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France since 1870
France since 1870
Culture, Politics and Society
Third Edition

Charles Sowerwine
© Charles Sowerwine 2018
All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this
publication may be made without written permission.
No portion of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted
save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the
Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence
permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency,
Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS.
Any person who does any unauthorized act in relation to this publication
may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages.
The author has asserted his right to be identified as the author of this
work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
First published 2001
Second edition 2009
Third edition 2018 by
PALGRAVE
Palgrave in the UK is an imprint of Macmillan Publishers Limited,
registered in England, company number 785998, of 4 Crinan Street,
London, N1 9XW.
Palgrave® and Macmillan® are registered trademarks in the United States,
the United Kingdom, Europe and other countries.
ISBN 978–1–137–40609–5 hardback
ISBN 978–1–137–40610–1 paperback
This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully
managed and sustained forest sources. Logging, pulping and manufacturing
processes are expected to conform to the environmental regulations of the
country of origin.
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.
 For

Claude, Frédérique, Anouk, Tabitha, Mabel, Ned, Orvis and Niamh

May they find inspiration in France’s past and in its future.

 Contents

List of Maps xv
Preface xvi
Acknowledgements xviii
Abbreviations xx
French Regimes xxvii
European Union Member States by Date of Accession xxviii
Eurozone Member States by Date of Accession xxix

Part I: The Rise of the Third Republic, 1870–85 1

Chapter 1: France in the Nineteenth Century 3

Paris, ‘Capital of the Nineteenth Century’ 3
An Economy in Transition 4
French Society in the Nineteenth Century: Nobles and Bourgeois 5
French Society in the Nineteenth Century: Women 8
French Society in the Nineteenth Century: Workers from Farm to Factory 9

Chapter 2: The Franco-Prussian War and the Paris Commune, 1870–71 12

The Franco-Prussian War, 1870–71 12
The Proclamation of the Third Republic, 4 September 1870 13
The Siege of Paris, September 1870–February 1871 14
The Struggle for Paris, 1–18 March 1871 16
Paris under the Central Committee of the National Guard, 18–28
March 1871 18
‘The Days of the Commune’, 28 March–21 May 1871 19
La Semaine sanglante (The Week of Blood), 21–28 May 1871 22

Chapter 3: The Triumph of the Republicans, 1871–85 25

Building the Republic 25
Thiers in Power, 1871–73 26
The Monarchists in Power: ‘Moral Order’ vs the Republicans,
1873–7627
The Republicans Come to Power, 1876–79 30
The Republic of Jules Ferry I: Republican Freedoms 34
The Republic of Jules Ferry II: Republican Schools 34
The Republic of Jules Ferry III: Republican Colonies 36

vii
Contents

Chapter 4: The Cultural Bases of Republicanism 40

Reason and the Republican Project 40
Materialism and Anticlericalism 41
Freemasonry, Masculinity and the Republic 43
‘The Painters of Modern Life’ 45
Time and Narrative 48
History and the Republic 49

Part II: Testing Time for the Republic, 1

­ 885­–1918 53

Chapter 5: Challenges to the Republic (1): Constructing the Modern Right 55

Anti-Semitism and the New Nationalism 55
The New Nationalism and the Boulanger Affair, 1885–89 57
The Apogee of ‘Peasant France’? 59
The Panama Affair, 1889–93 61
The Church, the Republic and the Social Question, 1889–96 62
Dreyfus, from Case to Affair, 1894–97 63
The Dreyfus Affair and Mass Politics, 1898–1902 65

Chapter 6: Challenges to the Republic (2): Constructing the Modern Left 69

The Development of Social Movements 69
Feminism and the ‘New Woman’ 73
Anarchism and Syndicalism 75
The Dreyfus Revolution 76
Clemenceau and the Defeat of Labour, 1906–10 78
Colonies, Alliances and the Origins of the Great War, 1898–1914 80

Chapter 7: The Cultural Revolution of the Belle Époque 86

New Cultural Space: The Montmartre Cafés 86
The Erosion of Realism 88
The Erosion of Objective Time 90
The Fragmentation of Perception 93

Chapter 8: The Great War, 1914–18 97

From War of Movement to Stationary War 97
The Trenches 98
The Home Front 100
The Evolution of the War 101
Peace Movements during the War 103
Wild Cards: Russia, America and Clemenceau 104
Victory106
Counting the Losses 107

Part III: The Decline of the Third Republic, 1919–40 111

Chapter 9: France after the War, 1919–28 113

Class Struggle and the Elections of 1919 113

viii
 Contents

Gender Struggle: Repression 115

Gender and Race: Public Space and Diversity 117
Class Struggle Again 121
National and International Affairs: From Peace to Crises 124
From First-Wave Fascism to the Poincaré Years 126

Chapter 10: France in the Depression, 1929–35 129

Everyday Life in the Depression 129
Politics and Second-Wave Fascism 130
The Stavisky Affair and the Riots of 6 February 1934 133
Republican Response to 6 February 1934 135

Chapter 11: The Popular Front, 1936–37 138

Origins of the Popular Front 138
The Popular Front and the Strikes of May–June 1936 139
The Popular Front and Women 141
The Matignon Agreements and Popular Front Reforms 143
The Challenge of Spain 144
The ‘Wall of Money’? 145

Chapter 12: Culture between the Wars 148

Dadaism and Surrealism 148
Early Cinema 149
The Revolt in Music 150
Surrealism, Art and Art Deco 151
The Literature of War and Despair 153
The Literature of Reform and Revolt 155
Cinema and Politics 156

Chapter 13: The Fall of France, 1938–40 159

Foreign Policy, 1924–38 159
The Anschluss and Munich 161
The Death of the Popular Front and the Rise of Fascism 164
Gender Struggle 165
Towards War 167
The French Army and the Blitzkrieg 167
The Armistice and the Death of the Republic 170

Part IV: Vichy and Its Aftermath, 1940–46 173

Chapter 14: The Vichy Government, 1940–42 175

Was Vichy Fascist? 176
The Vichy Government 177
The Cult of Personality 178
Vichy’s National Revolution 180
Vichy’s Search for Collaboration 182

ix
Contents

The Politics of Exclusion 184

French Participation in the Holocaust 187
Explaining French Participation in the Holocaust 188

Chapter 15: Resistance and Liberation, 1942–44 191

Charles de Gaulle and the Call 191
The Beginnings of Resistance 193
The Stakes Are Raised, 1940–43 195
The Resistance: From Isolated Actions to Mass Movement, 1942–44 196
The Liberation 199

Chapter 16: Liberated France, 1944–46 202

The Struggle for Authority 202
The Purge 204
The Price of War 207
Reform and Reconstruction 208
Rebuilding the Republic 211
The Parties Write a Constitution 213
Liberated Paris 214

Chapter 17: Existentialism: Culture of the Resistance? 216

Beauvoir, Camus and Sartre 216
The Effect of the War 219
From the Liberation to Le Deuxième Sexe 223
From Hope to Despair 224
Culture in the 1950s: The Theatre of the Absurd 225

Part V: The Fourth Republic, 1946–58 227

Chapter 18: Vietnam War, Cold War, 1946–54 229

The Colonial Heritage 229
An Autonomous Vietnam in the French Union? 231
The Eruption of the Cold War in French Politics 233
The Cultural Politics of the Cold War 235
The Cold War and the Marshall Plan 236
Social Explosion, 1947 237
The Beginnings of European Institutions 239
The ‘Third Force’ and the 1951 Elections 240
On to Dien Bien Phu 241
Pierre Mendès France and the Geneva Conference 243

Chapter 19: The 1950s: Coke, Culture and the French Economic Miracle 246
The French Economic Miracle 246
‘Fast Cars, Clean Bodies’ 247
Modernization or Americanization? 250
France versus America: The Culture Wars 252

x
 Contents

Chapter 20: The Algerian War Erupts, 1954–57 253

Algeria in Historical Perspective 253
The Fall of Mendès France 256
Fallout in Paris: The 1956 Elections 257
Guy Mollet Escalates the War 258
The Suez Invasion 259
Torture: The Battle of Algiers 260

Chapter 21: The Fall of the Fourth Republic, 1958 263

From International Incident to National Crisis 263
‘The 13 Plots of 13 May’ 264
Rebuilding the State in Algeria 267
Rebuilding the State in France 269

Part VI: The Fifth Republic I, 1958–81 273

Chapter 22: De Gaulle’s Presidency, 1958–68: Algeria vs ‘Grandeur’ 275

Putting Down the Generals 275
Torture and Anti-War Movements 277
Attempted Putsch and Terror 278
The Evian Accords 280
Domestic Politics under de Gaulle 281
Economic Growth 284
The Politics of ‘Grandeur’: Industry and Foreign Policy 286
The Politics of ‘Grandeur’: Urbanism and Culture 288

Chapter 23: Cultural Explosion: New Theory, New Cinema, New Novel 292
New French Theory and Post-Modernism 292
Three Precursors: Saussure, Lacan, Lévi-Strauss 293
Roland Barthes 295
Michel Foucault 296
Jacques Derrida 297
The ‘New Novel’ 298
‘New Wave’ Cinema 301

Chapter 24: Social Explosion: May ’68 305

A Crisis in Higher Education 305
A New Critique of Modern Society 307
Radicalization308
Explosion309
The Workers Join, Everyone Joins 311
From Revolt to Revolution? 312
Defeat314
The Legacy of May 316
Epilogue317

xi
Contents

Part VII: The Fifth Republic II, 1969–95 319

Chapter 25: Pompidou’s and Giscard’s Presidencies, 1969–81:

May’s Aftershocks and the End of the Trente Glorieuses 321
Politics, Groupuscules and Worker ‘Insubordination’ 321
Women’s Rights, Gay Rights 323
Pompidou and Vichy 325
The Common Market and the Renewal of the Left 326
Pompidou and Paris 328
Last Years of the Trente Glorieuses 329
Women and Men in the New Industrial Revolution 330
Valéry Giscard d’Estaing: Liberal Reform? 331
Oil Crisis, Permanent Crisis 332
Politics in the Late 1970s 334

Chapter 26: Mitterrand’s Presidency, 1981–88: ‘Socialist France’? 337

The Three Icebergs 337
Creating ‘Socialist France’, 1981–82 338
The Lasting Reforms 340
Technology341
Mitterrand and Women: Almost All the Way to the Altar 342
The ‘Wall of Money’ Again? 1982–83 344
Treading Water, 1984–86 345
Immigrants and the Front national 346
Cohabitation, 1986–88 349

Chapter 27: Mitterrand’s Presidency, 1988–95: Stalemate 353

Michel Rocard’s Government, 1988–91 353
Integration and Foulards 354
From Berlin to Maastricht: Foreign Policy and Europe,
1989–92356
The Socialists in Decline 358
Celebrating Revolution, Exposing Collaboration 359
Mitterrand, Chirac and Paris 361
Édouard Balladur’s Government, 1993–95 364
Towards the Presidential Elections of 1995 366
Epilogue: The End of the Mitterrand Era 367

Chapter 28: Culture after ’68: Conflicting Trends 369

Post-Modernism, Feminism and Gay Rights 369
The End of Post-Modernism? 372
‘New Philosophers’, Reactionary Pessimists and Déclinistes 376
Literature after ’68 377
‘The Beur Moment’ 382
Cinema after the New Wave 383

xii
 Contents

Part VIII: The Fifth Republic III, 1995–2017 389

Chapter 29: Chirac’s Presidency, 1995–2002: From Juppé to Jospin 391

The 1995 Strikes 391
The Surprise Elections of 1997: Socialist Renaissance 393
Lionel Jospin’s Tightrope Act, 1997–2002 394
Liberalism, Globalization and the EU 396
Towards Gay Liberation: The PaCS 398
Towards Women’s Equality: The Parity Amendment 400
Revising the Constitution: The Quinquennat 401
Remembering Vichy, Forgetting Algeria 402
Presidential Elections 2002: Vichy’s Revenge 404

Chapter 30: Chirac’s Presidency, 2002–07: Sarkozy Rising 407

The Iraq War: France Out in the Cold 407
Integration: The Foulard Crisis, 2002–04 408
The Colonial Past: Papon and La Querelle des Mémoires, 2002–07 410
Rejecting the EU, 2004–05 410
The Banlieue Riots, October 2005 413
Neo-Liberalism? The ‘CPE’ Riots, February–March 2006 415
New Museums 416
Sarko/Ségo, 2006–07 416

Chapter 31: Sarkozy’s Presidency, 2007–12: Neo-Liberalism and the GFC 420
Sarkozy’s First Year: Bling and Bush 420
Sarkozy’s First Year: Tax Cuts and Shocks 421
France and the GFC 423
Judges and Regions 424
Playing the Muslim Card 425
Pensions and Scandals 427
The Rise of the FN 428
Presidential Elections 2012 429

Chapter 32: Hollande’s Presidency, 2012–17: Socialism or Neo-Liberalism? 432

Jean-Marc Ayrault’s Government, 2012–14 432
Locking in Austerity 433
A Government Divided 435
Austerity, For and Against 435
A ‘Normal Presidency’? 436
Paris in the Twenty-First Century 437
The Loi Macron 438
‘Je Suis Charlie’ 439
Macron and the Loi Macron 441
The Front National, Politics and Terror 441
The 2016 Labour Law 442
Terror Again 443

xiii
Contents

Presidential Elections 2017 444

Legislative Elections 2017 447
A Sixth Republic? 449

Chapter 33: Racism, Pessimism, Despair: A Culture for the Twenty-First

Century 453
Beur Writing since 1995 453
Cinema: A Success Story and an Escape 454
Thought for a Neo-Liberal Age: Facing Up to Inequality 457
Thought for a Neo-Liberal Age: Pessimists, Déclinistes and Néoréacs 458
Literature for a Neo-Liberal Age: Narcissism and Despair 461
The New Public Intellectual 463

Conclusion 465
The Weight of the Past 465
Colonialism and Racism 466
Integration and the State 466
France in the EU 467
France and Neo-Liberalism 468
A Just Society? 469
Corruption and Justice 470
French Culture in the Twenty-First-Century World 471
The Identity of France 472

Notes 473
Suggestions for Further Reading 505
Index 515

xiv
 List of Maps

1 Paris after 1889 xxx

2 World War I: The Battle of the Marne (September 1914) and the
Western Front (‘No-Man’s-Land’, November 1914–March 1918) xxxi
3 French Colonies, 1939 xxxii
4 France under German Occupation, 1940–44 xxxiv
5 France: Regions and Regional Capitals, 1982–2016  xxxv
6 France: Regions and Regional Capitals since 2016 xxxvi

xv
 Preface

The Third Republic, with which this book begins, lasted 70 years, making it the
longest regime since the Revolution of 1789. The Fifth Republic, with which this
book ends, was founded in 1958 and is nearing 60. Will it last as long as the Third?
The terrorist act that began the century – ‘9/11’ – the Iraq War and the destabiliza-
tion of the Middle East have played out in dramatic and terrifying ways. The terrorist
attacks of 2015, 2016 and 2017 laid the basis for significant changes.
At the same time, globalization and the ultra-free-market economics of the
twenty-first century (often referred to as ‘neo-liberalism’) weighed heavily on France.
Attempts to adapt by reducing wages and social support failed in the face of riots, in
2006 as in 1995, but further attempts succeeded: President Sarkozy cut pensions and
social services in 2011. Under Hollande’s presidency, Emmanuel Macron deregulated
many aspects of French life with the 2015 Loi Macron and the 2016 Labour Law.
Benefits from these measures have yet to be seen. These economic issues are tied to
the European Union and the eurozone. The Maastricht Treaty and the euro signifi-
cantly constrain states as economic actors and led to austerity policies, contested
by populations, in France as elsewhere, but supported or unchallenged by national
leaders. These issues not only require treatment in their own right; they also demand
a rethink of the history of the preceding decades, particularly those since the 1980s,
when Mitterrand came to power and Jean-Marie Le Pen’s Front national rose to
prominence, setting the stage for the 2002 and 2007 presidential elections. In particu-
lar, they demand increased consideration of the ways in which the legacy of colonial-
ism has affected contemporary France.
This edition is a thorough revision, seeking to incorporate all these and other
contemporary issues. It also seeks to build on the significant advances historians
have made. I was astonished at how much important research has been published in
less than a decade. It is a tribute to my colleagues around the world, but a weight
on the mind of an historian trying to offer a coherent interpretation of recent and
contemporary history. John Merriman, Kristin Ross, Robert Tombs and Colette
Wilson produced important work on the Paris Commune and its aftermath. Olivier
Wieviorka revised the history of the Normandy Landings and through it much of the
history of the war. He and Robert Gildea both produced masterful and complemen-
tary histories of the Resistance. Philip Nord provided a new history of the post-war
period taking further Robert Paxton’s argument for continuity from the 1930s and
Vichy into the Fourth Republic. Stein Tønnesson revised our understanding of the
origins of the Vietnam War. A new generation of French historians reinterpreted
May ’68 (I think particularly of Xavier Vigna) and the indefatigable Julian Jackson
synthesized their findings. He also brought into focus the pre-history of gay liberation
with his important work on Arcadie. Régis Revenin and Michael Sibalis revised our
understanding of Third Republic homosexuality. Christine Bard, Paula Birnbaum,

xvi
 Preface

Helen Chenut, Rachel Mesch and others gave us new perspectives on feminism and
on women and culture.
This edition reflects a change in my own thinking, stimulated by Thomas Piketty’s
argument that inequality in the west was again increasing after a period of decrease
in the middle of the twentieth century. This argument has significant implications for
our interpretation of history. I was brought up in the period of post-war prosperity
known in France as the trente glorieuses, the ‘thirty glorious years’ of prosperity from
the end of World War II to the oil crises of the 1970s. The values of that period were
the foundation of my adult values. They still underpin today’s values. If we no longer
assume that a prosperous society offering secure employment and gradual reduction
in inequality is the norm, we still tend to think that we should and can return to this
society, that the present society is an aberration, a blip in history, if a prolonged one.
Piketty’s argument raises the possibility that the present state of things is the historic
norm and that the post-war prosperity was the blip. That possibility needs to be taken
seriously. I have thus sought in this edition to keep my inner Whig in check.

xvii
 Acknowledgements

Many friends and colleagues helped with the first edition and I have acknowl-
edged them there. Some debts are timeless. My late and much-regretted friend Alan
Dawley transformed my understanding of World War I by taking me through the
battlefields. The late Raymond Aubrac provided information about the vote for
women’s suffrage and read Chapters 15, 16, 18 and 28, making useful corrections
and verifications.
For the second edition, Robert Aldrich, Richard Pennell and Ian Coller clarified
colonial issues; Ian made many valuable suggestions, especially for Chapter 20. Yvette
Roudy helped with the 2007 election campaign, as she helped so generously with my
PhD thesis 47 years ago. Carole Fink corrected mistakes in my discussions of inter-
national relations. Robert Soucy shared his enormous erudition about the extreme
right and read the whole of Part IV. Colin Nettelback engaged in a useful discussion
about the Conclusion. The late Tony Judt encouraged me to build on his analysis of
Chirac’s presidency. Two friends greatly assisted my struggles with philosophy: John
Cleary graciously revised the section on Badiou and Russell Grigg gave me a crash
course on Lacan.
Tim Verhoeven and Alice Garner provided wide-ranging research quickly, care-
fully and intelligently, Alice going beyond the call of duty as SOS calls went out from
Toulouse to Melbourne. Pat Grimshaw, Charles Zika and Joy Damousi provided
great moral support.
This third edition has benefited from discussions with Robert Aldrich on coloni-
alism and on gay liberation, with Julian Jackson on May, with John Merriman on
the Commune, with Bob Nye on gender and masculinity, with Colin Nettelbeck on
contemporary literature and with Robert Tombs, who shared with me his penetrating
insights on the thorny question of the death toll in the repression of the Commune.
In facing the challenge of writing contemporary history, I have benefited enormously
from the help of my writers’ group, who read, commented and offered direction on
Chapters 32 and 33, as did Steve Hause and Bob Nye. Where I have persisted in my
foolishness, I ask their indulgence.
The Melbourne Life-Writing Group read several chapters on more recent
history and their comments pointed me toward the essential issues and helped
greatly in reducing detail. I am especially grateful to my dear friend Katie Holmes,
for her support and for arranging hospitality at La Trobe University, where the
Department of Archaeology and History welcomed me, gave me an office and
library access, and great collegial support.
I am particularly grateful to Palgrave editor Stephen Kennedy, for encourag-
ing me to undertake the project, back in 1995. My warmest thanks to Rachel
Bridgewater, my long-suffering editor at Palgrave, for her patience and support,
and to Clarissa Sutherland and Aine Flaherty, who provided support during

xviii
 Acknowledgements

the production of the book. I give special thanks to Alice Garner and Chandra
Jayasuriya for the maps. I am deeply indebted to Olive Garner for last-minute help
with the index; when it threatened to derail the project, she brought her acute eye
and her cheerful support.
Final revision of the first edition took place in Siân Reynold’s kitchen: my debt to
her continues. Writing the second edition took place at the Université de Toulouse 2 –
Le Mirail. I thank Jean-Marc Olivier for inviting me to the FRAMESPA Laboratory,
Christine Bauza and Frédéric Danesin for their support during my stay and the staff
at L’Ombre Blanche, Toulouse’s fabulous bookstore, for guiding me through enor-
mous piles of books. This third edition was revised and completed, more prosaically,
in our Edwardian cottage in Melbourne’s inner suburbs. There, my wife Susan Foley
has been a constant support in this endeavour. She has read, clarified, edited and
corrected my words and my thoughts for this edition as for the second. It is a joy
that I can share my work with a fellow historian. Our discussions about France and
its history continue to enlighten me. I am deeply grateful.

xix
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