11: Cascaded Control for LLC Resonant Converter

Variable frequency pulse generator is used to generate pulses with specific duty cycle (in this
model the duty cycle = 0.5) with variable frequency.

Figure 8.12: Variable Frequency Pulse Generator

8.7. MATLAB MODEL 103

This is the result of simulation in case of the reference voltage is 350V so the converter operates
as a buck converter.
The figure 8.13 shows the results of simulation and shows the output voltage, the waveform of leakage
inductor current and magnetizing inductor current and the change in frequency.

Figure 8.13: Results in case of Reference voltage equal 350V

104 CHAPTER 8. LLC CONVERTERS

This is the result of simulation in case of the reference voltage is 400V.

The figure 8.14 shows the results of simulation and shows the output voltage, the waveform of leakage
inductor current and magnetizing inductor current and the change in frequency.

Figure 8.14: Results in case of Reference voltage equal 400V

8.7. MATLAB MODEL 105

This is the result of simulation in case of the reference voltage is 350V so the converter operates
as a boost converter.
The figure 8.15 shows the results of simulation and shows the output voltage, the waveform of leakage
inductor current and magnetizing inductor current and the change in frequency.

Figure 8.15: Results in case of Reference voltage equal 500V

106 CHAPTER 8. LLC CONVERTERS

8.8 Conclusion
The LLC resonant converter is an isolated DC-DC converter with high efficiency, around 96%. It can
be used for bucking or boosting the input voltage. The LLC resonant converter can be controlled by
adjusting the switching frequency of its inverting bridge, allowing it to operate in three modes. It
finds application in various fields such as electrical vehicles, solar panels, and more.
Chapter 9

High Frequency (HF) Transformer Design

9.1 Introduction to HF Transformer

High-frequency transformers are vital components in various electronic systems, especially in power
electronics, telecommunications, and high-frequency switching applications. Unlike conventional
transformers operating at line frequencies (50 Hz or 60 Hz), high-frequency transformers are designed
to operate at frequencies ranging from several kHz to MHz.[15]

9.1.1 Operating Frequency

High-frequency transformers operate at frequencies higher than those of traditional transformers.

They are commonly used in applications such as switch-mode power supplies (SMPS), DC-Dc con-
verters (the application used in our project), inverters, and radio frequency (RF) circuits.

9.1.2 Core Materials

High-frequency transformers often use ferrite cores rather than traditional iron cores. Ferrite mate-
rials have low losses at high frequencies, making them ideal for high-frequency applications. Other
materials like powdered iron, amorphous metals, and some specialty materials are also used based on
specific design requirements.

9.1.3 Winding Configurations

Transformers designed for high frequencies may have specialized winding configurations to minimize
leakage inductance and inter-winding capacitance. Techniques such as interleaving, layering, and
other techniques may be employed to achieve desired electrical characteristics.

107
108 CHAPTER 9. HIGH FREQUENCY (HF) TRANSFORMER DESIGN

9.1.4 Wire and Insulation

High-frequency transformers often use specialized wire types with thin enamel insulation to mini-
mize skin effect losses and maximize packing density. Insulation materials are carefully selected to
withstand the high voltages and minimize parasitic capacitances.

9.1.5 Losses and Efficiency

Efficiency is critical in high-frequency transformers due to the increased switching losses at higher
frequencies. Design considerations include minimizing core losses (hysteresis and eddy current
losses), and copper losses (resistive losses in windings).

9.1.6 Magnetic Design

Magnetic design involves selecting core materials, determining core geometry, calculating the number
of turns, and optimizing magnetic flux density to achieve desired performance.

9.1.7 Electromagnetic Interference (EMI)

High-frequency transformers should be designed to minimize electromagnetic interference (EMI)

emissions and susceptibility.Techniques such as shielding, grounding, and layout optimization are
used to mitigate EMI issues.

9.1.8 Temperature Rise and Cooling

High-frequency transformers may experience significant temperature rise due to increased losses.
Cooling methods such as conduction, convection, and liquid cooling may be employed to manage
temperature rise.

9.2 HF Transformer Design

High-frequency transformer design requires a deep understanding of core materials, winding con-
figurations, losses, efficiency, electromagnetic properties, and thermal management techniques. The
design process involves careful consideration of these factors to meet the performance requirements
of modern electronic systems operating at high frequencies.

9.2.1 General Procedures

1. Select system requirements including:

• Switching Frequency.
• Power Supply in Watt.
9.2. HF TRANSFORMER DESIGN 109

• Output Voltage and Current and Input Voltage.

2. Choose the suitable and most appropriate core material.

3. Determine number of turns.

4. Test the obtained output and compare it with the required one to be obtained.

5. Determine diameter of wire.

6. Determine number of layers.

7. Determine length of wire.

9.2.2 Procedures in Detail

Starting with the Primary Side:

• First: The Choice of Core Material:

The choice of the core and its material is done through the intersection between the power rating,
the switching frequency, and the selected shape from Typical Power Handling Chart shown in Figure
9.1:

Figure 9.1: Typical Power Handling Chart

110 CHAPTER 9. HIGH FREQUENCY (HF) TRANSFORMER DESIGN

• Second: Checking or Testing the Power:

APc ∗ f
P ower = (9.1)
754
Where APc = Ae * Wc ,
APc is calculated in cm4 ,
Ae is the effective area of the core (from datasheet) in cm²,
Wc is the winding window of copper.

OR

P ower = Area ∗ (5.6)2 (9.2)

Where Area is is the product of core length and width or total area of core in cm².

• Third: Calculating the Number of Turns:

Vpeak ∗ 108
Np = (9.3)
4 ∗ BM axGauss ∗ Ae ∗ f
Where, BMaxGauss is the flux density that depends on core material choice in Gauss,

1000 Gauss = 0.1 Tesla

VPeak is the peak input voltage to the primary side of transformer in Volt (V),
Ae is the effective area of the chosen core in cm²,
Np is the required Number of primary side turns,
f is the switching frequency in Hz.
Another Rule:
Vin ∗ D ∗ 108
Np = (9.4)
Bmax Gauss ∗ Ae ∗ f
Where, D is the Duty Cycle (Since we are dealing with square wave),
Vin is the input voltage.
OR
Vin ∗ ton
Np = (9.5)
Bmax Tesla ∗ Ae
There is an important check to take into account which is:
For the calculated Np , check the flux density obtained (B) to make sure that it still suited the
chosen core material by substituting in the following rule:
Vpeak ∗ 108
Bmax Gauss = (9.6)
4 ∗ Np ∗ Ae ∗ f

Fourth: Calculating the Diameter of Wire:

We should determine Current in Primary Side by:
9.2. HF TRANSFORMER DESIGN 111

a. Finding output power from the relation: Po = Vo ∗ Io

b. Finding input power from the relation: Pin = Po + 0.05 * Po where 0.05 * Po are some assumed
losses.
Pp Pin
c. Finding current in primary side from the relation: Ip = Vp
= Vin

Using the AWG (American Wire Gauge) and entering with the value of Ip which is approximately
the maximum current in such table, we get the suitable diameter of wire.
However, there are well-known diameters like 0.4 mm and 0.6 mm.
So, there are some other checks to determine whether to use the standard diameters or the one
obtained from table after calculating Ip :

a. Check for Max Frequency (Make sure you choose diameter that has maximum frequency
greater than the input switching frequency).

b. Check the resistance from the table (Make sure that the chosen diameter has resistance (ohm/km)
that causes an acceptable voltage drop. However, Voltage Drop Calculation is more effective in
Secondary than in Primary).

c. Check for maximum current, max frequency, and resistance per km if you decide to use a
standard diameter like 0.4 mm and 0.6 mm.

Fifth: Calculating the Number of Layers:

a. Calculate the vertical distance of the area subjected to the winding.

Distance Calculated in a
b. Calculate the number of wires: Number of wires = Diameter of Wire

Note: There will be a margin to prevent the presence of high voltage at the terminals in the case
of E-core for example (The margin is between 1 mm and 2 mm).

c. Calculate the number of layers from the relation:

Number of Turns
Number of Layers = Number of Wires

There is another check here which is the guarantee that the area of the chosen core will be enough
for or compatible with the winding and number of layers:
This check is done by:

a. If Number of Layers * diameter of 1 wire < Area occupied by the wires by acceptable value.
Therefore, proceed to the next step of design.

b. If Number of Layers * diameter of 1 wire ≥ Area occupied by the wires. Therefore, there
should be some suggested modifications either:
112 CHAPTER 9. HIGH FREQUENCY (HF) TRANSFORMER DESIGN

1. Change Core to a larger one.

2. Or Increase Switching Frequency to decrease the Number of turns and hence decrease the num-
ber of layers.

Vpeak ∗ 108 Number of Turns

Np = 4∗Bmax Gauss ∗ Ac ∗f
& Number of Layers = Number of Wires

As Np is inversely proportional to Switching Frequency and directly proportional to Number of

Layers.
Note: Take into consideration that increasing frequency increases the core losses.

Sixth: Calculating the Length of Wire:

Length of Wire = Number of Turns * Length of Complete Turn + Additional 10 or 20 cm
(according to design) for the terminals
Checking the Voltage Drop mentioned in Fourth is done by:

(Value from Table) ---------- 1000 m

? ---------- Length of Wire

After that, the Secondary Side:

Many steps are the same as those done in Primary Side but with some differences.

Calculating Number of Turns:

Vp Np Np ∗ Vs
From the relation: Vs
= Ns
------- Ns = Vp

Where, Vp is the primary voltage,

Vs is the secondary voltage,
Np is the number of turns in the primary side,
Ns is the number of turns in the secondary side.

Some Notes and differences for Secondary Design:

• If Ns is decimal, approximate it to the larger or the smaller value then check for Vs from the
relation: VVps = Np
Ns
.
• The value of Is is the same as output current.
• If there is a problem with the diameter of wire with the max frequency when dealing with the
AWG Table (as the current in secondary is in Amperes with max frequencies less than the ones
used in switching and diameter of wire which is not standard), stranding, or bundling are used
in this case. The Number of wires is calculated from the relation:

Is
Number of wires = Ichosen from table to achieve a standard diameter
9.2. HF TRANSFORMER DESIGN 113

For Low Rating (Practical):

Givens:
Switching Frequency = 50KHz
Input and Output Voltage = 200 V
Output Power = 1Kw = 1000 watt

First: The Choice of Core Material:

Figure 9.2: Typical Power Handling Chart

But here, we don’t want to choose these types of cores. We are searching for E cores. Therefore,
we head to a power > 1000 watt from this chart.
Checking Powers for E cores with the intersections of 50 KHz and powers: 1100watt, 1500 watt
and 1600 watt:
114 CHAPTER 9. HIGH FREQUENCY (HF) TRANSFORMER DESIGN

For 1100 watt: 45528 EE (or 45528 EC)

Figure 9.3: Typical Power Handling Chart

For 1500 watt: 45530 EE (or 45530 EC)

Figure 9.4: Typical Power Handling Chart

9.2. HF TRANSFORMER DESIGN 115

For 1600 watt:47228 EE or 46022 EE

Figure 9.5: Typical Power Handling Chart

Second: Checking or Testing the Power:

For 45528 EE (or 45528 EC), 45530 EE (or 45530 EC) &47228 EE or 46022 EE:

Figure 9.6: Typical Power Handling Chart

116 CHAPTER 9. HIGH FREQUENCY (HF) TRANSFORMER DESIGN

For 1100 watt: 45528 EE (or 45528 EC):

3
c∗ f
Power = AP754 = 9.78 ∗50∗
754
10
= 648.5411141 watt < 1000 watt
Then, Search in the chart for a core with a higher power (>1100watt)

For 1500 watt: 45530 EE (or 45530 EC):

3
c∗ f
Power = AP754 = 12.1 ∗ 754
50 ∗ 10
= 802.3872679 watt < 1000 watt
Then, Search in the chart for a core with a higher power (>1500watt)

For 1600 watt: 47228 EE:

APc ∗ f 15 ∗ 50 ∗ 103
Power = 754
= 754
= 994.6949602 watt

For1600watt: 46022 EE:

3
c∗ f
Power = AP754 = 21 ∗ 754
50 ∗ 10
=1392.572944 watt
Then we can choose either 47228 EE or 46022 EE. We chose 46022 EE.

Third: Calculating the Number of Turns:

Figure 9.7: Flux Density Vs Frequency (P-Material)

Vpeak ∗ 108 200∗ 108

Np = 4∗Bmax Gauss ∗ Ae ∗f
= 4 ∗ 1580 ∗ 402∗ 10−2 ∗50∗ 103
= 15.74406449 turns ≈ 16 turns
9.2. HF TRANSFORMER DESIGN 117

Fourth: Calculating the Diameter of Wire:

We should determine Current in Primary Side by:

Po = Vo ∗ Io = 1000 watt = 1Kw

Pin = Po + 0.05 * Po = 1000 + 0.05 * 1000 = 1050 watt = 1.05Kw
Ip = PVpp = PVinin = 1050
200
= 5.25A

From AWG Table: Ip = 5.25A (Imax ). However, for 50KHz or 53KHz, the maximum current is
0.729A. So, parallel wires or bundling will be used:
Ip 5.25
Number of parallel wires = Imax
= 0.729
= 7.201646091 wires ≈ 8 wires

Table 9.1: AWG Table

118 CHAPTER 9. HIGH FREQUENCY (HF) TRANSFORMER DESIGN

Fifth: Calculating the Number of Layers:

The vertical distance of the area subjected to the winding = D dimension = 21.6mm
The number of wires: Number of wires = 8∗21.6−2
0.57404
= 4.267995262 wires ≈ 5 wires

Note: There will be a margin to prevent the presence of high voltage at the terminals in the case
of E-core for example (The margin is between 1 mm and 2 mm).

Number of Turns 16
Number of Layers = Number of Wires
= 5
= 3.2 Layers ≈ 4 Layers

Table 9.2: Core Dimension

Figure 9.8: Core OR47228EC

9.2. HF TRANSFORMER DESIGN 119

Sixth: Calculating the Length of Wire:

Length of Wire = Number of Turns * Length of Complete Turn + Additional 10 or 20 cm (according

to design) for the terminals = 16 * (2 * c + 2 * F) + 10 * 10
= 16 * [2 * (22.3 + 0.38) + 2* (18.1 + 0.25)] + 100
= 1412.96 mm
= 1.41296 m

Checking the Voltage Drop mentioned in Fourth is done by

66.7808 ---------- 1000 m

? ---------- 1.41296

Therefore R = 66.7808∗1.41296
1000
= 0.09435859912 ohm
Therefore V.D = Ip * R = 5.25 * 0.09435859912 = 0.495382656 V ≈ 0.5V
0.5
Voltage Drop % = 200 * 100 = 0.25% < (5%)
Therefore, this voltage drop is accepted.

After that, the Secondary Side:

Many steps are the same as those done in Primary Side but with some differences.

Calculating Number of Turns:

Vp Np
From the relation: Vs
= Ns

Ns = NpV∗p Vs = 16 200
∗ 200
= 16 turns (Same as primary)
Ps Po 1000
Is = Vs = Vo = 200 = 5A

From AWG Table: Is = 5A (Imax ). However, for 50KHz or 53KHz, the maximum current is
0.729A. So, parallel wires or bundling will be used:
Is 5
Number of parallel wires = Imax
= 0.729
= 6.858710562 wires ≈ 7 wires

The wire used in both primary and secondary is: AWG 23, 0.57404mm, 0.729A, 53KHz

• The vertical distance of the area subjected to the winding = D dimension = 21.6mm
21.6−2
• The number of wires: Number of wires = 7∗ 0.57404
= 4.87770887 wires ≈ 5 wires

Note: There will be a margin to prevent the presence of high voltage at the terminals in the case
of E-core for example (The margin is between 1 mm and 2 mm).

Number of Turns 16
• Number of Layers = Number of Wires
= 5
= 3.2 Layers ≈ 4 Layers
120 CHAPTER 9. HIGH FREQUENCY (HF) TRANSFORMER DESIGN

• Length of Wire = Number of Turns * Length of Complete Turn + Additional 10 or 20 cm

(according to design) for the terminals = 16 * (2 * c + 2 * F) + 10 * 10
= 16 * [2 * (22.3 + 0.38) + 2* (18.1 + 0.25)] + 100
= 1412.96 mm
= 1.41296 m

• No need to check for voltage drop because Is < Ip so voltage drop for Is is less than that of Ip

Same steps will be done for another high ratings:

Givens:
Switching Frequency = 100KHz
Input and Output Voltage = 800 V
Output Power = 10Kw = 10000 watt

9.2.3 Results for both high and low ratings:

P OC LowRating HighRating
Core Type and Material EI Ferrite (P-Material) EI Ferrite (P-Material) 49928EE
46022 EE or 46022 EC or 49928EC
Effective Area of Core 402 mm² 738 mm²
Core Dimension 60/31/22 100/59/27
Number of Turns 16 Turns 26 Turns
Diameter of Wire for Both Sides 0.57404 mm 0.40386 mm
Number of Parallel Wires in Primary Side 8 37
Number of Parallel Wires in Secondary 7 34
Side
Number of Layers in Primary Side 4 9
Number of Layers in Secondary Side 4 7
Length of Wire 1.41296 m 3.012 m

Table 9.3: Comparison Between the Results for High and Low Rating
 Part III

Charger Integration

121
Chapter 10

Introduction to Electric Vehicle Chargers

Electric vehicles (EVs) have emerged as a viable alternative to internal combustion engines due to
their efficient power delivery, cost-effectiveness, and environmental benefits. However, a key chal-
lenge is the availability of adequate charging infrastructure for high-energy-density battery packs and
the development of efficient charging topologies. Despite these challenges, the global adoption of
EVs is increasing to reduce oil dependency, which faces a 5–7% annual decline post-peak produc-
tion. The widespread use of EVs, both private and commercial, poses significant challenges for power
grids, particularly in maintaining power quality and managing peak load demand.[16]
Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) are increasingly gaining attention for their potential benefits.
However, advancing their charging systems is challenging due to the need for optimal design, safety,
high efficiency, and fast charging. There are two main types of charging technologies: wired (contact
charging) and wireless (contactless charging). [17]

10.1 Wired Charging

Wired charging methods, which may be further broken down into AC and DC charging technologies,
require a direct cable connection between the EV and the charging equipment to achieve charging.
Figure 10.1 shows the overall charging technologies available for BEVs.

Figure 10.1: Overall charging system for BEVs using wired/wireless

123
124 CHAPTER 10. INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC VEHICLE CHARGERS

10.1.1 AC Charging

Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) are typically charged by an onboard charger (OBC) that converts
AC to DC. This adds weight to the vehicle because the conversion unit is housed inside. Charging
is done through single-phase slow charging or three-phase fast charging systems. The OBC not only
converts AC to regulated DC but also improves current quality by reducing ripples, switching losses,
and electromagnetic interference (EMI). AC charging, mostly used in BEVs, operates at power levels
below 20 kW, taking 2-6 hours to charge. [17]

10.1.2 DC Charging

Unlike AC methods, DC charging technologies directly charge the battery, enabling faster charging.
This includes off-board fast and rapid charging systems, which reduce the vehicle’s weight and size
by externalizing the conversion unit. DC charging can fully charge high-capacity batteries in under an
hour. The system involves an off-board charger at a station that feeds the battery directly, bypassing
the onboard charger.
While wired charging systems have made significant progress, they are limited by their inflexi-
bility in charging locations. Additionally, the installation of a battery management system (BMS) is
costly and poses challenges in safety and reliability. [17]

Figure 10.2: AC Vs DC Charging

10.2 Wireless Charging

On the other hand, the problems with wired charging technologies, such as the need for charging
cables, maintenance, and safety concerns, have led to research into wireless charging technologies. In
these kinds of technologies, the BEV has to park above the charging system to get the high-frequency
charging current. Wireless charging technologies can be divided into three categories: near-field,
medium, and far-field. However, these technologies are out of our scope. [17]
10.3. EV CHARGING STAGES 125

10.3 EV Charging Stages

10.3.1 AC-DC Rectifier

The AC-DC rectifier is the first power stage in an EV charging station that takes ac voltage of 250-
480Vac from the grid and delivers stable dc link voltage of approximately 800V. The rectifiers are
connected to the utility grid and so, they can inject harmonics which degrades power quality. Power
factor correction (PFC) techniques are employed to address this concern. Utilization of these PFC
strategies ensures that input currents are sinusoidal and are in phase with the sinusoidal voltages.
Low THD (less than 5 percent), sinusoidal input current, high power factor, bidirectional power flow
capability, high efficiency and power density, simple modulation and control, reactive power compen-
sation, and stable output dc voltage are the expected features of an AC-DC rectifier.[18]

10.3.2 DC-DC Converter

The DC-DC back-end converter is the second power conversion stage of an off-board charger that
takes rectified input voltage from the first power stage and then, adjusts it according to the EV battery.
Input voltage of the dc-dc stage is the dc link voltage and output voltage can vary between 100V and
1000V. The task of constant current (CC) and constant voltage (CV) charging of the battery is ac-
complished by the DC-DC converter. High efficiency, high frequency operation, high power density,
bidirectionality, low output voltage ripple, soft switching capabilities, stable voltage regulation, and
wide range of output voltage are the key characteristics of the DC-DC converter.[18]

Figure 10.3: Electric vehicle (EV) charging system including off-board and on-board charger
126 CHAPTER 10. INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC VEHICLE CHARGERS
Chapter 11

Comparison Between On-Board and

Off-Board Chargers

Electric vehicle (EV) chargers are essential components for recharging the batteries of electric ve-
hicles. Chargers can be categorized into two main types based on their fixed positions: on-board
chargers and off-board chargers. Each type has its own set of advantages and disadvantages, impact-
ing their suitability for different applications.

Figure 11.1: On-board charger versus off-board charger.

11.1 On-Board Chargers

On-board chargers are integrated into the vehicle itself. They are limited to level 1 and level 2 (slow
charging) due to cost, weight, and space constraints. The main advantage of on-board chargers is
their ability to charge the batteries wherever a suitable power source, such as a household outlet, is
available, thereby increasing the acceptance of Plug-in Electric Vehicles (PEVs). On-board chargers
are most often used at home, typically charging overnight with minimal impact on the supply grid
[19].
Another approach to on-board charging involves integrating the battery charger into the electric
drive system of the PEV. In this configuration, the motor windings serve as filter inductors and the
motor inverter acts as a bidirectional AC/DC converter, reducing weight, volume, and cost while en-

127
128 CHAPTER 11. COMPARISON BETWEEN ON-BOARD AND OFF-BOARD CHARGERS

abling faster charging (levels 2 and 3). However, this method introduces increased control complexity
and additional hardware requirements [19].

11.2 Off-Board Chargers

Off-board chargers are located outside the vehicle and are not constrained by space or weight limi-
tations, making them suitable for fast charging applications. They convert AC power from the grid
into DC power, which is then delivered to the vehicle [19]. Although off-board chargers entail redun-
dant power electronics, increasing the overall cost, they offer the advantage of higher power levels,
enabling rapid charging. This feature, however, can potentially overload the distribution network due
to the high power demand.
Off-board chargers provide several benefits, such as lighter vehicle weight, high power levels,
faster charging capabilities, and improved battery management systems. However, the high construc-
tion costs and immobility of DC fast charging stations limit their widespread deployment [20].

11.3 Summarized Comparison

The main differences between on-board and off-board chargers are summarized below:

Aspect On − Board Charger Of f − Board Charger

Fixed Positions Fixed within the vehicle, limited by Fixed outside the vehicle, not lim-
space and weight, small in size and ited by space or weight, larger in
power volume and power
Power Supply Connects to an AC socket and con- Converts AC power to DC for the
Modes verts AC to DC for the vehicle bat- vehicle battery; suitable for fast
tery; suitable for slow charging charging [21]
Advantages - Convenient charging anywhere - Not constrained by vehicle space
with AC power
- Promotes battery longevity - Fast charging and high power
through slow charging
Disadvantages - Longer charging time - Potential to shorten battery life
with frequent fast charging
- Limited power - High construction cost and immo-
bility

Table 11.1: Comparison between On-Board and Off-Board Chargers

11.4. WHY USE OFF-BOARD CHARGERS? 129

11.4 Why Use Off-Board Chargers?

Off-board chargers are increasingly favored for several reasons:

• Higher Power Levels: Off-board chargers can deliver significantly higher power compared to
on-board chargers, enabling faster charging times. This is crucial for reducing downtime and
increasing the usability of EVs [19, 20].

• No Space Constraints: Being external to the vehicle, off-board chargers are not limited by the
vehicle’s space and weight constraints, allowing them to incorporate larger and more efficient
components [21].

• Advanced Battery Management: Off-board chargers can incorporate sophisticated battery

management systems that improve the efficiency and safety of the charging process. These
systems can handle higher currents and voltages, providing better control over the charging
parameters [20].

• Infrastructure Scalability: Off-board chargers are part of a larger infrastructure that can be
scaled up to meet growing demand. They can be installed at strategic locations, such as high-
ways, parking lots, and commercial areas, facilitating convenient access to fast charging [21].

• Reduced Vehicle Weight: Since the charging equipment is external, the vehicle itself can be
lighter, improving its efficiency and performance. This is particularly important for optimizing
the range and dynamics of electric vehicles.

Off-board chargers, with their high efficiency, power density, reliability, and safety, are widely
recognized and used globally in various applications, from passenger cars to commercial vehicles and
special-purpose vehicles [21].
130 CHAPTER 11. COMPARISON BETWEEN ON-BOARD AND OFF-BOARD CHARGERS
Chapter 12

MATLAB Simulation

12.1 Integrating the AFE Rectifier with DAB Converter

It is very crucial to simulate the circuit before diving in hardware design to make sure that the circuit
would work fine when it’s fabricated. Therefore, for this chapter we will provide the steps to simulate
an Integration between an AC/DC converter and a Dc/DC Converter.
Refer to figure 2.1 that shows the model circuit diagram of the AC/DC converter that was built
on MATLAB Simulink for 1KW system which is almost the same implementation for the high-rating
system in aspect of circuit diagram.
Refer to figure 8.9 that shows the model circuit diagram of the DC/DC converter that was built on
MATLAB Simulink.
As we discussed all the details about both converters later in this book.
The implementation of a three-phase rectifier was done to produce 800V at the DC-link as an
output while the input line-to-line voltage was 380V at 50Hz frequency
After the DC-link, a DC/DC converter was set with a rated input voltage of 800V and a reference
output current which was 25A.

Figure 12.1: The integration model

131
132 CHAPTER 12. MATLAB SIMULATION

Figure 12.2: The phase input voltage and current

Figure 12.3: The DC output voltage from the rectifier side (DC-link voltage)

Figure 12.4: The DC output voltage from the DAB side (battery voltage)

Figure 12.5: The output current flowing through the load (battery)
12.2. INTEGRATING THE AFE RECTIFIER WITH LLC CONVERTER 133

12.2 Integrating the AFE Rectifier with LLC Converter

The charger system contained of three phases,the 1st phase is the AC to DC rectification , 2nd phase
the Dc-link and the final phase is the Dc to DC converter.
In this case the LLC converter is used for the final phase.

Figure 12.6: The overall system

Figure 12.7: The power factor in AC to Dc phase

134 CHAPTER 12. MATLAB SIMULATION

Figure 12.8: The output DC voltage of the rectifier part

Figure 12.9: The output voltage and current in DC to DC

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