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 THE GALACTIC BLACK HOLE
Lectures on General Relativity and Astrophysics
Series in High Energy Physics, Cosmology and Gravitation

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or A Walk Through Superspace
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MRAnderson
THE GALACTIC BLACK HOLE
Lectures on General Relativity and
Astrophysics

Edited by

Heino Falcke
Max Planck Institute for Radio Astronomy,
Bonn, Germany

and

Friedrich W Hehl
Institute for Theoretical Physics,
University of Cologne, Germany

loP
INSTITUTE OF PHYSICS PUBLISHING
BRISTOL AND PHILADELPHIA
© lOP Publishing Ltd 2003

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored

in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission
of the publisher. Multiple copying is permitted in accordance with the terms
of licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency under the terms of its
agreement with Universities UK (ooK).

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

ISBN 0 7503 08370

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data are available

Commissioning Editor: James Revill

Production Editor: Simon Laurenson
Production Control: Sarah Plenty
Cover Design: Victoria Le Billon
Marketing: Nicola Newey and Verity Cooke

Published by Institute of Physics Publishing, wholly owned by The Institute of

Physics, London
Institute of Physics Publishing, Dirac House, Temple Back, Bristol BS I 6BE, UK
US Office: Institute of Physics Publishing, The Public Ledger Building, Suite
929, 150 South Independence Mall West, Philadelphia, PA 19106, USA

Typeset in BT}3X 2E by Text 2 Text, Torquay, Devon

Printed in the UK by MPG Books Ltd, Bodmin, Cornwall
Contents

Preface xi

PARTl
General introduction 1
1 The Schwarzschild black hole: a general relativistic introduction
Christian Heinicke and Friedrich W Hehl 3
1.1 Newton's gravitational theory in quasi-field-theoretical form 3
1.2 Special relativity and Newton's theory: a clash 8
1.3 Accelerated frames of reference, equivalence principle and
Einstein's field equation 11
1.4 The exterior Schwarzschild solution 16
1.5 Flat Minkowski spacetime, null coordinates, and the Penrose
diagram 17
1.6 Schwarzschild spacetime and the Penrose-Kruskal diagram 19
1.7 The interior Schwarzschild solution and the TOV equation 25
1.8 Computer algebra 29
References 33
2 The Milky Way: structure, constituents and evolution
Susanne Hiittemeister 35
2.1 The overall structure of the Milky Way 35
2.1.1 Deducing the large-scale structure of the Galaxy 35
2.1.2 Unveiling Galactic structure: history 36
2.1.3 'External' views 39
2.2 The constituents 42
2.2.1 The Galactic rotation curve 42
2.2.2 The disk: spiral arms and their tracers 44
2.2.3 The bulge: photometric 3D models, bulge/disk models
and mass 47
2.2.4 The nuclear bulge or bar and the Central Molecular Zone 51
2.2.5 Gas flows and infall: Feeding the nuclear region 54
2.3 Galaxy evolution 57
Vi Contents

2.3.1 Hierarchical, bottom-up structure formation 58

2.3.2 Evolutionary mechanisms: mergers and 'internal' processes 60
2.4 The relation between black holes and bulges 63
2.4.1 Black hole mass and bulge mass/luminosity 63
2.4.2 Black hole mass and bulge velocity dispersion 65
References 68
3 The collapse to a black hole
Gernot Neugebauer 72
3.1 Introduction 72
3.2 Oppenheimer-Snyder collapse 77
3.2.1 Scenario and model 77
3.2.2 Solution of the field equations 78
3.2.3 Physical interpretation 84
3.3 Rotating matter and black hole formation 88
References 93
4 The environment of the Galaxy's central black hole
Mark R Morris 95
4.1 Introduction 95
4.2 The nuclear stellar bulge 96
4.3 The Central Molecular Zone 100
4.4 Hot gas 102
4.5 The Galactic Center magnetosphere 102
4.6 The circumnuclear disk and Sagittarius A West 107
4.7 Star formation III
4.8 A provocative supernova remnant: Sgr A East 114
4.9 The vicinity of Sgr A * 117
4.10 Perspective 118
References 118

PART 2
General relativity and black holes 123
5 Particles and fields near black holes
Valeri Frolov 125
5.1 Introduction 125
5.2 Particle motion near a non-rotating black hole 126
5.2.1 Equations of motion 126
5.2.2 Symmetries and integrals of motion 127
5.2.3 Equations of motion of a free test particle 129
5.2.4 Types of trajectory 130
5.2.5 Equations of motion in 'tilted' spherical coordinates 134
5.2.6 Motion of ultrarelativistic particles 135
5.2.7 Gravitational capture 137
 Contents Vll

5.3 Particle motion near a rotating black hole 138

5.3.1 Gravitational field of a rotating black hole 138
5.3.2 Equations of motion of a free test particle 140
5.3.3 Motion in the equatorial plane 143
5.3.4 Motion off the equatorial plane 147
5.3.5 Gravitational capture 148
5.4 Propagation of fields in the black hole spacetime 149
5.4.1 Scalar massless field in the Schwarzschild metric 149
5.4.2 Evolution of the scalar massless field around a non-
rotating black hole 153
5.4.3 Wave fields in the Kerr metric 157
5.4.4 Effects connected with black hole rotation 161
5.5 Black hole electrodynamics 163
5.5.1 Introduction 163
5.5.2 Electrodynamics in a homogeneous gravitational field 164
5.5.3 Membrane interpretation 168
5.5.4 Electric field of a pointlike charge near a black hole 170
5.5.5 Black hole in a magnetic field 172
5.5.6 Mechanism of the power generation 173
References 176
6 Close encounters of black holes
Domenico Giulini 178
6.1 Introduction and motivation 178
6.2 A first step beyond Newtonian gravity 179
6.3 Constrained evolutionary structure of Einstein's equations 183
6.4 The 3 + I split and the Cauchy initial-value problem 186
6.5 Black hole data 188
6.5.1 Horizons 188
6.5.2 Poincare charges 189
6.5.3 Maximal and time-symmetric data 190
6.5.4 Solution strategy for maximal data 191
6.5.5 Explicit time-symmetric data 191
6.5.6 Non-time-symmetric data 201
6.6 Problems and recent developments 202
6.7 Appendix: equation (6.2) satisfies the energy principle 203
References 204
7 Quantum aspects of black holes
Claus Kiefer 207
7.1 Introduction 207
7.2 The laws of black hole mechanics 208
7.3 Hawking radiation 212
7.4 Interpretation of entropy 218
Vlll Contents

7.5 Primordial black holes 221

References 225

PART 3
Our galactic center 227
8 The mass of the Galactic Center black hole
Andreas Eckart 229
8.1 Introduction and summary 229
8.2 A brief history of imaging the Galactic Center in the near-infrared 231
8.3 Speckle interferometry 232
8.4 The center of the Milky Way 233
8.4.1 Imaging and proper motions 233
8.4.2 Spectroscopy 235
8.4.3 Enclosed mass 235
8.4.4 Orbital curvatures 237
8.4.5 Is there an infrared counterpart of Sgr A*? 240
8.4.6 LBT and the Galactic Center 242
Note added in proof 244
References 244
9 Stars and singularities: stellar phenomena near a massive black hole
Tal Alexander 246
9.1 Introduction 246
9.2 Stellar dynamics near a black hole 248
9.2.1 Physical scales 249
9.2.2 A relaxed stellar system around a MBH 251
9.3 The stellar collider in the Galactic Center 253
9.3.1 The case for a dense stellar cusp in the Galactic Center 254
9.3.2 Tidal spin-up 257
9.3.3 Tidal scattering 259
9.4 The gravitational telescope in the Galactic Center 261
9.4.1 Gravitational lensing by a point mass 263
9.4.2 Pinpointing the MBH with lensed images 264
9.4.3 The detection of gravitational lensing 267
9.4.4 Magnification bias 270
9.4.5 Beyond the point mass lens approximation 271
9.5 Summary 274
References 274
10 Black hole accretion models for the Galactic Center
Robert F Coker 276
10.1 Introduction 276
10.2 Accreting gas with zero angular momentum 277
10.2.1 Adiabatic spherical accretion 277
 Contents lX

10.2.2 Supersonic non-adiabatic spherical accretion 284

10.2.3 Radiation from spherical accretion 288
10.2.4 Calculation of the spectrum due to spherical accretion 290
10.3 Non-spherical accretion models 292
10.3.1 Keplerian flow with magnetic dynamo 293
10.3.2 Sub-Eddington two-temperature accretion (ADAFs) 299
10.4 Comment on X-ray emission from Sgr A * 307
10.5 Summary 307
Acknowledgements 308
References 308
11 Radio and X-ray emission from the Galactic Black Hole
Heino Falcke 310
11.1 Introduction 310
11.2 Radio properties of Sgr A * 311
11.2.1 Variability of Sgr A * 312
11.2.2 Size of Sgr A *-VLBI observations 314
11.2.3 Position of Sgr A * 317
11.2.4 Radio spectrum of Sgr A * 319
11.2.5 Polarization of Sgr A * 320
11.3 Radio and X-ray emission from a black hole jet 321
11.3.1 The flat radio spectrum 322
11.3.2 The X-ray spectrum 329
11.3.3 Numerical results 330
11.3.4 The circular polarization 331
11.3.5 Comparison with other supermassive black holes 336
11.4 Imaging the event horizon-an outlook 336
References 340
A List of authors 343
B Units and constants 346
Index 349
This page intentionally left blank
Preface

Evidence is accumulating that in the center of our own galaxy some 106 solar
masses cluster in a region with a diameter of the order of a few astronomical
units I. Theoretical analysis strongly suggests that this can only be a black hole.
This is a gravitational configuration where the inner region is cut off from the
outside by an event horizon, a semi-permeable closed surface surrounding it:
material from the outside can fall in but communication from the inside to the
outside is impossible.
Studies of other galaxies have shown that such supermassive black holes are
rather common and probably reside at the center of every galaxy. Cosmologically
speaking, the supermassive black hole in the Galactic Center is in our backyard,
only about 26 000 light years away from us. This makes it the best observed
candidate for studying all aspects of black hole physics and is an ideal laboratory
for black hole physics.
The theory of black hole physics, developed mainly by general relativists
and considered in the past as being no more than a mathematical curiosity, can
now be applied to realistic astrophysical situations like that in our Galactic Center.
Clearly, the time has come for general relativists and astrophysicists to collaborate
on these issues and our book represents an attempt in this direction. The Galactic
Center is a unique place where these two fields really start to touch each other.
On behalf of the German Physical Society (DPG) and jointly with
Dr Joachim Debrus, director of the Physics Center in Bad Honnef, we organized
a DPG School on the Galactic Black Hole in Bad Honnef addressing graduate
students in physics, astronomy and mathematics from different countries.
Whereas this was a school and not a workshop for specialists, we, nevertheless,
invited as teachers physicists/astrophysicists who are working at the foremost
research front of this subject. This book contains the lectures given at that school,
in an order which should allow a beginner to tackle the material by commencing
from fairly elementary topics in general relativity and in the astrophysics of
our Galaxy right to the whereabouts of the central supermassive black hole. In
fact, one of the goals, besides teaching the students, was to teach the scientists
I 1 AU ::0 150 x 106 km = average distance between earth and sun, see our table of units and
constants in the back of the book, p 346.

Xl
xu Preface

themselves: astrophysics for the relativist and relativity for the astrophysicist.
Hence, we hope the book will be a useful resource for students, lecturers and
researchers in both fields alike.
The school was mainly financed by the Wilhelm and Else Heraeus
Foundation, Hanau and we are grateful to its director, Dr Ernst Dreisigacker,
for the support. We thank Christian Heinicke (Cologne) for help in editing the
book and Jim Revill from loP Publishing for a good and pleasant collaboration in
producing this book.

Heino Falcke (Bonn) and Friedrich W Hehl (Cologne)

August 2002
PARTl

GENERAL INTRODUCTION
This page intentionally left blank
Chapter 1

The Schwarzschild black hole: a general

relativistic introduction
Christian Heinicke and Friedrich W Hehl
University of Cologne, Germany

The gravitational field of a homogeneous spherically symmetric body ('star') is

derived in Newton's and in Einstein's gravitational theory, respectively. On the
way to these results, Newton's theory is formulated in a quasi-field-theoretical
form, its incompatibility with special relativity theory is pointed out, and it is
outlined how one arrives at Einstein's field equation. The gravitational field
of a simple Einsteinian model star consists of the exterior and the interior
Schwarzschild solutions which are joined together at the suiface ofthe star. Their
derivation and interpretation will be discussed; in particular the Schwarzschild
radius (for the sun ~3 km) and its relation to the event horizon of the
corresponding black hole will be investigated.

1.1 Newton's gravitational theory in quasi-field-theoretical

form
Gravity exists in all bodies universally and is proportional to the quan-
tity ofmatter in each . .. If two globes gravitate towards each other, and
their matter is homogeneous on all sides in regions that are equally
distant from their centers, then the weight of either globe towards the
other will be inversely as the square ofthe distance between the centers.
Isaac Newton (1687)

The gravitational force of a pointlike mass m2 on a similar one of mass m 1

is given by Newton's attraction law:

(l.l)

3
4 The Schwarzschild black hole: a general relativistic introduction

Figure 1.1. Two mass points m I and m2 in three-dimensional space, Cartesian coordinates
x, y, z.

where G is Newton's gravitational constant, see [8],

G ~ 6.675 59(27) x 10-11 (m/s)4.

N
The vector r := rl - r2 points from m2 to ml, see figure 1.1. According to
actio = reactio (Newton's third law), we have F2-+1 = -FI-+2. Thus complete
symmetry exists in the gravitational interaction of the two masses with each other.
Let us now distinguish the mass m2 as a field-generating active gravitational
mass and ml as a (pointlike) passive test mass. Accordingly, we introduce
a hypothetical gravitational field describing the force per unit mass (m2 "-+
M, ml "-+ m):
F GM r
f:= m =-~~. (1.2)

With this definition, the force acting on the test mass m is equal to the field
strength x gravitational charge (mass) or FM-+m = mf, in analogy to
electrodynamics. The active gravitational mass M is thought to emanate a
gravitational field which is always directed to the center of M and has the same
magnitude on every sphere with M as center, see figure 1.2.
Let us now investigate the properties of the gravitational field (1.2).
Obviously, there exists a potential

M
¢=-G- f =- grad¢. (1.3)
Irl
Accordingly, the gravitational field is curl free: curl f = O.
 Newton's gravitational theory in quasi-field-theoretical form 5

Figure 1.2. The 'soun:e' M attrac[S the test mass Ill.

By assumption it is clear that the source of the gravitational field is the mass
M. We find. indeed. that

(1.4)

where 83(r) is the three-dimensional (3D) delta-function. By means of the

Laplace operator 6. := div grad. we infer, for the gravitational potential, that

6.¢ = 4JTGM8\r). (1.5)

The teon M o\r) may be viewed as the mass density of a point mass. Equatio11
(1.5) is a second-order linear partial differential equation for ¢. Thus the
gravitational potential generated by several point masses is simply the linear
superposition of the respective single potentials. Hence we can generalize the
Poisson equatioll (I .5) straightforwardly to a continuous matter distribution per):

6.¢ = 4JTGp. (1.6)

This equation interrelates the source p of the gravitational field with the
gravitational potential ¢ and thus completes the quasi.field-theoretical description
of Newton's gravitational theory.
We speak here of quasi-field-theoretical because the field ¢ as such
represents a convenient concept. However. it has no dynamical propelties.
no genuine degrees of freedom. The Newtonian gravitational theory is all
action at a distallce theory. When we remove the source. the field vanishes
instantaneously. Newton himself was very unhappy about this consequence.
Therefore he emphasized the preliminary and purely descriptive character of his
theory. But before we liberate the gravitational field from this constraint by
equipping it with its own degrees of freedom within the framework of general
relativity theory, we tum to some properties of the Newtonian theoly.
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